King david strengths and weaknesses

The Old Testament Story, Ninth Edition, by John Tullock and Mark McEntire. Published by Pearson Learning Solutions. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

7 The Division of the Monarchy I The Reign of Solomon and the Story of the Northern Kingdom

C H A P T E R

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Timeline 960 B.C.E. Approximate death of David and beginning of the reign of Solomon

922 B.C.E. Common estimate of the death of Solomon and division of the kingdom

900 B.C.E. End of Iron Age I and beginning of Iron Age II

876 B.C.E. Beginning of the reign of Omri and the Omride dynasty in the Northern Kingdom

869 B.C.E. Beginning of the reign of Ahab

745 B.C.E. Approximate date of the beginning of Hosea’s prophetic career

722 B.C.E. Fall of Samaria to the Assyrian Empire

Chapter Outline I. The Reign of Solomon

II. Approaching the Divided-Kingdom Story III. The Division of the Kingdom IV. The Dynasty of Omri V. Elijah’s Confrontation with Ahab and Jezebel

VI. Jehu to Jereboam II (842–746 B.C.E.) VII. The Destruction of the Northern Kingdom

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW

The book called 1 Kings opens with David on his deathbed, while the members of his family and his officials struggle to determine who will succeed him on the throne of Israel. Solomon won this struggle and began an ambitious reign, which included the development of foreign alliances and massive building projects. Once Solomon died, however, the Israelite monarchy was no longer able to hold itself together. This chapter includes the story of Solomon, the division of the kingdom after his death, and the line of kings who ruled over the northern nation after the division, until this northern kingdom was conquered and dispersed by the Assyrian Empire. The story of the Northern Kingdom of Israel in 2 Kings also includes an increasingly prominent and shifting role for prophetic figures, particularly Elijah and Elisha. A parallel account of the period of the Israelite monarchy is presented in 1 and 2 Chronicles. This account places more emphasis on the reigns of Solomon and David, often omitting material that reflects negatively on them, and it omits the story of the Northern Kingdom almost entirely.

THE REIGN OF SOLOMON

If Saul was a judge who tried to be king and David was an empire builder, then Solomon intro- duced Israel to the rule of a typical oriental despot.

Getting Rid of Potential Rivals

Solomon moved quickly to consolidate his power. Whereas David had nothing directly to do with the elimination of anyone who might have been his rival, Solomon had no qualms about dealing with his enemies. Adonijah was his first victim. When Adonijah asked Bathsheba to persuade Solomon to let him have Abishag, David’s last concubine, for his wife, Solomon found the wickedness in Adonijah that he had been looking for as an excuse to kill him. The request Adonijah made actually was an insult. David’s harem became Solomon’s responsibility on David’s death, even though the concubines probably were not viewed as Solomon’s wives, because his own mother was in the group. Adonijah’s request was his own death warrant (2:13–25).

Dealing with Abiathar was a more delicate matter. Not only was he a priest, but he had been David’s chief northern priest in tandem with Zadok, the chief priest from Judah. His execution would certainly alienate the northern tribes at a time when Solomon could ill afford to lose their support. By exiling Abiathar to Anathoth, Solomon still offended the northerners somewhat, but not to the extent of losing their support. The prophet Jeremiah probably was a descendant of Abiathar (2:26–27).1

Solomon probably considered Joab his most dangerous rival. Even though he was old, Joab was a cunning and ruthless man who had managed to hold power in the army even when David tried to get rid of him. But his luck had run out. Solomon was just as ruthless as Joab, or more so. He ordered Joab’s execution. When Joab fled to the sanctuary for refuge and refused to come out, Solomon defied the taboo against killing anyone in the sanctuary. He ordered Joab killed even as he held onto the horns of the sacred altar. His executioner, Benaiah, the son of Jehoida, took Joab’s place as general over the armies of Israel (2:28–35).

The last to be dealt with was Shimei, who was placed under a form of house arrest that forbade him to leave the city of Jerusalem. Shimei observed the rules for three years, but when one of his slaves ran away, Shimei went after him. Solomon had not forgotten—Shimei died (2:36–46).

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Solomon, the Wise One (1 Kings 3:1–28; 4:29–34)

The Israelite historian, in his evaluation of Solomon as a religious man, could not be quite as complimentary as he was about David. Perhaps he was hinting at one of the obstacles to Solomon’s devotion to the LORD when he mentions his Egyptian wife. She and other of his wives influenced him to worship pagan gods.

In describing a prayer offered by Solomon, the narrator tells of the LORD appearing in a dream and telling him to ask what he should be given. Instead of asking for great riches, Solomon asked for wisdom to govern his people. The LORD, in turn, promised both wisdom and riches (3:1–15).

An illustration of Solomon’s wisdom is the famous story of the two women who claimed the same child. After the women argued before him, Solomon ordered the child cut into two pieces, one piece to be given to each woman. One woman agreed, but the other asked Solomon to spare the child and give it to the other woman. The assumption of the story, and of King Solomon in the story, was that the woman who objected to killing the child was the true mother, and so Solomon awarded the child to her (3:16–28).

A summary statement concerning Solomon’s wisdom describes Solomon as wiser than all the eastern wise men. He was a speaker and collector of proverbs, a zoologist and a biologist, and

FIGURE 7–1 “Joab fled to the tent of the LORD and grasped the horns of the altar” (1 Kings 2:28). The “horns of the altar,” as illustrated by this tenth century B.C.E. limestone altar from Megiddo, were supposed to keep a fugitive safe as long as he clung to them. This did not happen in Joab’s case. Courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority.

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a marvel to all who heard him (4:29–34). The queen of Sheba came from North Africa (Ethiopia) to marvel at his wisdom. Ethiopian tradition has it that she carried away more than wisdom, since later Ethiopian rulers were called in part, “the Lion of Judah” (1 Kings 10:1–10). According to leg- end, the first emperor of Ethiopia, Menilik, was the son of Solomon and the queen of Sheba, and he took the Ark of the Covenant to Ethiopia, where many believe it still resides.2

Solomon, the Organizer (1 Kings 4:1–28)

In organizing the kingdom, Solomon seems to have had two purposes in mind: (1) to divide the land as evenly as possible to provide for the systematic support of his elaborate court and for other taxation purposes and (2) to break down the old tribal distinctions by paying little or no attention to tribal lines when dividing the country into tax districts. In his first purpose, he suc- ceeded; in the second, he failed.

Solomon, the Builder

David built an empire by conquest, but Solomon covered it with buildings. Of all the building projects carried on by Solomon, the Temple at Jerusalem ranked first in importance for the Israelite historian.

THE BUILDING OF THE TEMPLE (1 KINGS 5:1–38; 7:15–51). To build as Solomon was said to have done takes skilled workmen and quality materials, neither of which was abundant in Israel. The one thing that Israel had in abundance was stone, but it lacked the forests to supply the needed wood.

To provide the needed materials and skilled workmen, Solomon turned to David’s ally, Hiram, king of Tyre and Phoenicia. Hiram agreed to supply cedar and cypress wood, as well as skilled workmen, to carry out the building of the Temple and the palace complex in Jerusalem. In turn, Solomon agreed to supply food to Hiram. Solomon also furnished Israelites to do the labor of cutting the wood and quarrying the stone in Israel. Israelite men had to work without pay for the state, one month out of every three.

Like Jerusalem itself, the Temple—first built by Solomon, then destroyed, then rebuilt again in the post-Exilic period, and built a third time by Herod the Great—has managed to seize the imaginations of countless people for nearly 3000 years. Its remains, except for portions of the wall that supported the platform on which it was built, under an area containing two Islamic mosques—the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Asqa Mosque. As a result, archaeological work on the Temple Mount is forbidden.

By taking the biblical description, however, and comparing it with similar temples found in Israel and Phoenicia, a fairly accurate idea of the Temple’s appearance can be gained. One such building was a Canaanite temple found at Hazor in northern Israel. It had the three-room plan used in the Jerusalem Temple. A later temple, from the period of the Israelite monarchy, was found at Arad, south of Jerusalem. In addition, a horned altar, like the one mentioned in the Old Testament, was found at Beersheba (1 Kings 1:50–2:28).

In 1 Kings 6:1, it says that the Temple was built 480 years after Israel left Egypt. This poses a problem in chronology, because it does not agree with other evidence for the date of the Exodus. One possible explanation is that the figure 480 represents twelve generations. Biblical writers fig- ured a generation as 40 years, while today, 25 years equals a generation. If this were the case, twelve times 25 equals 300 years, which would place the Exodus at about 1300 B.C.E.

According to all descriptions, both biblical and archaeological, the Temple was divided into three parts: (1) a porch or vestibule, 15 feet deep and 30 feet wide; (2) the Holy Place, 60 feet long

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FIGURE 7–2 A sixteenth-century engraving depicts Solomon’s temple with the horned altar in the center and the Holy of Holies beyond it.

and 30 feet wide; and (3) the Holy of Holies, which was a perfect cube—30 feet long, 30 feet wide, and 30 feet high. The interior height of the rest of the building was 45 feet. Along the outside of the building were three levels of rooms, used for storage and other purposes. The interior of the building was decorated with elaborate carved woodwork. Gold also was used extensively in deco- rating the interior (6:1–36).

The Holy Place contained three principal items: the altar for incense, the seven-branched lamp stand, and the table for the sacred bread (shew bread, or bread of the presence). In later times, the lamp stand became a seven-branched candlestick called a menorah.

The Holy of Holies originally contained the sacred box, the Ark of the Covenant. At either end stood a winged creature 15 feet high. It was carved from olive wood and plated with gold. It probably had both human and animal features, designed to represent all living creatures giving praise to the LORD, whose dwelling place was the Holy of Holies. Once a year, on the solemn Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur), the High Priest would enter the Holy of Holies. Even he had to undergo an elaborate ceremony of cleansing before he could enter the room. His purpose was to bring before the LORD the sins of the people so that they might be forgiven. Thus, the Holy of Holies represented for Israel the meeting place between God and humankind.

In the Temple courtyard stood the great altar made of uncut stones upon which the sacri- fices were made. Two huge bronze columns, named Jachin and Boaz, stood to the north and south of the entrance of the Temple. Their meaning and purpose are unknown (7:15–22). An

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elaborate bronze bowl called the Molten Sea, resting on a base made from twelve bronze bulls, also stood in the courtyard. It held about 10,000 gallons of water and may have been a reminder of the watery chaos mentioned in the Creation story and of how God overcame it to create the world (7:23–26).

All the furnishings and equipment for the Temple were made by the Phoenicians. It should not be surprising, then, that the descriptions given in the Bible match things found in Phoenician temples. The major difference seems to be that Israel’s Temple contained no image of the Deity, while Phoenician temples contained many such images (7:27–51).3

THE DEDICATION OF THE TEMPLE (1 KINGS 8:1–66). After years of labor, the Temple was fin- ished. The first act of Solomon was to have the Ark of the Covenant moved into its permanent home, the Holy of Holies. It was moved with elaborate precautions and with many sacrifices being offered (8:1–13).

The address and prayer of Solomon (8:14–53) emphasized the importance of the covenant with David and the building of the Temple as carrying out Solomon’s responsibility in light of that covenant (8:14–26).

The Ark of the Covenant in the Old Testament

The Ark of the Covenant has often been an object of fascination for a variety of reasons. This object, which functions both as a container and as a portable Divine throne, comes and goes in the Bible. Below is a book-by-book list and description of how it appears.

Exodus—the ark is mentioned about twenty times in Exodus 25–40, which contains both God’s instructions to Moses about how to make it and a description of its construction.

Leviticus—the Ark is mentioned only once, in the description of the Day of Atonement rituals in Leviticus 16.

Numbers—the Ark is mentioned six times in descriptions of its care and movement by the priests, but it is not mentioned after Numbers 14:44.

Deuteronomy—the Ark is mentioned eight times, all in Chapter 10, where Moses is recalling the making and purpose of the Ark in a speech, and in Chapter 31, when Moses and the Levites pro- duce a “book of the law” and place it in the Ark.

Joshua—after its construction in Exodus, the Ark remains in the background for the next sev- eral books, but it becomes much more prominent in the book of Joshua, where it is mentioned more than twenty-five times, all in Joshua 3–8, as the Israelites cross the Jordan and begin conquering cities in the Promised Land.

Judges—the Ark is mentioned only once, in Judges 20:27, as an oracular object residing in Shiloh. 1 Samuel—the Ark is mentioned more than thirty times but only once after 1 Samuel 4–7, a

passage sometimes called the Ark Narrative. 1 Samuel 14:18 is the only time Saul makes use of it. 2 Samuel—the Ark is mentioned about twenty times, more than half of these concentrated in

2 Samuel 6, where David brings the Ark to Jerusalem. 1 Kings—the Ark is mentioned about a dozen times, all in the first eight chapters, where

Solomon is established as king, builds the Temple, and places the Ark in it. 1 and 2 Chronicles—of approximately forty remaining references to the Ark in the Old Testament,

all but two are in 1 and 2 Chronicles, mostly in passages that parallel those in Samuel and Kings. The last two references to the Ark in the Old Testament are in Psalm 132:8 and Jeremiah 3:16

as it seems to disappear into distant memory.

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FIGURE 7–3 David’s kingdom and the united monarchy. Artwork by Margaret Jordan Brown, from Mercer Dictionary of the Bible. © 1990, courtesy of Mercer University.

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The prayer was a plea for the LORD to keep the Divine side of the covenant. The story in 1 Kings 8:27–30 is particularly important because it emphasizes what many Israelites forgot in later years—namely, that the LORD did not dwell only in the Temple in Jerusalem. No mere building could hold the LORD. The prayer lists the situations that would give rise to prayer: (1) sin against one another; (2) defeat in war because of sin; (3) drought; (4) famine caused by pestilence, mildew, or locusts; (5) foreigners who came to the Temple to worship; (6) holy war; and (7) sin against God. With each there was a plea for forgiveness based on the choice of Israel as God’s people (8:31–53).

In this section, then, the principle of the covenant was in operation. God, who gave the covenant, although not required to do so, was self-obligated to Israel because of Divine mercy. An Israelite could call on God to show mercy on his behalf when he came to God in repentance. One could not expect forgiveness without a proper attitude. This theme is repeated by the great prophets and is prominent in the book of Deuteronomy.

After the people were led in praise to the LORD, to conclude the dedicatory services, elabo- rate festivities were observed. The seven-day feast, held at the time of the feast of Tabernacles, sent away all those who came proud, happy, and filled with roast beef and mutton (8:54–66).

THE LORD APPEARS TO SOLOMON AGAIN (1 KINGS 9:1–9). After the dedication of the Temple, the LORD appeared to Solomon. The promise of the continuance of David’s line was made, but it was to be based on faithfulness to the LORD If Solomon and those who followed him turned away from the LORD, judgment would come upon Israel.

SOLOMON’S OTHER BUILDING PROJECTS (1 KINGS 7:1–12; 9:10–28; 10:14–29). Solomon spent even more time building an elaborate system of palaces and government buildings. Thirteen years were spent building his palace, which had several sections: (1) the House of the Forest of Lebanon, built almost entirely of cedar; (2) the Hall of Pillars; (3) the Hall of the Throne, where justice was administered; (4) Solomon’s house; and (5) the house of his Egyptian wife.

He also carried on other extensive building programs, including projects in Jerusalem, Gezer, Hazor, and Megiddo. At the latter three, identical city gates have been found. This would seem to indicate that the same architect planned and constructed all three. Each of these cities shows indications of other building programs during Solomon’s time. Elaborate shafts were con- structed to enable the people to reach the water supply. At Megiddo, for instance, stone steps led down into the shaft to a tunnel. This tunnel led to a water source outside the city wall.4

Another building project consisted of a fleet of merchant ships, based in the Gulf of Aqaba at Ezion–Geber. Here, the gulf reaches its northernmost point. Hiram of Tyre furnished the vital know-how, as well as sailors, to operate the fleet (9:26–28). The Phoenicians were the supreme sailors of the ancient world, while Israel, with no suitable ports, developed little interest in the sea, except in Solomon’s time. Trade probably was with countries along the coast of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula.

Solomon’s building projects were costly in more ways than one. For one thing, they cost him part of his empire. For all the work he had done, Hiram demanded payment in the form of territorial grants. Although Solomon gave him twelve cities in the Plain of Acre, Hiram was still unhappy. The name Cabul, possibly meaning “that is nothing,” was given to the region. Even then, Hiram had to pay him for the region. The remains of a fortress dating to the time have been found. It seems to have served as the administrative center for the area, whose local prod- ucts—wine, olive oil, and cereals—were collected and stored. That these cities belonged to the northern tribes probably did nothing to increase Solomon’s popularity there (9:10–14).5

The monetary cost was also great. Solomon got money from various sources, the most obvious of which was taxation. But that was not enough. He would also have collected tariffs

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from caravans that used the international highways, the Via Maris, and the King’s Highway. Another source of income was international trade. Among other things, Solomon traded horses and chariots. He seems to have been the middleman in the trade between Egypt and the Asian and Mesopotamian states. An elaborate description of Solomon’s luxuries (10:14–29) helps us to understand why so much money was needed in addition to the money for his build- ing programs.6

The Seeds of Division (1 Kings 9:15–23; 11:1–43)

The greatest cost of maintaining Solomon’s elaborate kingship was in human freedom. That cost eventually would destroy the united monarchy. Slavery made the building projects possible. It is said that “Solomon conscripted forced labor out of all Israel” (5:13) and that the non-Israelite population was enslaved to carry on the building projects (9:15, 20–23). In so doing, Solomon sowed the seeds of social unrest that eventually would erupt in rebellion. It is said that the Israelites were “the soldiers, . . . his officials, his commanders, his captains, and the commanders of his chariotry and cavalry” (9:22). Although it says that “of the Israelites Solomon made no slaves,” they did have to give one month out of every three in free labor for the state.7

Another divisive force was Solomon’s large harem. Composed of more than 1000 women, the harem functioned primarily as a status symbol. Just as a wealthy man today may collect ex- pensive automobiles as a way of showing off his wealth, so some kings collected beautiful women. With the women, many of whom were married to Solomon to symbolize a covenant relationship with a foreign ruler, came the various deities they worshiped. Solomon’s tolerance of foreign gods did not sit well with devout Israelites, especially when he built altars for these gods and even par- ticipated in worshiping them in defiance of the LORD’s commands (11:1–13).

Solomon’s last years saw the seeds of destruction begin to take root and grow. People on the fringes of his empire began to rebel and break away. First, it was Edom, led by Hadad, a member of its royal house who had escaped to Egypt when David conquered his country (11:14–22). Soon, Rezon, a Syrian leader, took control of Damascus (11:23–25).

More serious than either of these events were stirrings of rebellion within Israel itself. The old rivalry between Ephraim and Judah had been suppressed during David’s and Solomon’s time, but it still survived. Surviving with it was the belief that the LORD through a prophet should des- ignate a leader, not a dying king who passed on the kingdom to his son. Solomon, on the other hand, seems not to have had a prophetic advisor in his court, such as Nathan had been to David. Solomon most certainly would have encouraged the idea that the LORD’s covenant with David was more important than the idea that a prophet should choose the future king.

The charismatic figure around whom the dissidents rallied was Jeroboam, an Ephraimite who had been in charge of all of Solomon’s forced labor. A prophet who also was a northerner, Ahijah the Shilonite, met Jeroboam one day. Taking a cloak, Ahijah tore it into twelve pieces to symbolize that an emergency existed. Ten of the pieces he gave to Jeroboam, telling him he was chosen to be leader over ten tribes, leaving only two to Solomon’s house. Ahijah said that the LORD was bringing judgment upon Solomon for following foreign gods (11:26–40). Ahijah was the first independent prophet who participated in an attempt to overthrow an existing ruler who had become intolerable to the people.8

Word came to Solomon of Jeroboam’s disloyalty. Fortunately for Jeroboam, he was able to escape to Egypt before Solomon could have him arrested, where he found refuge. Shishak, the new Pharaoh of Egypt, seems to have encouraged and protected Jeroboam, as he had other rebels and fugitives from Solomon (11:40).

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The Literary Structure of Chronicles

The book of Chronicles is perhaps the most neglected book in the Old Testament. It is a story of Israel that lives in the shadow of that other story of Israel told in the books of Genesis–Kings, the Primary History. It is true that more than half of the contents of Chronicles appears in Samuel and Kings, which invites readers to look at them in parallel fashion and compare the way certain stories are told and used in each. Chronicles was almost certainly written after Samuel and Kings, so it can be assumed that the writer of Chronicles used the earlier history as a source, and that much can be learned of this writer’s thinking and purpose by closely examining the differences. The result of these patterns of study is that the book of Chronicles is rarely read as a unified work of literature in its own right. Originally a single book, Chronicles is now typically divided into 1 Chronicles and 2 Chronicles. These designations will be used when necessary for references below.

The book of Chronicles opens in a surprising way. The first word in the book is Adam. The second word is Seth. The first nine chapters of 1 Chronicles are almost entirely genealogical in nature. The part of Israel’s story from creation through the beginning of the monarchy is covered in a very rapid manner through this genealogical material. The story slows down slightly to tell about Saul and his family in Chapter 10, but it is David who finally receives full attention beginning in Chapter 11. As the story of David moves toward its conclusion, the attention of Chronicles turns to the temple in 1 Chronicles 22–29. Brief attention is given to priestly offices in 1 Chronicles 9, so that the rise of David and the monarchy is surrounded by issues of worship. 1 Chronicles ends with the death of David. Solomon has been anointed king and is fully prepared to begin construction on the Temple. The building of the Temple occupies the first seven chapters of 2 Chronicles. The report of the construc- tion of this dwelling place for God matches the creation of the world and the development of Israel in the first part of 1 Chronicles. It is followed in 2 Chronicles 8–9 by the report on the remainder of Solomon’s career and his death.

Second, Chronicles 10–36 describes the reigns of the rest of the kings of Judah after Solomon. Chronicles is even less interested in the northern kingdom of Israel than are Samuel and Kings. The pattern is one of general decline until the destruction of the Temple in Chapter 36. The exceptions to this pattern of decline are the reforms mounted by certain kings, such as Jehoshaphat, Hezekiah, and Josiah, which receive extended attention. The resulting story in the book of Chronicles thus highlights the establishment of institutions, the Israelite monarchy and the Jerusalem Temple, and the lives of the two great kings, David and Solomon, in alternating fashion. The story of the decline of these in- stitutions then offers a paradigm for their reestablishment.

Finally, considerations of Chronicles as a literary work are complicated by its relationship to Ezra–Nehemiah. The last few verses of Chronicles present the Decree of Cyrus, which released the Is- raelites from captivity and authorized them to return to Judah. The opening verses of Ezra are a somewhat different version of this decree. The overlap connects these books in a way that is difficult to determine. The books of Chronicles and Ezra–Nehemiah are sometimes referred to collectively as the Chronistic History. The Hebrew canon places Chronicles at the very end, with Ezra–Nehemiah actually preceding it, a decidedly nonchronistic move. The Christian canon reverses the order of these books and moves them to the middle of the canon, immediately following Kings. This emphasizes the notion that Chronicles is secondary to Samuel and Kings, a perception from which Chronicles continues to suffer.

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The End of Solomon’s Reign (1 Kings 11:41–43)

After forty years of magnificence, Solomon died. He had acquired wealth, built buildings, and gained fame for his wisdom. It was during Solomon’s time, furthermore, that Israelite literature began to flourish. Wisdom literature undoubtedly was rooted in Solomon’s reign, making him the patron saint of Israelite wisdom. The long period of peace possibly saw the first attempts to write down Israel’s history. A good example of such an attempt may have been the Court History of David. Others have conjectured that the stories of the Egyptian oppression took form then be- cause of Solomon’s oppression.9

But Solomon also lit the fuse for the bombs that would soon blow the kingdom apart. Excessive taxation, denial of human freedom, and religious apostasy were but a few of the prob- lems left for Solomon’s egotistical son and successor, Rehoboam, to solve. Rehoboam, unfortu- nately, was so self-centered that he did not even realize that any problems existed.

APPROACHING THE DIVIDED-KINGDOM STORY

Northern and Southern Perspectives

One problem in studying the divided monarchy is how to organize it. The books of 1 and 2 Kings combine the histories of the two kingdoms in order to compare the beginning of one king’s reign with that of his counterpart in the other kingdom. Because this is somewhat confusing to the reader, in this discussion their histories will be divided as follows: This chapter will discuss the history of the Northern Kingdom (Israel) from the breakup of the united monarchy to the fall of Samaria in 721 B.C.E. Chapter 8 will deal with the history of the Southern Kingdom (Judah) from the breakup through the fall of Jerusalem to the Babylonians (586 B.C.E.). 10

As the previous chapter described, the Bible contains two great historical narratives that run parallel to one another, the Primary History in Genesis–2 Kings and the Chronistic History in 1 and 2 Chronicles. The two accounts of Israel’s story run in particularly close parallel beginning with David’s reign. For example, the story of the division of Israel into the Northern and Southern Kingdoms, which will be the starting point for this chapter, is reported in identical fash- ion in 1 Kings 12:1–19 and 2 Chronicles 10:1–19. The most significant difference between the ac- counts of the divided kingdom in 1 Kings 12–2 Kings 24 and 2 Chronicles 10–36 is that the latter will give no attention to the Northern Kingdom, unless its activities have a direct impact on the story of the Southern Kingdom.

Chapter 6 reported on what is often called the united monarchy, as opposed to the divided monarchy after the death of Solomon. It is important to acknowledge that even within the bibli- cal account of this story, the kingdom is never fully united. Hints of the fracture between north and south run throughout the accounts of the “unified” reigns of Saul, David, and Solomon in texts like 1 Samuel 11, 2 Samuel 2, and 1 Kings 11.

The Problem of Chronology

If one reads several books about the Old Testament, one may find different dates for the same person or event. The reason for this is that biblical calendars, unlike modern calendars, followed no universally accepted starting point. Today, the calendars of the Western world use the a medieval approximation of the date of the birth of Jesus as the starting point, a hypothetical “year one.” In the ancient world, every nation had a different way of figuring dates. For the Israelites, time was figured from the beginning of a king’s reign. Thus, a given event was said to have occurred “in the

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156 Chapter 7 • The Division of the Monarchy I

eighth year of King Hezekiah.” How do we know when the eighth year of King Hezekiah was by our way of reckoning time?

It is necessary to pinpoint a few key dates in the history of Israel and calculate from them. Fortunately, the Assyrians and Babylonians kept accurate calendars based on the rule of their kings, which always began on the first day of the new year. Their method was to name each year after a different court official to keep it separate. In addition, important events were recorded for each year. For scholars, the most important events used for dating are eclipses, the mention of contacts with the Israelite kingdoms, and the mention of specific Israelite rulers. As a result, at least two key dates, 853 B.C.E. and 605 B.C.E., can be established. The first was the battle of Qarqar, involving the troops of Ahab, king of Israel. The mention of an eclipse within a few years of this battle is important because, if one knows where it occurred, an eclipse can be dated with preci- sion. Qarqar is not mentioned in the Old Testament but Ahab is, so the time of his reign can be pinpointed. The same is true of the battle of Carchemish in 605 B.C.E. The records mention Jehoiakim, king of Judah. An eclipse again was the vital clue to the date.