An organization pursuing a loyal soldier hr strategy

Week 3 Discussion

Job Analyses
Thinking about your past employment opportunities, have you ever wondered what qualifications and skills were necessary for a job? Now, consider as a manager why it would be important to know of all of the necessary qualifications of a new position prior to hiring? How does effective job design contribute to employee retention?

This week, you have been introduced to the process of completing a job analysis. This information can then be used for two primary outcomes: a) job descriptions and b) job specifications.

With these thoughts in mind:

Select a topic from this week's readings that interests you the most.
Consider a real-world situation that relates to or could be addressed utilizing primary concepts from the assigned readings.
Post your response by Day 3. Your post should be approximately 200–250 words in length. Include the following:

Does job analysis benefit an organization? Why or why not?
Explain how job design assists with attracting, selecting, and retaining quality talent.
Describe a real-world situation that incorporates the use of a job analysis or design strategy to attract and retain quality talent. How effectively does this strategy support the notion of strategic human resources?
Use the Week 3 Discussion Template (located in this week’s Learning Resources) to develop a draft of your statement. Then, post your finalized statement to the Discussion Thread.

Read a selection of your colleagues’ postings.

Respond by Day 6 to two or more of your colleagues’ postings in one or more of the following ways:

Support or refute a colleague’s opinion regarding whether job analysis benefits an organization.
Expand on your post regarding whether job design assists with attracting, selecting, and retaining quality talent.
Suggest another way that a strategy supports the notion of strategic human resources in the colleague’s real-world situation.
Share an insight from having read your colleague’s posting.
Return to this Discussion in a few days to read the responses to your initial posting. Note what you learned and the insights you gained as a result of the comments your colleagues made.

Be sure to support your work with specific citations from the Learning Resources and any additional sources.

Required Resources
Readings
Stewart, G. L., & Brown, K. G. (2014). Human resource management: Linking strategy to practice(3rd ed.). New York, NY: Wiley.
Chapter 4, “Designing Productive and Satisfying Work” (pp. 120­­–159)

In this chapter, you will explore the strategic choices that are available to organizations regarding job analysis and design. Next, you will become familiar with various methods of conducting a job analysis. Finally, you will learn how job descriptions and specifications can be developed as a result of a job analysis.

Focus on the different factors and steps involved in conducting a job analysis as well as the various uses of a job analysis. Study the different examples provided throughout the chapter to get a better understanding of the variables involved in a job analysis and how they affect the outcome. Consider the benefits of performing a job analysis prior to hiring.
Chapter 7, “Managing Employee Retention and Separation” (pp. 250–290)

In this chapter, you will explore the retention of current employees and the strategies that may be used to assure that good employees will want to stay with the organization. You will also examine separation factors, such as turnover, layoffs, and disciplinary measures.

Focus on the definitions and steps involved with each type of method or strategy discussed in this chapter. Explore the alternative strategies and factors in recruitment, selection, and retention of employees presented. Consider how managers can effectively employ these strategies to attract and retain qualified talent. Ask yourself how the Internet and technology have changed the recruitment process.

Chapter 4

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Describe how the design of work tasks and roles can align with overall HR strategy.

Explain the steps in the process of job analysis and how to translate results into knowledge, skill, and ability lists that can be used to guide other human resource practices.

Describe various approaches to job design, including the motivational, biological, mechanistic, and perceptual perspectives.

Identify practices that make jobs more compatible with family demands.

HOW CAN STRATEGIC DESIGN OF WORK TASKS IMPROVE AN ORGANIZATION?

Through the process of assigning and coordinating work tasks called Work Design.

Two key principles of work design is differentiation.

Differentiation the assignment of similar tasks so that they can specialize in doing things well.

Integration the coordination of the efforts of the employees.

When differentiation and integration are aligned it the helps organizations increase productivity and improve customer satisfaction

Work design, the process of assigning and coordinating work tasks. One key principle of work design is differentiation.

Differentiation suggests that workers should be assigned sets of similar tasks so that they can specialize in doing certain things very well.

Integration is another key principle. It is concerned with coordinating the efforts of employees.

Strategic work design uses both differentiation and integration to determine who does what. Good differentiation and integration of work helps organizations increase productivity and improve customer satisfaction. When work is designed strategically, employees’ efforts are coordinated in a way that helps the organization achieve its competitive strategy.

You may want to discuss with the class how this works at W.L. Gore & Associates.

Two Elements of Work Design

Autonomy is the extent to which individual workers are given the freedom and independence to plan and carry out work tasks.

Interdependence is the extent to which an individual’s work actions and outcomes are influenced by other people.

Autonomy concerns the extent to which individual workers are given the freedom and independence to plan and carry out work tasks.

Greater autonomy provides two potential benefits to organizations. One benefit concerns information. In many cases, front-line workers are closer to customers and products and so have information that a manager does not have.

The workers can use this information, for example, to adapt quickly to change. Employees who are closer to products and customers are often able to make rapid changes if something in the production process shifts or if customers’ needs vary.

For example, a waitress who learns that certain customers don’t want glasses of water can adapt to their needs better than can a manager who has never met those particular customers.

A second potential benefit of high autonomy is increased motivation. People with a greater sense of autonomy feel more responsibility for their work..

More autonomous employees are less likely to shirk their responsibilities, while people who don’t feel autonomy often fail to do their share of work tasks.

Interdependence is the extent to which an individual’s work actions and outcomes are influenced by other people. When interdependence is low, people work mostly by themselves. Each person completes his or her set of tasks without much help from or coordination with others.

High interdependence, occurs when people work together closely. Each team member completes a part of the task, and the work flows back and forth between team members. Each person adapts his or her inputs to the inputs of others.

Linking Autonomy and Interdependence to HR Strategy

Organizations using cost HR strategies—either Bargain Laborer or Loyal Soldier—focus on efficiency.

Efficiency is often created by combining low autonomy and sequential processing.

With cost strategies, one objective is to standardize jobs so that employees can quickly learn a set of relatively easy tasks.

Look at Figure 4.1 it shows how differences in autonomy and interdependence can be linked to HR strategy. Organizations using cost HR strategies—either Bargain Laborer or Loyal Soldier—focus on efficiency.

Efficiency is often created by combining low autonomy and sequential processing. With cost strategies, one objective is to standardize jobs so that employees can quickly learn a set of relatively easy tasks.

A cook at a fast-food restaurant, for example, receives an order and follows clearly defined rules to cook the food, which is then delivered to someone who gives it to the customer.

Another objective with cost strategies is to provide a way for each worker to become very skilled and efficient at performing certain tasks.

Linking Autonomy and Interdependence to HR Strategy

Organizations that use differentiation HR strategies—either Committed Expert or Free Agent—focus on innovation.

High autonomy and reciprocal processes encourage innovation.

With differentiation, the objective is to create new products and services that are better than those offered by competitors.

People within the organization are more likely to try new approaches to solving problems.

Organizations that use differentiation HR strategies—either Committed Expert or Free Agent—focus on innovation.

High autonomy and reciprocal processes encourage innovation. With differentiation, the objective is to create new products and services that are better than those offered by competitors.

People within the organization are more likely to meet this objective when they are free to try new approaches.

Giving workers the freedom to experiment with new ideas helps companies such as W. L. Gore come up with new products. In addition, the close interaction between workers using reciprocal processes allows them to help each other and learn new things.

Figure 4.1 Strategic Framework for Work Design

HOW ARE EMPLOYEE JOBS DETERMINED?

Employees are hired into a Job.

Which is a collection of tasks that a person is required to perform at work.

Job are identified through a process known as Job Analysis.

A job is a collection of tasks that a person is required to perform at work.

The idea of being employed in a job is so common that many people think in terms of jobs when they describe themselves to others.

But how are jobs defined? Why are some tasks grouped into a certain job while other tasks are grouped into a different job?

Job analysis is the process of systematically collecting information about work tasks. The process involves obtaining information from experts to determine the tasks that workers must perform, the tools and equipment they need to perform the tasks, and the conditions in which they are required to work.

Job Analysis

Steps in the Job Analysis Process

Determine who will do the analysis and get top management buy in to the process.

Choose jobs that are critical to the success of the company and have a sufficient number of employees in them.

Review what has already been written about the job.

Step 1. Getting Organized. The first phase of job analysis is getting organized. An important issue to be decided during this phase is who will perform the analysis. Some organizations have employees who have the expertise necessary to perform job analyses. Other organizations hire external consultants to help. In either case, accurate job analysis depends on identifying people who have the skills needed to thoroughly analyze the jobs. Careful plans describing needed resources, such as staff support and computer assets, can help to ensure success. During the organizing phase, it is also necessary to make sure that key decision makers support analysis plans. No matter how carefully procedures are planned, problems will arise, and top-management support will be necessary to make sure that the analysis proceeds successfully.

Step 2. Choosing Jobs. The second phase of job analysis is choosing the jobs to be studied. Of course, the goal is to analyze all jobs within an organization. But constraints on budgets and staff time make it necessary to choose only some of these jobs. As you might expect, high priority should be given to jobs that are important to the success of the organization. Particular emphasis should be placed on jobs in which large numbers of people are employed. Focusing analysis on jobs that are both important and widely held ensures that efforts will be concentrated in areas where improvement can have its largest impact on making the organization successful.

Step 3. Reviewing Knowledge. The next step, reviewing knowledge, involves learning what is already known about similar jobs in other organizations. One important source of information is the Occupational Information Network, which was developed by the U.S. Department of Labor. The network, called O*Net, is online at http://online.onetcenter.org.

Job Analysis

Select job agents, such as incumbents, supervisors or job analysts.

Collect job information through interviews, questionnaires and observations

Create a job description that identifies skills, effort responsibilities and working conditions of the job.

Creating Job Specifications. The final step uses job analysis information to create job specifications. Job specifications identify the knowledge, skills, and abilities that workers need in order to perform the tasks listed in the job description.

Step 4. Selecting Job Agents. The fourth step is selecting job agents—the people who will provide the job information. In many cases, the best people to provide information are job incumbents—the people currently doing the job. These employees are very familiar with day-to-day tasks. One potential problem with using current employees is that they may emphasize what is actually done rather than what should be done. Another source of information is supervisors. Supervisors may not be as familiar with the details of the job, but they can often provide clarification about the tasks that they would like to see done. A third source of information is analysts who make careers out of studying jobs.

Step 5. Collecting Job Information. The next step is to actually collect information about the job. A common method for collecting information is the job analysis interview,

An interviewer asks job agents about their duties and responsibilities. Agents can be interviewed individually or in groups. In either case, the interview should be structured so that the same questions are asked of everyone. Job analysis interviews can be useful for learning unique aspects of a particular job. Interviews can, however, be time consuming and costly.

A second common method for collecting information is the job analysis questionnaire. This is the PAQ. Here, agents respond to written questions about the tasks they perform on the job. One type of questionnaire is an off-the-shelf instrument that has been developed to provide information about numerous different jobs. Another type is a tailored questionnaire developed just to obtain information about a specific job in a specific organization. An advantage of job analysis questionnaires is that they are relatively inexpensive. A disadvantage is that they may only provide very general information.

A third common method is observation. Job analysis observation requires job analysts to watch people as they work and to keep notes about the tasks being performed. This method can provide excellent information about jobs involving frequently repeated tasks. Observation is, however, difficult for jobs where tasks either are mental or are not done frequently enough to be observed by an outsider.

Step 6. Creating Job Descriptions. Next, analysts use the job analysis information to create a job description. A job description is a series of task statements that describe what is to be done by people performing a job. This description focuses on duties and responsibilities and usually consists of a list of actions that employees perform in the job being described.

Figure 4.2 Phases of Job Analysis.

Source: Information from Robert D. Gatewood and Hubert S. Field, Human Resource Selection, 5th ed. (Cincinnati, OH: South-Western, 2001).

Step 6

Step 7

Job Analysis-Methods

Task Analysis Inventory

The job agents provide ratings concerning a large number of tasks.

Most analyses require responses for at least 100 different task statements.

These task statements usually begin with an action verb that describes a specific activity—for example, “explains company policies to newly hired workers” and “analyzes data to determine the cost of hiring each new employee.”

One rating is for frequency or time spent, and the other is for importance.

Ratings for frequency of performing the task range from “never performed” to “performed most of the time.” Ratings might also be made for time spent on the task. However, ratings of frequency and time spent essentially measure the same thing.

Ratings for task importance usually range from “not important” to “extremely important. [

Many methods have been developed for collecting job analysis information.

task analysis inventory (imbedded in the Job Analysis Questionnaire) asks job agents to provide ratings concerning a large number of tasks. Most analyses require responses for at least 100 different task statements. These task statements usually begin with an action verb that describes a specific activity—for example, “explains company policies to newly hired workers” and “analyzes data to determine the cost of hiring each new employee.”

Job Analysis - Methods

Critical-incidents technique identifies good and bad on-the-job behaviors.

Job agents are asked to generate a number of statements that describe behaviors they consider particularly helpful or harmful for accomplishing work.

Each statement includes a description of the situation and the actions that determined whether the outcome was desirable or undesirable.

The critical-incidents technique identifies good and bad on-the-job behaviors. Job agents are asked to generate a number of statements that describe behaviors they consider particularly helpful or harmful for accomplishing work.

Each statement includes a description of the situation and the actions that determined whether the outcome was desirable or undesirable. Statements are then analyzed to identify common themes.

Job Analysis - Questionnaire

(PAQ) is a structured questionnaire that assesses the work behaviors required for a job. Such as:

Information input—where and how a worker obtains needed information such as education and or experience.

Mental processes—reasoning and decision-making activities.

Work output—physical actions required for the job, as well as tools or devices used.

Relationships with other persons—the interactions and social connections that a worker forms with others.

Job context—the physical and social surroundings where work activities are performed.

Other job characteristics—activities, conditions, or characteristics that are important but not contained in the other five dimensions.

The Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) this is the job analysis questionnaire is a structured questionnaire that assesses the work behaviors required for a job.

This questionnaire collects information not about tasks or duties but rather about the characteristics people must have in order to do the job well.

Questions on the PAQ are rated on scales according to what is being measured. One scale, for example, is based on extent of use and ranges from “very infrequently” to “very substantial.” Another is based on importance to the job and ranges from “very minor” to “extreme.” A few items are simply rated as “does not apply” or “does apply.”

An advantage of the PAQ is its usefulness across many different jobs.

Job Descriptions and Job Specifications

The PAQ, which consists of multiple pages is then transcribed into smaller document called a Job Description by the job analysts.

The Job Description consist of two parts. One is the description of the job and the second is the Job Specifications.

A good job description and job specification focuses attention on knowledge, skills, and abilities need to do the job.

The Job Description is used in multiple human resources processes such as recruiting, compensation and training.

This information must then be translated into job specifications, which are required for purposes such as employee selection.

The recruiters look at a list of tasks and make judgments about the knowledge, skills, abilities needed to complete the tasks.

Job specifications provide information that serves as a foundation for a number of other human resource practices.

The list of worker characteristics serves as a “shopping list” for managers as they begin identifying the type of workers they want to hire.

Carefully prepared job specifications also guide selection practices so that appropriate tests can be found to identify who actually has the desirable characteristics.

The information can also be used for making promotion, compensation decisions and identifying training needs.

Figure 4.3 Comparing Job Descriptions and Job Specifications.

Job Analysis and Legal Issues

Job analysis results help many organizations determine whether they are complying with requirements of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA).

ADA guidelines make an important distinction between essential and nonessential tasks. For a disabled employee to be qualified for a position, he or she must be able to perform all essential tasks (with reasonable accommodations).

Job analysis results help many organizations determine whether they are complying with requirements of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA).

ADA guidelines make an important distinction between essential and nonessential tasks.

For a disabled employee to be qualified for a position, he or she must be able to perform all essential tasks (with reasonable accommodations).

The employee is not, however, required to be able to perform nonessential tasks.

For example, an essential task for a landscape worker might be identifying and removing weeds. A nonessential task might be communicating verbally with other employees.

Job Analysis and Legal Issues

When an organization makes hiring or promotion decisions that have discriminatory effects, the organization can defend itself successfully by showing that it based its decisions on good, solid analyses of the jobs involved.

A number of court decisions have confirmed the importance of using good job analysis procedures. When an organization makes hiring or promotion decisions that have discriminatory effects, the organization can defend itself successfully by showing that it based its decisions on good, solid analyses of the jobs involved.

Critical procedures

Competency Modeling

As work activities have become more knowledge based Competency modeling has emerged.

Competency modeling describes the work activities in terms of skills and competencies need to perform the job.

Competencies include knowledge, skills, and abilities, but they also seek to capture such things as motivation, values, and interests. Competencies thus include both “can-do” and “will-do” characteristics of people.

A recent development designed to adapt to the changing needs of modern organizations is competency modeling, which describes jobs in terms of competencies.

Competencies are characteristics and capabilities people need in order to succeed at work. Competencies include knowledge, skills, and abilities, but they also seek to capture such things as motivation, values, and interests. Competencies thus include both “can-do” and “will-do” characteristics of people.

One area of difference between competency modeling and traditional job analysis is thus that competency modeling tends to link a broader set of characteristics to work success.

Figure 4.4 Steps in Competency Modeling.

Source: Information from Antoinette D. Lucia and Richard D. Lepsinger, The Art and Science of Competency Models: Pinpointing Critical Success Factors in Organizations (San Francisco Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer, 1999),

Job Design

The process of job design focuses on determining what tasks will be grouped together to form employee jobs

There are four general approaches to grouping work tasks: mechanistic, motivational, perceptual, and biological.

The process of job design focuses on determining what tasks will be grouped together to form employee jobs.

Four general approaches to grouping work tasks: mechanistic, motivational, perceptual, and biological.

Mechanistic Approach

Job design is viewed from the perspective of creating an efficient machine that transforms labor inputs into goods and services.

Industrial engineers often use analyses designed to find the work methods that take the least time. Such as Time and Motion studies.

The Mechanistic Approach uses principles from Frederick Taylor’s Scientific Management.

The basic goal of the mechanistic approach is to simplify work tasks as much as possible.

Tasks are automated. Each job is highly specialized, and to the degree possible jobs are simple.

Workers focus on completing only one task at a time, and a small set of tasks is completed over and over.

The mechanistic approach thus tends to reduce worker autonomy and create sequential processing.

Having workers specialize and complete simplified tasks has indeed been linked to greater efficiency.

Organizations pursuing either Loyal Soldier or Bargain Laborer HR strategies can thus benefit from job design practices that emphasize the mechanistic approach.

Discuss the process at UPS.

Motivational Approach

The motivational approach is aimed at increasing employees’ enjoyment of their work and thus increasing their effort.

Jobs are designed not simply to get work done as quickly as possible but also to provide workers with tasks they find meaningful and enjoyable.

A model of motivational job design is the job characteristics model, which focuses on building intrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic motivation exists when employees do work because they enjoy it, not necessarily because they receive pay and other rewards.

This motivational approach is aimed at increasing employees’ enjoyment of their work and thus increasing their effort.

For example, people given the goal of developing a marketing plan for a cell phone manufacturer might be given a large number of different tasks that allow them to exercise creativity.

Jobs are designed not simply to get work done as quickly as possible but also to provide workers with tasks they find meaningful and enjoyable.

Unlike the mechanistic approach, the motivational approach seeks to design work so that it is complex and challenging.

One method used is job design is the job characteristics model, which focuses on building intrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic motivation exists when employees do work because they enjoy it, not necessarily because they receive pay and other rewards.

According to the job characteristics model, people are intrinsically motivated when they perceive their work to have three characteristics:

Perceptual Approach

The basic objective of the perceptual approach is to simplify mental demands on workers and thereby decrease errors.

Safety and prevention of accidents are critical.

The perceptual approach to job design usually results in work characterized by sequential processing and low autonomy.

The basic objective of the perceptual approach is to simplify mental demands on workers and thereby decrease errors.

Safety and prevention of accidents are critical. Given its emphasis on simplicity, the perceptual approach to job design usually results in work characterized by sequential processing and low autonomy.

This approach is most commonly found in organizations pursuing either Loyal Soldier or Bargain Laborer HR strategies.

For instance, an oil refinery could use perceptual principles to ensure that gauges and meters are designed to present information clearly so that plant workers do not make mistakes that result in accidents.

Biological Approach

This approach is associated with ergonomics, which concerns methods of designing work to prevent physical injury.

Job tasks are assessed in terms of strength, endurance, and stress put on joints.

Work processes are then designed to eliminate movements that can lead to physical injury or excessive fatigue.

The basic goal of the biological approach is to eliminate discomfort and injury.

This approach is sometimes associated with ergonomics, which concerns methods of designing work to prevent physical injury.

Task demands are assessed in terms of strength, endurance, and stress put on joints. Work processes are then designed to eliminate movements that can lead to physical injury or excessive fatigue.

Workers are often taught principles such as good posture and elimination of excessive wrist movement.

The basic goal of the biological approach is to eliminate discomfort and injury.

Fatigue is reduced by incorporating breaks and opportunities to switch tasks. Short-term gains in efficiency are sometimes sacrificed in order to prevent discomfort or injury to workers.

Principles associated with the biological approach can therefore be useful when work is characterized by sequential processing.

Talk about work design in the Auto Assembly plants.

HOW CAN WORK BE DESIGNED TO IMPROVE FAMILY LIFE?

Workers can experience stress at home work-to-family conflict when the stress they feel at work is carried into their family environment.

They can also feel the same conflict when stress at home carries into their work environment family-to-work conflict.

Flextime and Compressed workweeks were introduced to combat both types of work/family conflict.

Stress from problems at home can have a negative influence on work performance, resulting in family-to-work conflict.

At the same time, stress encountered at work can have a negative influence on family life, a situation called work-to-family conflict

Studies have shown that spending more hours at work creates more stress at home and that spending more hours with family can create stress at work.

A second reason for work and family conflict is that the psychological effort required to cope in one area takes away from resources needed to cope in the other.

A young mother who engages in a difficult confrontation with a coworker is likely to be emotionally exhausted when she returns to her family.

Increased conflict between work and family roles is a problem because it increases absenteeism and turnover.

Conflict between roles is a problem for employees because it reduces satisfaction, increases alcohol and drug abuse, and results in poor physical health.

Work/Life Balance

Flexible scheduling allows people to coordinate their schedules with a partner and reduce the conflict associated with being a parent and an employee.

Two of the most common forms of flexible scheduling are:

Flextime provides employees with the freedom to decide when they will arrive at and leave work.

Compressed workweek enables employees to have full-time positions but work fewer than five days a week.

Flexible scheduling practices allow people to coordinate their schedules with a partner and thereby reduce the conflict associated with being a parent and an employee.

Two of the most common forms of flexible scheduling are flextime and the compressed workweek.

Flextime provides employees with the freedom to decide when they will arrive at and leave work.

The organization creates a core time period when all employees must be present. For example, a bank may require all tellers to be at work between the busy hours of 11 a.m. and 3 p.m. Outside of this core band, employees can work when they wish. Some may choose to arrive at 7 a.m. so they can go home early.

Others may choose to arrive at 11 a.m. and leave at 8 p.m. This flexibility allows employees to better balance work with family and other demands.

Compressed workweek enables employees to have full-time positions but work fewer than five days a week.

Typically, employees with compressed schedules work four ten-hour days. Allowing employees to have three-day weekends can provide them with additional time for family activities.

A compressed workweek may make it easier to schedule events such as doctor and dentist appointments, for example. Commuting on four rather than five days can also reduce time spent traveling.

Work/Life Balance

Many organizations allow employees to work at locations other than company facilities.

The most common arrangement is for employees to work at home. This practice is often called telework.

Many organizations allow employees to work at locations other than company facilities.

The most common arrangement is for employees to work at home.

This practice is often called telework, since employees stay connected with the office through voice and data services provided over telephone lines.

Over 80 percent of companies report at least some employees doing telework, and 45 million people in the United States spend at least some of their time teleworking.

Give examples from the AT&T Case