Mistakes were made but not by me

Mistakes Were Made

(but not by me) Why We justify Foolish Beliefs,

Bad Decisions, and Hurtful Acts

CAROL TAVRIS and ELLIOT ARONSON

IT- ­

I !

I Mistakes Were Made

I I I I I I

I

(but not by me)

Why We Justify

Foolish Beliefs, Bad Decisions,

and Hurtful Acts

o o o

CAROL TAVRIS alld ELLIOT ARONSON

11 HARCOURT, INC. Il � o"'�� :""'" N: YO" S==- TO',"" london , I

--11

Copyright Q 2007 by Carol Tavri$ and E1li(K Aronson

All rightS I'C5Cr�. No pan of this publicuion may be reproduo:zd. or transmitted in any form or by any means. electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, m:ording, or;my information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

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"Frank arw:! Dcbra� extracl from Andrew ChrUIe:ruen and Ndl S. Jaco�n'i RrrondMbb Diffirmrn is " 2000 Guilford Press and is reprinted with permission of Guilford PteS$.

Library of Congress Cataloging.in.Publiation Dara Tavris, Carol.

Mistakes were made (bUl nOI by me); why we justify foolish beliefs, bad decisions, and hurtful acu/Carol Tavri5 & Elliot Aronson.-l 5t ed.

p. cm. Includes bibliogtaphial references and index.

I. Cognitive di5S0�ncc:. 2. Sdf--decc:pdon. I. Aronson, FJliol. II. Tide:. BF337.C63T38 2007

153--dc22 2006026953 ISBN 978-{}..15-101098-1

Text set in Adobe Gararnond

Printed in the United Statl'S of Aml'ria First roition

ACE GIKJHFD B

To Ronan, my WOl1derful 0'

-Carol Tavris

o o o

To Vera, of course

-Elliot Aronson

We are all capable of believing things which we know to be untrue,

and then, when we are fmally proved wrong, impudently twisting

the facts so as to show that we were right. Intellectually, it is possible

to carry on this process for an indefinite time: the only check on it is

that sooner or later a false belief bumps up against solid reality , usu­

ally on a battlefield.

A great nation is like a great man:

When he makes a mistake, he realizes it.

Having realized it, he admits it.

Having admiued it, he correas it.

-George Orwell (1946)

He considers those who point out his faults as his most benevolent

reachers.

-Lao Tzu

CONTENTS

o o o

INTRODUCTION

Knaves, Foo/s, Villains, and Hypocrites:

How Do They Live with Themselves? . . . . . . . • . . . . • . . • . . . . . . . 1

CHAPTER I

Cognitive Dissonance: The Engine of Self-jusri/ication . . . . . . • . 11

CHAPTER 2

Pride and Prejudice ... ana Orher Blind Spars . . . . . • • • . . . . . . 40

CHAPTER 3

Memory, [he Self-juscifying HislOrian . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . 68

CHAPTER 4

Good Intentions, Bad Science:

The Closed Loop of Clinical Judgment . . . . . • . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . 97

CHAPTER 5

Law and Disorder . . . . . • . . • • . . • • . . . • . . . • . . • • . . . • . . . . . . 127

CHAPTER 6

Loue's Assassin: Self-justification it! Marriage, . . . . . . . • . . . . . 158

x CONTENTS

CHAPTER 7

Wounds, Rifts, and Wars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

CHAPTER 8

Lelfing Go ana' Owning Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . • . . . . . . 213

AFTERWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . . . . 237

ENDNOTES . . • • • . . . . . . . . . . 239

INDEX . . . . . . • . . . . . • • • . . • • . . . . . . . • • • . • . • . . • . . . . . . 277

Mistakes Were Made

(bur not by me)

INTRODUCTION