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DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid. This is the main element of every human body structure. Damage of DNA and replication errors happen in the body's cells, and with the proofreading of DNA and repair mechanism, this is going to be fixed and detected. DNA polymerases are those type of enzymes that are developed in the ceils of DNA. And they check their work during replication. It checks whether any wrong nucleotide is going to be added then it will remove it, and right nucleotide was going to replace.
The enzymes that build the cells in DNA are known as DNA polymerases. During the replication of the DNA, many of the DNA polymerases can keep the check on their function with each added base. This procedure is also known as proofreading. In case the polymerase detects that an incorrect nucleotide has been included, it will eliminate and substitute the nucleotide immediately, before ongoing with the synthesis of DNA.
Different processes that help the real strand
to be measured in mismatch repair that include nicks recognition that is
identified in new DNA synthesized. Many types of repair mechanisms are used
that are help in correcting and detecting any type of damages belong to DNA;
these repair processes include double standard break repair, excision repair,
and direct reversal.
Maintaining
the integrity of DNA
Indication for repair mechanisms and
proofreading importance comes from genetic disorders in the human. If the DNA
damage does not repair, it will convert to mutation and may cause any disease.
During cell division, the process of DNA replication is moved to error, and genetic
effects included in the environment. DNA polymerase rate increase wrong
nucleotides in replication that measure the mutation rate in every organism
consider a major factor. The rate of new dominant mutation found at different
loci is considered that help in mutation rate estimation. But with this many
other reasons also find mutation rate in different genes. So scientist found
that different genes have different mutation rates and having more causes to
errors and damages.
In
both organisms like eukaryotic and prokaryotic use processes of repair DNA. And
with the highly conserved of evolution, the proteins must be involved. Cells
are going to produce mush type of mechanism that helps to repair and detect all
type of DNA damages without knowing its cause. DNA plays a very critical and
active role in the division of cells and cell cycle, and it controls the repair
of DNA. The mechanism of check point makes sure that before cell division and
DNA replication, DNA is going to be intact.
In both somatic and germline cells, resulting
in an accumulation of damage within each, all life forms remain under the
constant result. From biological matter to defensible evidence DNA begins its
transition, impacts, and changes occur, from the moment a crime is initiated. Faced
with the challenges of identifying and securing physical evidence they first
face with the appearance of respondents on the screen. The maintenance of the
integrity of evidence for laboratory testing and the admissibility of evidence
in court, during collection, it became crucial at any time at each touch point
to govern how the evidence is handled.
For the collection and preservation of
biological samples, reference documents have been prepared for the benefit of
field investigators and first responders, for the benefit many regional law
enforcement agencies the national institute of justice have these agendas.
Chain of custody guidelines and outlined
validated industry standards for the identification provided by these documents
while they do not provide traceable methods. Preservation and collection of
biological samples are provided in this process. The criminal's case most
important single aspect is a chain of custody. These are the arguments used
against a defense. It has all the things that needed to be mentioned in the
aspects of cases to resolve them properly and authentically. There may come
many of the problems that can be cured with the involvement of DNA testing in
it. DNA integrity refers to the maintenance of DNA tasks from some resources examines
and measured accordingly and as well as they are meant to be referred according
to the basic needs and wants of the conditions on its survivals properly.
The repair process of DNA is present in both
eukaryotic and prokaryotic organism and depends on the conserved process of
proteins. The biological cells evolved number of mechanisms for the detection
of damage and repair of damage occurred in the DNA. The damage of DNA can be
caused by the environmental effect and the errors of replication. The DNA
molecules have vital role in the cell division, repair of DNA and regulation in
the cell cycles. The DNA replication occurs in the M Phase, mitosis, and S
Phase. In the cell cycle process, the mechanism of checkpoint ensures the intact
of DNA cells and permits the DNA replication for the cell division. The failure
in the proper functionality of these checkpoints leads to accumulation of
changes and results in the mutation of cells. There are number of methods for
the repair of DNA damage. The process of direct reversal of DNA damage provides
two methods to repair the damage. The UV light induces formation of pyrimidine
dimers that are capable to distort the DNA damage in the chain structures. The
blocking transcription is restricted in the area of damage. The direct reversal
mechanism of photoreactivation causes inversion of dimerization reaction on the
use of light energy and reduces the damage in the DNA chain structure. The
direct reversal mechanism results in the dimerization of covalent bonds between
the bases of adjacent pyrimidine. The alkylating agents can also damage DNA and
such kind of damage can be repaired by direct reversal process. the methylation
of Guanine bases results in the change of DNA structure as well as formatting
of DNA thymine instead of cytosine. In another method protein methyl guanine
methyl transferase (MGMT) can be restored by different mechanism of
transferring the product in the more active site conditions.
The process of excision is a general
mechanism to repair the DNA damage of double helix strands. The damaged DNA is
removed rather it can be replaced by the synthesis of new nucleotides. The
excision repair can be categorized in three types including mismatch repair,
nucleotide excision repair, and base-excision repair. The process is based on
the removal of single damage by enzymes and known as glycosylases. The removal
of enzymes from the damaged base generates the nucleotide gap in the DNA
strands, in the further process the gap is filled by DNA polymerase. The formation
of pyrimidine dimmers by UV light is used in the nucleotide excision repair and
recognizes damage produced in the endonucleases. In the mismatch process the
DNA strands are replicated for the DNA polymerase and restores the original
sequences
References
of DNA repair mechanism
Clancy, S. 2008.
"DNA damage & repair: Mechanisms for maintaining DNA integrity."
5-45.
Clancy,
Suzanne. 2008. DNA Damage & Repair: Mechanisms for Maintaining DNA
Integrity. https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/dna-damage-repair-mechanisms-for-maintaining-dna-344.
Friedberg,
Errol C. 2003. DNA damage and repair. January 03.
https://www.nature.com/articles/nature01408#f1.
J., Lisa
CalandroDennis. 2015. Biological Evidence: Maintaining Integrity of DNA
Samples through National Standards. April 4.
https://www.forensicmag.com/article/2005/04/biological-evidence-maintaining-integrity-dna-samples-through-national-standards.
Jr,
Seidel GE. 2015. "Maintaining integrity of germline DNA: individuals age,
species do not." 27 (6): 865-871.
Kastan,
Michael B. 2010. "Multiple roles of ATM in monitoring and maintaining DNA
integrity." 3-15.
khanacademy.org.
2019. DNA proofreading and repair.
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-molecular-genetics/hs-discovery-and-structure-of-dna/a/dna-proofreading-and-repair.
Sancar,
Aziz. 2019. Reaction Mechanism of Human DNA Repair Excision Nuclease.
http://www.jbc.org/content/271/14/8285.short.
Stoakes,
Shelley Farrar. 2019. Mechanisms of DNA Repair.
https://www.news-medical.net/life-sciences/Mechanisms-of-DNA-Repair.aspx.
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