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Table of
Contents
1.0.
Introduction and Background Information
1.3.
Problem Statement and Justification
2.4.
Development of Sustainability Post Brundtland Report
2.5.
Sustainable Development Paradigm
2.6. The
Triple Bottom Line (TBL) of Sustainability
2.7. Sustainability
Strategies
2.7.2.
Renewable sources of energy
2.7.3.
Waste reduction and recycling
2.7.4.
Efficient transportation
2.7.5.
Off-setting Carbon Emissions
2.8.
Sustainability Performance Measurement
2.8.1.
Sustainability performance Indicators
2.8.2.
Corporate Social Responsibility and Sustainability
2.9.
Enablers and Inhibitors of Sustainability
2.9.1.
Inhibitors of Sustainability
2.9.2.
Enablers of sustainability
2.10.
Total Quality Management
2.10.1.
Meaning and definition
2.10.2.
Total Quality Management Principles
2.10.3.
TQM (total quality management) Theories
2.10.4.
Total Quality Management Fundamental Issues
2.10.5.
Total Quality Management Concept
2.11.
Evolution of Total Quality Management
2.12.
Critical Success Factors and Inhibitors of TQM (total quality management)
2.13.
The Role of TQM (total quality management) on Organizational Performance
2.14.
Uses and Critique of TQM (total quality management)
2.15.
The Link between TQM (total quality management) and Sustainability
3.2.1.
Ontology: Objectivism versus Subjectivism
3.3.1.
Deductive versus inductive
3.4.1.
Quantitative Research Design
3.4.2.
Qualitative Research Design
3.4.3.
Mixed Research Approach
3.6. The
Methodological Approach for the Current Research
3.6.1.
Survey Data Collection Methods
3.6.2.
Sampling framework and sampling strategy
3.6.4.
Design of the Questionnaire
3.6.6.
Administration of the Questionnaire
3.7.
Conceptual framework for the study
1.1. Introduction of TQM (total quality management) on Organizational Performance and Sustainability.
The
issue of sustainability and sustainable development has remained pervasive in
the social and economic realms. Different scholars have argued that the
attainment of economic and social development is based on the ability of
organizations and the nation at large to embrace sustainability (Ehrenfeld, 2005; Barkemeyer,
Holt, Preuss & Tsang, 2014; Kylili, Fokaides & Jimenez, 2016).
Initially, the sustainable concept focused only on the ecological pillar where
it emphasizes on the implications of human activities on the environment. With
further advancements in the concept and contributions from different scholars,
the concept has evolved to incorporate the aspects of social and economic
development (Garcia-Sabater
& Marin-Garcia, 2009). As currently defined sustainable development
focuses on the attainment of ecological, social and economic sustainability. In
essence, sustainability refers to the ability of a nation to attain an
ecological, economic and social development that is capable of accomplishing
the needs of the current generation in a way that the needs of the future
generation are not compromised.
As
much as the concept and the desire for countries to accomplish sustainability
have been discussed for an extended period, the issue is more urgent now. The
increase in climate change and the indulgence in activities that have adverse
effects on the environment have instigated the desire for the issue of
sustainability to be taken serious (Jiménez-Jiménez et al., 2015). In the
academic realms, scholars have availed adequate information on the approaches
that can be adopted to ensure that an organization attain sustainability.
Practices such as green building, waste reduction, recycling amongst other have
been discussed as the major approaches that can be implemented by an
organization to enhance to minimize its release of wastes into the environment,
thus achieving environmental sustainability (Garcia-Sabater & Marin-Garcia,
2009). These approaches can also lead to the reduction in wastes thus
efficient use of resources.
Despite
the vivid discussions on the approaches to sustainability, most countries are
still struggling to attain the same. According to Abebe & Onyisi (2016)
effective and efficient use of resources as well as the adoption of alternative
manufacturing practices comes with additional costs, thus the inability of most
companies to implement the strategies. Also, inadequate information on the most
appropriate approaches to implement has acted as a barrier to the attainment of
sustainability development (Maletič, 2013). Of the limited organizations that have
indulged and effectively implemented various sustainable practices, better
performance has been reported. Apart from minimizing their wastes and saving on
production cost, these organizations have equally reported a positive
reputation by ensuring that their activities have minimal implications on the
environment and on the society (Grodach, 2011). Irrespective of the revelation on the
probable positive effects of sustainability on the performance of an
organization, the association between the two variables has always remained
debatable due to the varying views exhibited by entrepreneurs and academic
scholars.
Total
quality management (TQM) emerged as a concept focused on efficient use of
resources and satisfaction of the customers. According to Jiménez-Jiménez
et al (2015) TQM is based on a customer-centric principle that focuses
on improving quality and delivering products and services that sufficiently
meet the needs of the customers. The improvement of quality is achieved through
enhancement of the organization’s manufacturing processes and by considering
the needs of the customers during the production process (Benavides-Velasco
et al., 2014). The fact that the concept of TQM focuses on efficient use
of resources and reduction of wastes makes it capable of aiding an organization
accomplishes its sustainability goals (Atkinson et al., 2014). However, the
co-implementation of the two concepts in an organizational set-up have not been
vastly explored thus the causative relationship between the two remains
unknown. Also, the resulting implication on the performance of an organization
that embraces both sustainable practices and TQM of its manufacturing processes
is not well outlined in literature. The proposed study therefore seeks to fill
this gap in literature by exploring the concepts of sustainability and Total
quality management, as well as determining the effects of the co-implementation
of the two concepts on the performance of the organization.
The
negative effects of human activities on the environment, presented a need for
organizations and governments at large to advocate for the implementation of
sustainable activities. Initially, the idea of sustainability was to ensure
that there is minimal release of wastes into the environment and that the
nature of these wastes are managed to ensure they do not cause adverse effects
on the environment (Khator, 1998; Jepson, 2003; Isaksson, 2006). With the
emergence of more policies on sustainability, the idea of ecological
development as a central focus of sustainability was expounded to include
economic and social sustainability. The proposers of the idea argued that as
much as conservation of the environment was important, organizations concerned
with making profits and enhancing their growth can only attain sustainability
when the economic aspect of the concept is taken into consideration (Wagner &
Llerena, 2008; Atkinson, Dietz, Neumayer &Agarwala, 2014). Also,
these scholars argued that the implications of the human activities on the
community of their operation were also vital in supporting the attainment of
sustainability. Sustainability was thus seen as a concept based on three
pillars including economic, social and ecological development.
Most
countries have shown their willingness and desire to accomplish sustainable
development. As defined by Jiménez-Jiménez et al (2015) sustainable development
refers to the attainment of economic, social and ecological development that
meets the needs of the current consumers without affecting the ability of the
future generation to satisfy their needs. Despite the challenges reported, most
organizations and countries alike have embraced all possible strategies focused
on the attainment of sustainable development (Maletič, 2013). Recent
development on the issues of climate change has further placed more pressure on
the organizations to ensure they adopt strategies that support efficient use of
resources and minimizations of wastes (Burroughs, 2008). As much as the desired
level of sustainable development is yet to be attained by most organizations
and countries, the increase in the level of seriousness on the issues,
indicates a promising direction towards the attainment of sustainability.
Apart
from the practices such as green production, off-setting carbon emission,
efficient transportation, renewable sources of energy, recycling and reuse of
wastes, organization are looking for other strategies that can enhance their
ability to attain sustainable development. TQM has been associated with
increased level of performance in an organization set-up. The existing
literature indicates that the adoption of the TQM concept that focuses on the efficient
use of resources to sufficiently meet the needs of the customers is essential
in contributing to the enhanced performance of an organization (Benavides-Velasco
et al., 2014). The principles of TQM can be linked to the concept of
sustainability since it advocates for minimization of wastes and proper use of
resources (Jiménez-Jiménez
et al., 2015). However, whether the TQM is an enabler of sustainability
is an assertion that is yet to be proved. The effects of implementing the two
concepts in an organizational set-up on sustainability and the overall
performance of an organization is yet to be ascertained, thus forming the basis
of the proposed study that seeks to establish the nature of the relationship
between the two concepts, and the consequent effects of their co-implementation
on the performance of an organization.
The
adverse effects of human activities on the environment and their contribution
to climate change, requires that strategies are implemented to conserve the
environment while preserving the natural resources. Since the emergence of the
sustainability concepts, organizations and nations at large are working to
ensure their activities have minimal negative effects on the environment (Mish
& Scammon, 2010). Nevertheless, the desired level of sustainable
development is yet to be attained. As a result, these organizations are
considering the implementation of effective sustainable practices and any other
approach that can foster the attainment of sustainable development. TQM
principles have been associated with higher organizational performance. Also,
the TQM principles advocates for the adoption of a customer-centric approach in
manufacturing such that the needs of the customers are sufficiently met through
proper utilization of the existing strategies (Benavides-Velasco et al., 2014)..
There is thus a possibility of TQM leading an organization towards attaining
its sustainability goals; however, the probable enabling effect of the concept
on Sustainability needs to be ascertained since there is limited information on
the same in literature (Jiménez-Jiménez et al., 2015). Also, the effects of
implementing the two concepts on the performance of the organization should be
determined, justifying the importance of the proposed study. The findings will
significantly inform the implementers whether the co-implementation of the two
concepts is desirable.
The increase in the debate on climate change and the
need for countries to achieve a sustainable economy has instigated the
implementation of sustainable practices. The idea is to ensure that the
activities in the country have minimal implications on the environment and that
they focus on the conservation of the available natural resources such that the
needs of the future generation are not compromised. While most nations are
still struggling to adopt sustainable practices, the concept of total quality
management has emerged as a strategy that can foster the attainment of a higher
performance in the manufacturing sector. Empirical evidence indicates that the
implementation of total quality management has positive effects on the
performance of an organization; however, there is limited information on its
association with sustainable development. The proposed study therefore seeks to
establish the link between Total Quality Management and Sustainability and
their resulting effects on the performance of an organization. The aim of the
study is to investigate the co-implementation of TQM and Sustainability and to
determine whether either of the concepts has an enabling effect on the other.
In
view of the preceding aim and objectives, the following research questions have
been formulated:
1.7. Significance of the study of
The
findings of the proposed study will be significant to business organizations,
academicians and various governments. To the business organizations, the
findings will avail information on the extent of co-implementation of TQM and
sustainability and resulting effects on the performance of the organization.
The business entities will be able to determine the enabling effect of the two
concepts on each other so as to make sound decision on their implementation. To
the government, the information will be relevant in devising policies concerned
with the management of the manufacturing processes of organizations, in a way
that their activities have minimal negative implications on the environment. There
is limited information on the relationship between TQM and Sustainability in
the existing literature, as such, the findings of the proposed study will fill
this gap in literature as well as inform the academicians on the possible
casual relationship observed between the two concepts.
The current study was quantitative in nature. As
such, the ontological perspective was objectivity while the epistemology
perspective was positivism. The study was based on the philosophy that reality
can be determined objectively without any form of interference from the
researcher. Also, the research was developed based on the assumption that the
findings can be determined objectively to allow for generalizability of the
information acquired into other settings. Quantitative research design was
adopted in the study, since the research questions were to be determined
objectively. Also, the researcher needed to attain relationships between the
study variables making the qualitative research design the most appropriate.
Survey was used as the method of data collection.
Through the use of questionnaire as the data collection tool, the researcher
formulated closed-ended questions to be answered by the study participants. The
questions were formulated based on the research questions of the study such
that the responses to the questionnaire questions will ensure that quality
findings and responses for the study objectives are attained.
The sampling frame consisted of manufacturing
firms whose activities gave significant negative implications on the
environment if not controlled. The researcher adopted a random sampling
technique to choose the organizations from the sampling frame. The strategy was
effective in ensuring that the organizations are given an equal opportunity to
participate in the study and that the probable issues or bias are eliminated.
Convenience sampling technique was adopted to choose the management and
employees to involve in the study. The convenience sampling technique was
essential in ensuring that only persons who have the needed knowledge and
information on sustainability and total quality management are involved in the
study.
The resulting data from the study participants
were analyzed to establish the nature of relationship observed between the
study variables.
1.9. Flow of the thesis of
The first chapter of the thesis presents the
background information of the study, problem statement and justification and
the research objectives that are to be attained. The second chapter gives a
critical review of literature to identify to the theoretical assertions on the
concept of sustainability and total quality management. Also, the critical
review of literature is to identify the gap that the current study seeks to
fill. The third chapter of the study gives the methodological approaches that
were implemented in the study. The philosophical basis of the study, the
methodological approaches and design adopted in the study are discussed. Also,
the third chapter provided the conceptual framework that illustrates the
relationship observed between the study variables.
This chapter presents the background information
on the research under study. The chapter gives introductory information on the
concept of total quality management and sustainability. The problem statement
and its justification are also provided to ascertain the relevance of the
study. The research objectives and questions to be attained in the study are
also presented. A discussion on the significance of the study and the flow of
the thesis is also presented in this chapter.
This
section presents a critical review of the literature on the concept of TQM and
sustainability. The review gives the theoretical underpinning of the different
papers relating to the relationship between TQM and sustainability and the
resulting implications on the performance of an organization. The section
begins with a discussion on the concept of sustainability and TQM, followed
with the critical analysis of the link between the two concepts.
Sustainable
development or sustainability refers to the social and economic development
that is capable of meeting the needs of the current generation without
curtailing the ability for the future generation to meet their need (WCED,
1987). Based on the widely adopted report sustainability is built on three
pillars, social, ecological and economic development. While the three pillars
are vital in understanding the emergence of the concept, the origin of
sustainability has not been presented with the inclusion of all the three
pillars (Holden, Linnerud& Banister, 2014). In fact, in early stages of the
development of the concept, more emphasis was on the ecological part. However,
the series of conferences and publications recorded over the years have
indicated a step-wise introduction of the three different pillars, thus
concluding that the economic, ecological and social aspects are vital when
discussing the concept, sustainability.
The
term sustainability first appeared in a publication that looked at the ability
of the earth to sustain its population. The essay titled “the principles of
population” was published in the year 1798 by Thomas Malthus. The author
articulated that the population growth was unsustainable since the growth
observed as exponential while the growth of the earth’s resources was
arithmetic (Mebratu, 1998). The information presented was that the higher
growth rate of the world’s population means that at some point the available
resources on the earth’s surface will be depleted causing plague, war, and
famine. According to the author, there, therefore, need for proper management
and control of the available resources to ensure the needs of the growing
population are continually met.
Another
publication was done by Garret Hardins that also tackled the problem of increasing
population growth and depletion of natural resources. The publication was
titled (the tragedy of the commons” and considered the importance of a moral
stance to maintain public resources. The author indicated that the
technological advances that have been initiated in the world were not enough in
ensuring the future needs of the population are met (Keeble, 1988). Rather, the
tragedy of Commons is likely to arise due to the failure of sustaining the
environment. The author also asserted that the available public resources would
definitely be depleted shortly, it was thus important that the community is
educated on the benefits of sustainability to ensure they are fully engaged on
the same.
No
significant publications on sustainability were reported before the year 1960.
According to Munn (1992), groups that focused on addressing environmental
issues became active in the year 1960. The public concerned rose on the
probable depletion of resources fueled the conversion of the environmental
groups into full political forces that could boldly articulate the
environmental and ecological problems. These groups did not just focused on
communicating through written report, but also held meetings and seminar to
enlighten the public on the importance and the need for environmental
conservation. The implications were heightened level of public concern on the
environmental issues, that contributed to the formation of the many conferences
and conventions held after that to address the environmental issues raised by
the groups.
The
first major conference held on sustainability was the United Nations Conference
held in the year 1972 in Stockholm. The conference was held to discuss issues
relating to human environment as observed by the interest groups. The
conference was attended by representative from 19 international organizations
and 113 states. Those in attendance articulated the association between
development and the environment, indicating that they were intrinsically
interlinked despite the existence of any form of conflict between the two
concepts. The experts in attendance came up with 26 principles that can be
implemented to address the issues observed on human environment. The third
principle was most relevant to the issue of sustainability since it pointed out
the need to always maintain the capacity of the earth to avail renewable
resources. The principle was developed based on the previous assertions by the
scholars on the significance of sustainable development.
While
the conference identified the most crucial principles that will assure the
achievement of sustainability when fully implemented, it did not give clear
strategies to meet the principles, a criticism that has been put forth by many
scholars who reviewed the report. Nevertheless, the conference led to the
execution of many other conventions that were concerned with sustainable
development (Keeble, 1988). The creation of the United National Environmental
Program (UNEP) was as a result of the United Nations conference. UNEP had a
mission of providing leadership and assisting in the formation of partnerships
in control and management of the environment. Through availing relevant
information, inspiration and offering support to individuals and the nation at
large, UNEP was expected to ensure that their activities offer quality life to
the current generation without compromising the needs of the future generation
(Paul, 2008). More nations and individuals will thus be involved in the fight
towards the attainment of sustainable development.
There
were limited activities on sustainability on the period of 1970 and 1980.
According to Munn (1992), the significance of the environment declined during
this period due to the emergence of other issues that were considered more
important. The economic recession occurred during the same time causing higher
level of inflation and loss of jobs. More focus was directed towards improving
the economic performance of most nations, other than addressing the ecological
concerns. According to Holden, Linnerud& Banister (2014), it was clear that
the initial attempts on achieving sustainability only focused on the ecological
pillar as opposed to the social and economic pillars. Moving forward, it was
expected that the social and economic aspects be integrated into the fight towards
the attainment of sustainability.
The
book titled “Limits to Growth” by Malthus further emphasized the significance
of incorporating the economic pillar when pushing for a sustainable economy.
The author expounded on the concept of “limits to growth” where he articulated
that when the growth trends in both the earth’s population and the depletion of
resources are maintained, the limits to growth will be accomplished in the next
100 years (Mebratu, 1998). The scholar indicated that the period towards the
attainment of “limit to growth” can, however, be limited if the growth trends
are altered to achieve ecological and economic stability. Also, the author
indicates that the social well-being of the people and its stability must be
assured to limit the attainment of no growth. The book becomes controversial
during its introduction. Nevertheless, its contents have remained relevant and
have always been used to when tackling issues of sustainability (Holden,
Linnerud& Banister, 2014). Its ability to recognize the need to combine an
economic and ecological approach when addressing environmental issues further
made it more relevant to the policy make.
The
next most notable event on the origin of sustainability was the conservation
strategy held by UNEP. Upon its formation, the UNEP formulated a World
Conservation Strategy which aimed at identifying the long-term solutions for
environmental conservation and the integration of the ecological and
development goals (Mebratu, 1998). The UNEP strategy was the first to incorporate
the term development in sustainability and thus advocated for the achievement
of sustainable development in any economy. The strategy indicated that the
desired form of development should provide quality life to humans while
conserving and preserving the diversity and quality of the earth’s resources.
The main goal of the strategy was to communicate the importance of achieving a
form of development that is highly sustainable. The strategy was, however, not
without any form of drawbacks (Mebratu, 1998). Critics have indicated that it
focused more on conservation of the environment and failed to provide a
holistic approach towards the achievement of sustainable development. According
to Paul (2008), a holistic view of the term sustainability was provided in the
Brundtland report that mainly drew its conclusion from the assertions made in
the previous publications and conferences. The Brundtland report was developed
based on the idea that economic and the environment should be mutually related
and reinforced, thus justifying its ability to avail a holistic view on matter
sustainability.
After
the Stockholm Conference and the world conservation strategy, a need for the
creation of an independent organization to address the environmental challenges
arose. The leaders of the world saw the failures reported from the previous
conferences and thus advocated for an independent organization that will ensure
every aspect of sustainability are discussed (Hueting, 1990). During this period,
the developed nations wanted a serious reduction in their environmental impact;
on the other hand, the developing nations were somewhat discouraged on
embarking on the same since they had not reached the economic levels already
attained by the developed nations. As a result, the developing economies were
more than willing to use unethical approaches to fostering their growth and
development; methods that mainly had severe negative implications on the
environment (Paul, 2008). To address these environmental challenges, the United
Nations saw the need for the creation of an independent organization to tackle
the same, thus leading to the birth of the Brundtland Commission.
The
organization was created in the year 1983 and formally known as the World Commission
on Environmental and Development (WCED) since the commission was first headed
by Harlem Brundtland, it borrowed its name from the chairman (Keeble, 1988).
The main aim of the commission was to develop shared sustainability goals to be
executed by a united international community. The commission role was to
identify the sustainability problems as reported in various parts of the world,
create awareness of the identified issues and offer recommendations on the most
suitable approaches that can be implemented to address the identified
challenges (Mebratu, 1998). The commission came up with its first report in the
year 1987, the Brundtland report, a report that has been appreciated as the
first document to talk about sustainable development and the three pillars of
sustainability. This explains its wide adoption and reference when talking
about the development of sustainability and when addressing sustainability
challenges.
The
first volume of the Brundtland report “our common future” was created in response
to the conflicts on sustainability that arose from the earlier conventions.
There were conflicts on whether sustainability should focus on ecological
issues are address the global economic challenges as well. The accelerating
environmental degradation also fostered the need for new approaches in
addressing the environmental issues (Hueting, 1990). The report was therefore
made to offer principles and recommendations that will see the harmonization of
ecological prosperity with the economic growth of the nation. The findings
articulated in the report details the strategies that can be implemented to
enhance the economic performance without any harm to the environment. Also, the
recommendations were expected to address the urgent needs of the developing nations
that needed a balance between human quality life and environmental well-being.
In essence, the contents of the Brundtland report mainly redefined the economic
development concept as an important idea in the attainment of sustainable
development.
A
holistic meaning to the term “sustainable development” was also provided in the
Brundtland report. According to the report, sustainability is defined as a type
of development that accomplishes the needs of the present population without
curtailing the ability of the future population to meet their wants (Mebratu,
1998). The report pointed out that sustainable development consists of two main
concepts of need and limitation. The needs of the people must be given a
maximum priority, while the idea of limitation as a result of the state of
socialization and technological advancements must be addressed to ensure the
current and future generations can adequately meet their needs. Most
researchers have ascertained that the central idea in the Brundtland report was
the achievement of equity in the allocation of resources and in accomplishing
the needs of various individuals (Hueting, 1990; Mebratu, 1998). Apart from
incorporating the aspect of economic growth and development in the definition
of sustainability, the Brundtland report, also highlights the social aspect of
the concept, through the element of needs and equity. A more holistic view of
the definition of sustainability concept was thus introduced at the release of
the Brundtland report.
The
main mission of the Brundtland Commission was to unite nations in pursuing the
sustainable development goals. To this effect, the report thus communicated the
approaches that ought to be implemented to maintain unity amongst the nations
of the world while ensuring that the sustainability issues are adequately
addressed. The report advocated for the creation of global equity that focuses
on redistribution of resources to poorer countries to encourage economic growth
in all nations of the world (Sepp, Lättemäe&Randveer, 2002). Also, the report
delved on the need for environmental conservation and maintenance to ensure
that the higher economic growth is not achieved at the expense of suitable
environmental performance. Every country should be able to attain full economic
performance as well as enhance its economic base. The report asserts that the
attainment of equity in economic development and resource creation is a sure
way of achieving sustainability.
The
Brundtland report also highlighted three main principles of sustainable
development, economic growth, protection of the environment and social equity.
According to the report, when any of the principles is weak, then the
possibility the whole economy becomes unsustainable. Environmental
sustainability refers to the ability of the ecology to support an indefinite
extraction of natural resources (Mebratu, 1998). Social sustainability refers
to the functioning level of a social system such as family or a nation. A
higher level of social sustainability is evident when there is maximum level of
cohesion within the system. Problems such as endemic poverty, widespread
diseases, wars, law employment rates as suggested by Wackernagel&Yount
(2000) are likely to lower the level of social sustainability. Lastly, economic
sustainability refers to the possibility of an economy to support an indefinite
level of economic production. While social sustainability challenges are mostly
experienced in the developing world, the issues of economic and environmental
sustainability have remained pervasive in most parts of the world. According to
Lélé (1991) since the great economic recession of the year 2008, the biggest
challenge reported is economic growth. The challenge has adversely interfered
with the ability of the different nations to progress towards the attainment of
full environmental sustainability thus the need for the nations to come
together to achieve the three pillars of sustainability.
The
report was effective in highlighting the approaches that need to be undertaken
by the various nations to attain sustainability. According to Hueting (1990),
the report was divided into three major parts including, the common
sustainability problems of the nations, their common concerns and the common
endeavors that will see their concerns addressed. The approach was appropriate
in ensuring the nations understand the issues at hand before implementing the
proposed strategy that will resolve the identified challenged. The Brundtland
report evoked the ideals of economic and social growth to ensure that a holistic
approach is upheld when maintaining a higher ecological performance (Lélé,
1991). The reports assert that the previous approaches in addressing the
sustainability required an adjustment. To completely reform and achieve a
higher resources base, there is a mandate to adopt resource-efficient
technologies that will foster the advancement in economic growth, offer maximum
benefit to humanity and protects the environment for the generations to come.
The
main strength of the Brundtland report over other publications on
sustainability was its comprehensive definition of the term “sustainability”
and the identification of its principles. The report emphasized the need to
meet the wants of the population while not compromising on intergenerational
equity (Mebratu, 1998). Rather than
handling the environmental issues separately, the report advocated for the
adoption of an interrelated and interconnected approach when dealing with the
issues. The hybrid status-quo approach recommended for addressing the environmental
concerns makes the report distinct from other previous publications.
The
Brundtland report also re-conceptualized the traditional ideals of a population
and natural resource growth. The growth limitations as postulated in earlier
publications have been re-conceptualized; the growth can also be infinite.
However, the report indicates that the growth is dependent on the efficient use
of resources through effective technological advancements and reorganizations
of the society (Mebratu, 1998). According to the report, such changes will
improve lifestyles while fostering growth of the economy and protection of the
environment. Most of the stakeholders were able to agree with the merits of the
report; this supported the adoption of the recommended strategies to accomplish
an enhanced sustainable development.
Despite
the Brundtland report promoting significant awareness on the concept of
sustainability, some critics argue that the assertions in the report were
over-optimistic and vague. According to Keeble (1988), the commission believed
that an optimistic discussion would be more acceptable thus offered
recommendations that were unrealistic.
Hueting (1990) also asserts that the report has taken a haphazard stance
on issues on population, urban development, and indigenous people. To appease
the various interested parties, the report has ended up floating in ideas and
views that are marred with heightened level of vagueness. However, despite the criticism, the Brundtland
report is still widely acknowledged for shedding more light on sustainability
issues and pinpointing the initial strategies that can be implemented for the
development of a sustainable economy. According to Mebratu (1998), the optimism
was necessary to avoid pessimism and convince the stakeholders to venture into
the fight against environmental degradation and resource depletion. The
Brundtland report laid the framework for convincing further discussions,
initiatives, and programs on sustainable development.
The
development and an understanding of sustainability concept did not end with the
release of the Brundtland report; more conventions were further formed to
create awareness on the same. The UN Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED) was the next convention after the Brundtland report. The conference was
held in Brazil, Rio de Janeiro in the year 1992 an event that hosted more than
114 heads of states from different parts of the world (Vogler, 2007). Dubbed
the “Rio Earth Summit” the principal theme of the conference was environment
and sustainable development. As such, the heads of states and experts in
attendance discussed the connection between the environment and development.
The North-South nations presented their bargains to the UN seeking for
development aid and technology transfer to allow them achieves a higher level
of economic growth while fostering a higher performance in environmental
sustainability (Paul, 2008). The main output of the project was the Commission
on Sustainable Development and Rio Declaration Agenda 21, documents that were
mainly concerned with the attainment of sustainable development, thus outline
the approaches that can be adopted by the stakeholders to achieve
sustainability
The
Declaration Agenda 21, the main document of the summit articulated the
commitment of the world leaders towards the attainment of sustainability.
According to Rogers, Jalal & Boyd (2012), the document contained different
healthy practices that can be adopted by nations to achieve sustainable development
in any part of the world. The Agenda 21 activities were categorized under
environmental and development themes that included, quality of life, protection
of the global resources, management of settlement, economic sustainability and
competent use of natural resources (Vogler, 2007). The document points out that
the severe poverty in different parts of the world and the lower standards of
living are as a result of poor management of resources. As such, the management
of resources and the environment as a whole must be practiced in developing
nations to enhance the quality of human life and to use the available resources
efficiently. An agreement was made that all nations develop a sustainable
development strategy that will guide their implementation of the recommended
approaches to foster the attainment of sustainable development.
In
line with the recommendations highlighted in the Agenda 21 document, the UK
government formed a social exclusion unit that sought to enhance the importance
of social dimension when handling sustainability issues. The idea was to
develop sustainable communities in the region that will not only focus on
ecological sustainability but will also encompass the aspect of social
inclusion (Rogers, Jalal & Boyd, 2012). The social exclusion unit expanded
an understanding of the social issues, thus enhancing the ability of the nation
to address them. The incorporation of the summit recommendations on the UK
nation’s sustainability development thus contributed to its management of social
issues about sustainability.
Even
though sustainable development was the main idea in the Rio Conference, some
disagreements emerged amongst the member states. Most nations did not agree on its meaning and
implications. According to Hulme (2016) the UNCED provided preliminary guidelines
on implementing strategies for sustainable development. The principles and plan
of actions were laid down; however, critics have argued that the implementation
of the principles required that some changes be made within the economies.
According to them, living within the recommended economic limits and observing
equity in the allocation and use of resources can only be achieved, when the
political, social and economic environments are flexible and can be directed towards
the attainment of sustainability.
The
Kyoto conference held in the year 1997 on climate change further enhanced the
need by the nations to achieve sustainable development. According to Vogler
(2007) specific targets on sustainable development were set during the
conference to guide the actions of the member nations in environmental
conservation. The nations involved agreed to reduce their greenhouse gases
emission levels leading to the development of a framework referred to as the
Kyoto Protocol that detailed the specifics to be undertaken over the years. The
United States proposed to stabilize its emissions while other industrialized
nations agreed to cut their release of the gases into the environment. For the
period 2008-2012, it was expected that the respective states would reduce their
emission of the greenhouse gases by 5%(Vogler, 2007). Nevertheless, the desired
level of reduction was never attained even after the adoption of the Kyoto
protocol by some countries. According to Paul (2008) the complexity of the
negotiations between the stakeholders created confusion over compliance, thus
the high level of in compliance. Also, the protocol only highlighted the basic
rules for compliance without providing the detailed and important laws that the
nations were required to uphold. Even though approximately 84 nations signed
the protocol with an ambition of ratifying it, other nations were reluctant to
take the bold approach. The US refused to ratify while others likely the EU
ratified the protocol but failed to reduce their greenhouse gases emission
levels. The US contribution towards the emission of carbon dioxide has
continually increased over the years. The situation of climate change is
therefore likely to be worse in the future generations.
With
minimal prospects being achieved on environmental conservation another summit
was held in the US to address the challenges. The Millennium Summit held in New
York in the year 2000 led to the formation of Millennium development goals that
mainly used the year 1990 as the benchmark and have a timeline of the year 2015(Vogler,
2007). The goals were mainly on eradication of poverty, promotion of equality,
reducing child mortality, improving health, eradication of diseases, promoting
environmental sustainability and creation of partnerships that will foster
development. The millennium development goals presented a more practical way of
attaining equilibrium between the environmental, social and economic aspects of
sustainability by addressing all aspects of human life, economic growth, and
environmental conservation.
Nevertheless, the world still has to deal with the indifference between
nations and developed trust amongst the people, with the government and
business community for the millennium goals to be fully implemented. According
to Vogler (2007), a high level of trust is needed between nations of the
millennium development goals are to be adopted to alleviate poverty and combat
diseases.
Later
on, the world summit on sustainable development (WSSD) was held in the year
2002 to build strong relationships amongst the nations and achieve the level of
trust needed for the Millennium development goals to be fully implemented. The
main aim of the summit was to form relationships between the US,
Non-governmental organizations and the governments to assist in resource
mobilization needed for addressing the global challenges on poverty, health,
and environment (Green et al., 2005). The millennium development goals were
reconfirmed during the summit and other goals added to promote sustainability
further. The added goals focused on reducing the negative implications of
chemicals, preventing the loss of biodiversity, and minimizing the percentage
of individuals lacking access to good sanitation. The summit was regarded as more
appropriate in exploring the relationship observed between a quality
environment and economic development (Lightfoot &Burchell, 2005). The WSSD
filled the gaps observed in the Agenda 21 and the Millennium goals by creating
a paradigm to address emerging issues in the world including basic sanitation,
and the effects of harmful chemicals on individuals and the environment. Also,
the WSSD talked of the conservation of the water bodies by assuring their
cleanliness and protecting the lives of the creatures in the water bodies. The
Johannesburg summit portrayed a trend since the year 1992, on the significance
of the social and economic pillars of sustainability (Wapner, 2003). The summit
mainly emphasized on implementation of different strategies as opposed to a
discussion on the concept of sustainability, thus named “the implementation
summit.”
The
most recent discussion on sustainability was held in Paris at the 21st
conference of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The
main mission of the conference was to negotiate an agreement on climate change
reduction. The 196 parties that attended the conference formulated goals on
limiting the extent of global warming (to below 2 degrees Celsius) and
reduction of temperature increase to below 1.5 degrees Celsius (United Nations,
2015). The conference ended with the formation of an agreement, “The Paris
Agreement” a document the provided directions on how to ensure that the issue
of climate change is addressed.
Parties
were required to sign and adopt the agreement through acceptance, ratification,
accession or approval. Also, the nations were expected to formulate their plan
on the approaches that they will undertake to reduce climate change. The
absence of pre-formulated strategies for accomplishing sustainability ensured
that the parties make specific goals and targets that can be achieved. While
most parties have shown interest in signing and accepting the agreement, others
are yet to see its importance (Jayaraman&Kanitkar, 2016). In the year 2017,
the US President announced their intention of withdrawing the United States
from the agreement. The assertion did not only go contrary to the importance of
global unity when handling the issues of sustainability but was also seen as
lack of good intentions towards achieving global sustainability (Nieto,
Carpintero& Miguel, 2018). The announcement received heightened
condemnation both locally and internationally prompting the president to
reconsider his position.
On
the contrary, the French government has signed and accepted the agreement on
reduction of climate change. The environmental minister, Nicolas Hulot in the
year 2017, announced their plan to abolish diesel and petrol vehicles. The
five-year plan was developed by the Paris agreement to ensure they produce and
use vehicles that emit minimal carbon dioxide into the environment by the year
2040. The nation was also in the process of abolishing the use of coal for the
production of electricity. In fact, the environmental minister reported that
the use of coal and fossil fuels would be completely abolished by the year 2022
(Peters et al., 2017). The approach is expected to reduce significantly the
amount of greenhouse being released by the nation thus contribute significantly
towards minimizing the levels of climate change.
The
Paris agreement if adopted can realize the global vision of sustainable
development. As at February 2018, 195 parties had signed the agreement.
Nevertheless, whether all of them will implement the pledges made in the
agreement is unpredictable. Critics have also pointed out that the pledges are
mere promised rather than explicit commitments. As such, the possibility of all
the member states honoring their pledges is minimal (Hulme, 2016). In fact,
Nieto, Carpintero& Miguel (2018) has indicated that most of the parties
were still using fossil fuel as their primary source of energy in the year
2018, one and a half years after signing the agreement. Also, the nations are
yet to enact the policies they made to reduce their emission of greenhouse
gases. Unless the pledges made in the agreement are converted into strict
commitments, the possibility of reducing carbon dioxide and other greenhouse
gases emission is negligible.
Sustainable
development attained its meaning from the United Nations Commission on
Environment and Development led by Brundtland. The subsequent policies on
sustainable development suggested the implementation of various approaches that
will emphasize on increasing production without having negative implications on
the environment. The challenge of breaking and ascertaining the direct link
between economic growth and protection of the environment following the use of
resources and generation of wastes has made it difficult for the attainment of
sustainability (Khator, 1998). Based on the Brundtland report, it was expected
that there be limited consumption of resources and controlled release of wastes
in a way that the current actions of individuals do not compromise the ability
of the future generation to get access to adequate resources and a clean
environment. According to Drexhage& Murphy (2010) whether the Brundtland
report did not take into consideration the fact that the environment does not
contain unlimited resources and that the environment cannot absorb all wastes
generated from human actions, sustainable development should focus on
minimization of wastes and conservation of resources.
Since
the emergence of sustainable development concept, a number of policies have
been initiated to address the issues of environmental challenges. The UN
conferences held in different countries were all done to communicate the
approaches that can be jointly implemented by the countries of the world to
support the attainment of sustainable development. Today, development and
sustainability remains much the same as they were in the early years of
emergence of the sustainability concept. The situation has been worse in the
developing and under developed countries that are currently under a great
environmental distress.
According
to Schuftan
(2003) the world today consists of more poor and hungry people than was
never experienced before. The level of environmental degradation and pollution
are equally higher. Similar view has been held by Barkemeyer et al (2014) that
posited that the governments of different nations have established policies to
guide the attainment of sustainability, yet no significant positive results
have been reported. The global economies are post the United Nations conference
on Environmental Development and the Rion Summit though no convincing observations
have been observed on matters sustainable development. As Drexhage&
Murphy (2010) points out, the work hard that has been fostered by
non-governmental organizations and the different governments is not enough I
the fight against environmental degradation. To achieve sustainable
development, a lot needs to be done. It is important that people move away from
just the formulation of policies to their cull implementation of the desired
levels of sustainable development is to be accomplished.
Conferences
such as the world summit on social development, International women
conferences, the world food summit and several other conferences have been purported
to represent a turning point towards the attainment of sustainable development.
According to Schuftan
(2003) the bottom line is that the turning point has remained
illusionary and the attainment of a sustainable development stills a dream.
With lack of proper records on the steps made towards the attainment of
sustainable development, the possibility of realizing sustainability with the
current policies in place is negligible. This called for the shift towards a
new paradigm of sustainability.
The
creation of new sustainable development paradigm is likely to guide the steps
of various economies towards the attainment of the much-desired sustainability.
However, more questions and challenges have arisen on whether the new paradigm
will be feasible and more effective that the previous paradigm of sustainable
development. Barkemeyer
et al (2014) have asserted that there is need for the economies to
change the terms of campaign for the attainment of sustainability, others the
campaigners and the said campaigns will tire barring the entire whole from
conserving their resources for the future generation. There is need for more
risks and innovations in an effort to accomplish sustainability. Becoming
addicts of new information and racing with time is important so that the
environmental issues are addressed in time before their overcome the communities
(Dutta,
Lawson &Marcinko, 2012). There is need for the government and the
NGOs to come in conflict with the values and ideas of the public to initiate
strategies that are more likely to address the challenges evident in the
environment. There is need to debunk the assumption that ill activities
resulting in the pollution and degradation of the environment are independent
of one another and focus on an integrated approach that address all the
probable barriers to the attainment of sustainable development.
The
new sustainable development paradigm has integrated three pillars that form the
basis for change. The ethical, political and scientific pillars are believed to
be effective in assisting the world identify and choose strategies for the
attainment of a truly sustainable development process. According to Drexhage&
Murphy (2010) social issues in an economy have ethical, political and
scientific dimensions. Also, the social problems can be explained by underlying
theories and praxis. In this regard, the sustainable development approaches and
processes have to be based on scientific evidence, political and ethical
positions. The three pillars take into consideration the correlation between
social and political forces in their contributions towards the development of
the social problems evident in the society.
Dutta, Lawson
&Marcinko (2012) in their analysis have reported that it
is imperative to incorporate the scientific, ethical and political aspects of
the social issues in order to amicably address them. In order to avoid becoming
victims of political naivety, carrying out political and social assessment of
the situation followed with the development of well-informed strategies to
address the situation will guide the globe towards the attainment of
sustainable development.
While
the new paradigm of sustainable development promises the making of positive
steps towards the attainment of sustainability, greater challenges are
experienced in the process of getting to the new paradigm from the old
paradigm. The interactions between ethics, ideologies, politics and science
determine whether a smooth transition will be observed. According to Dutta, Lawson
&Marcinko (2012) different strategies depending on the political
ideologies of a country must be formulated. The strategies must be political in
nature, depoliticizing approaches in sustainable development does not lead to
the attainment of more rational findings. Faster resolution of contradictions
and conflicts requires the implementation of strategic approaches that are
apolitical in nature. The new sustainable development paradigm dictates that
political, economic and social factors in development are inseparable. Thus the
attainment of sustainable development requires that all the three aspects are
taken into consideration.
Triple
Bottom Line concept was first introduced by Elkington (1997) as a construct
that expresses the issue of environmental conservation in a more expanded
manner to integrate the economic and social lines in sustainable development.
The construct mainly emerged after the conviction that a shift towards a new
paradigm in sustainable development was needed. According to Norman
&MacDonal (2004) TBL gives a framework for determining the performance of
organizations focusing on the social, economic and environmental bases. It also
provided a practical framework for sustainable development where the
performance is measured in terms of the social, economic and the environmental
value of the organization towards the economy.
The
economic aspect of the TBL framework refers to the implications of the
organizational activities or human actions on the economic system. The capability
of the economy to evolve and survive into the future to meet the needs of the
future generations is also highlighted in the TBL framework (Rogers &
Hudson, 2011). The growth reported by an organization and its consequent
implications on the environment also marks the economic basis of the TBL
framework. In essence, the economic basis focuses on the economic value
provided by an organization or human activities to the environment in a manner
that it develops it and enhance its capability to support the generations of
the future generation.
The
social aspect of TBL framework focuses on the implications of human activities
and business practices on human capital and the community. The aim is to
determine whether the activities provide value to the community or give back to
the society (Mish &Scammon, 2010). Activities such as provision of health
care, fair wages among others can have positive social impact to the community.
On the contrary disregarding of social responsibilities can negatively affect
the performance of a business entity and consequently interfere with the
attainment of sustainability. Goel (2010) has pointed out that there are
significant costs associated with the failure to adhere to the desired social
responsibility practices. The social aspect of TBL framework focuses on the
social interactions between individuals and the community as well as addressing
issues related to social responsibility.
The
environmental basis of the TBL framework entails the analysis of the practices
that do not have adverse implications on the environment. The environmental
line of TBL frameworkfocuses on the implementation of activities that do not
cause environmental pollution or degradation(Mish &Scammon, 2010). Under
this aspect of the framework, the attainment of sustainability is dependent on
the ability of human beings and business entities to be engaged in actions that
have minimal emissions of greenhouse gases and that focus on the protection of
the environment while improving the well-being of the stakeholders.
The
TBL framework has been adopted in sustainable development, to understand the
underlying sustainability issues and as an approach in addressing the issues
identified. However, there is limited research on the concept of TBL and its
use in sustainable development. Mish &Scammon, (2010) in their study
asserted that TBL approach in sustainable development acknowledge three main
pillars of sustainability, social equity, environmental stewardship and
economic development. The researchers indicated that the three pillars play
equal role in promoting sustainability and thus their management can lead to
the attainment of a better outcome, than focusing on the management of a single
aspect of sustainability.
While
it is theoretically asserted that the management of the three pillars
highlighted in the TBL framework is essential in attaining a sustainable
development, most studies indicates that they are rarely implemented. In fact,
most studies shows that the implementation of the sustainability initiatives is
dependent on the costs involved and the relevance of the bases to the
implementing corporation. Jepson (2003) in his study involving certified planners
obtained that the economic developers present within the group showed a lower
rate of involvement in ecological sustainability process, contrary to other
persons with different specialization. Similar findings was obtained by
Zeemering (2009) who reported that the economic development officials included
in the study did not conceptualize the concept of sustainability thus did not
see the importance of prioritizing the need to address social and environmental
issues, thus only focused on the economic aspect of sustainability.
More
recentlyGrodach (2011) analyzed the barriers to sustainable development amongst
the economic developers. His findings revealed that economic developers rarely
mention or incorporate the aspects of TBL framework in their management of
social and environmental issues. They emphasize and pay attention towards the
development of the economy at the expense of social equity and protection of
the environment. This explains why to date the issues of sustainability have
remained unresolved despite the many policies and strategies put in placein
different economies. The theoretical assertions of TBL framework if taken into
consideration can lead to the management of the issues and challenges that
hinders the attainment of sustainable development. Nevertheless, as in most scenarios,
the implementation of the theoretical assertions in practice is illusionary.
The
increase in issues and challenges associated with sustainable development has
instigated the need for implementation of various strategies to curb the
menace. The strategic goals and policies of the 19th century were
never implemented to ensure that the issues of sustainability are addressed.
More sophisticated strategies are thus needed to address the challenges that
have not just doubled but have increased in intensity. The climate change,
increasing rates of environment degradation and the higher rates of pollution
have presented the need for the adoption of different strategies to aid in
attaining sustainable development. Green building, renewable sources of energy,
reduction of waste, efficient transportation, procurement of climate friendly
goods and reduction of carbon emissions are some of the strategies that have
been implemented to support the attainment of sustainable development(Robinson,
2007). A critical review of literature on the implementation of the strategies
is advanced herein. The review also encompasses a discussion on the challenges
and perceived benefits that have been reported so far.
2.7.1. Green Building
Building
and construction activities accounts for 40% of the carbon dioxide emitted into
the atmosphere. Emission of carbon dioxide and other green house gases is one
of the major causes of global warming and climate change. To attain
sustainability, it is imperative that the emissions of the green house gases
are controlled to minimum levels. The major sustainability changes experienced
in the building and construction process include depletion of resources, degradation
of land, release of higher volumes of solid wastes and pollution of the
environment (Mansfield, 2009). The increasing issues in real estate led to the
emergence of the term “green building” that has equally been referred to as
“sustainability building” or “sustainable practices” (Robinson, 2007).
Regardless of the term used, Green building refers to the responsible
construction process, through efficient use of natural resources and the
construction of environmentally-friendly structures. The efficient use of
natural resources, energy and reduction of the amount of waste released into
the environment are approaches that must be embraced for one to attain green
building. Also, protection of human life and minimizing environmental
degradation are actions required during the construction process to ensure a
highly sustainable building is attained (Robinson, 2007; Mansfield 2009; Sayce,
2010).
According
to Karolides (2002) green building has significant benefits to both the persons
involved in the construction process and the community at large. To the
community, green building leads t a significant reduction in the emission of
green houses and consumption of energy, which if not controlled would cause
depletion that will adversely affect human life. According to McManus (2012) Green
building if well implemented can improve the environmental pollution through a
30% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions and by minimizing water usage and
wastes output by 40% and 70% respectively. Despite the perceived benefits,
there are significant challenges encountered in the implementation of green
building. According to Kamal &Gani (2016)lack of an integrated design
that will takes into consideration the green features and requirements is the
major challenge in achieving a sustainable construction process. Most of the
construction processes still involve different parties that work independently
to accomplish the overall construction aim. As such, the implementation of an
green practice requires the consultation of all, an endeavor that is not easily
undertaken either purposefully or unwillingly. Also, the resistance to change
amongst the constructors further delays the attainment of sustainable buildings
(Sinha,
Gupta &Kutnar, 2013). The uncertainty and risks involved in use of
additional capital to achieve efficient use of resources is an action that not
all persons will undertake willingly. Kibert (2016) has also asserted that limited
information on how to go about building a sustainable building and its
perceived benefits also makes more people reluctant to embrace the technology
and the designs recommended in achieving a green building. Unless the
challenges involved in the implementation of the green building concepts are
addressed the attainment of sustainable buildings and consequently sustainable
development is impossible.
2.7.2. Renewable sources of energy of
Renewable
energy sources have a higher potential of contributing to the environmental,
economic and social sustainability of energy across the globe. Apart from
enhancing the access to energy to a larger population, renewable sources of
energy minimizes the amount of carbon dioxide released into the environment,
thus contributes towards the conservation of the environment and the natural
resource, energy (Jaramillo-Nieves & Del Río, 2010). Also Tester (2005) reports
that the renewable source of energy offers a harmony between equitable
accessibility of energy to all people while preserving the natural resource for
future development, thus the social role of the renewable source of energy in
attaining sustainability.
The
increasing world’s pollution has led to the continual use of fossil-based fuels
that have created significant challenges such as emission of greenhouse gases,
depletion of natural resources, fluctuations in the costs of energy, conflicts
and other environmental concerns. The effects of fossil fuel used have
prevented the world from achieving sustainability based on the economic, social
and environmental concerns raised.
Renewable
energy sources are considered the most outstanding alternatives for the
fossil-based fuel. According to Tiwari& Mishra (2011) as at the year 2012,
renewable sources of energy were used to supply energy to more than 30% of the
energy users in the US. The sources of renewable energy had increased and they
supplied more than 22% of the total energy generated in the earth surface, thus
enhancing the ability of the renewable sources of energy to act as an
alternative for the fossil fuel.
Since
renewable energy sources exist naturally, they must be sustainable to support
that attainment of sustainable development. The energy sources must not cause
severe damages to the environment, through emission of wastes or harmful gases,
also, the energy sources must be able to supply adequate amount of energy to
the various users without depletion (Edenhofer et al., 2011). Most of the
renewable sources of energy fail to attain the sustainability definition, thus
forming their major challenge. According to Twidell& Weir (2015) the
discontinuity evident in their generation following their seasonal nature is a
major challenge. Most renewable energy sources are climate-based thus their
exploitation needs proper planning and control leading to their discontinuity
nature (UNFC, 2015). The emergence of new technologies has promises an
improvement in the optimization of the renewable energy sources, nevertheless,
a lasting solution is yet to be attained. Renewable sources of energy such as
wind, solar, biomass and wave and tide are yet to be fully optimized thus have
remained seasonal and discontinuous.
Despite
the challenge experienced in the use of renewable sources of energy, they are
generally regarded as clean sources of energy. They do not only minimize on the
amount of waste gases being released into the environment, but they also lower
the depletion rates of the natural resource since they are renewable. The renewable
sources of energy are equally sustainable since they allow for the fulfillment
of the current needs of people while sustaining the needs of the future
generation. A potential opportunity for reducing the amount of green house
gases emitted into the environment and for managing global warming lies with
the use of the renewable sources of energy. Due to the uncertainties that comes
with the use of these renewable sources of energy Panwar, Kaushik& Kothari
(2011) have recommended the need for further research on technologies that can
be implemented to enhance the optimization of the renewable energy sources such
that they completely replace the conventional sources of energy, that have
contributed majorly to the environmental issues that are currently reported.
Wastes
contribute significantly towards soil degradation and pollution of the
environment. Waste management is thus important in the conservation of the
environment and in supporting the attainment of sustainable development. Previous
studies on waste management a sustainability strategy have emphasized on the 3
Rs as effective approaches that can be implemented in waste management. Reduce,
reuse and recycle are the main approaches adopted under waste management to
achieve sustainability (Song, Li &Zeng, 2015;Zaman 2015). In their study Severo et al
(2015) reported that manufacturing corporations are normally faced with
the challenge of adequately managing their waste. The failure of the
organizations to implement an effective waste management program has not only
led to environmental pollution but has also had adverse implications on the
performance of the organizations. A successful recycling program saves on costs
of production thus contributing positively towards the performance of an
organization. Nevertheless, as Pan et al (2015) indicates an understanding and
evaluation of the performance of an organization in relation to waste
management is vital to ascertain areas requiring improvement or changes for an
effective approach in waste recycling to be implemented.
Reduction
is another strategy that can be employed by corporations in waste management.
Reduction mainly entails the efficient use of production raw materials such
that minimal wastes are generated. According to Piercy & Rich (2015) instead
of waiting to manage unnecessary wastes, corporations can embark on waste
minimization as a strategy to reduce the adverse social and environment impacts
associated with the release of excess wastes. The USA in their fight to achieve
sustainable development has communicated the benefits of waste reduction
towards the attainment of zero wastes (Song, Li &Zeng, 2015). The nation
campaign on the importance of re-use of materials and recycling of wastes are
mainly to ensure that minimal wastes are released into the landfills to control
their adverse effects on the land and in the environment as a whole.
From
a different perspective Ding et al (2016) asserted that waste reduction is a
procedure that can be implemented by a corporation to save on costs and improve
their performance. Elimination of unnecessary wastes means that there is
judicious use or raw materials such that the production costs are significantly
reduced. Reduction of waste thus leads to significant benefits to the
organization involved and supports the attainment of sustainable development.
Zaman (2015)
looked at the approaches that can support maximum reduction in the amounts of
waste being released into the environment. The study mainly focused on the
approach that can be adopted by manufacturing firms to minimize the amounts of
wastes being released into the environment. The study findings indicated that
elimination of by-products and re-use of materials are approaches that can be
implemented in waste reduction. Also, recycling of the emerging waste materials
either onsite or externally can lead to significant reduction in the amount of
wastes. Recovery of energy from the wastes through incineration is another approach
that can be adopted to reduce wastes as well as generate maximum value from
them in form of energy (Pan et al., 2015). Recycling and reuse of wastes are
strategies that can be adopted independently in waste management, however, the
two approaches in combination with the others mentioned above can be useful in
reduction of wastes being released into the environment, thus contributing
towards the attainment of sustainable development.
2.7.4. Efficient transportation of
Extensive
freight transport is the most visible supply chain and logistics activity that
is has a damaging effect on the environment. The two most critical issues in
freight transportation that are pertinent to sustainability include the
emission of green house gases and high dependency on fossil fuels (Brown, 2009).
The main aim of freight transport is to achieve economic benefits while
attaining competitiveness in the global market. Attainment of sustainable
development in the context of freight transportation is the attainment of a
balance between accomplishing competitiveness and assuring protection and
conservation of natural resources and the environment.
While
highlighting the probable damages of freight transportation on the environment
(Varma& Clayton, (2010) indicates that freight transportation is the
largest and fastest growing emitter of greenhouse gases within the
transportation category. According to their findings, domestic freight
transportation contributed 47% of the greenhouse gases emitted within the
transport sector, a value that was relatively higher that the amount reported
by all the other categories of domestic passenger vehicles. Similar findings
were presented by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (2010) in
their report detailing the implications of freight transportation on the
environment. The report indicates that heavy-duty vehicle were the highest
contributor towards the emission of greenhouse gases in the US transport
industry.
Since
most of the movements of goods in the USA and in other parts of the world are
driven by fossil fuels, the use of these deplorable sources of energy by the
heavy-duty vehicle is equally higher. Helmer& Gough (2010) in their
research reported that more than 95% of the heavy-vehicle in the USA transport
sector is powered by diesel. The heavy dependence on the fossil fuels justifies
the economic sustainability challenges portrayed by the vehicles plying the
freight transportation sector (McCormack & Edwards, 2011).
Freight
transportation is an economic and commercial-driven activity that is influenced
by the demands in the market and the needs of the consumer. Also, the
effectiveness of the freight transportation process has become a source of
competiveness for the nations involved. According to Nijkamp et al (2000) the success
of most developed economies such as the USA has been attributed to reliability
of the freight transportation system. Lind (2009) recognized the vital
contribution of freight transport in the global competition that has instigated
the developed world and the emerging economies to improve their infrastructure
to attain the higher level of competition. Also expansion of the freight
transport sector is likely for the economies to gain from the global market.
A
significant conflict exists in the improvement of freight transportation and
attainment of sustainable development. While, it is known that the expansion of
freight transportation will lead to depletion of natural resources and
pollution of the environment, most economies are reluctant to consider other
means of economic growth, since freight transport is believed to be a major
contributor in the same (Field, 2009). Its abolition will not only interfere
with the competitiveness of the nation in the global market, but will also
prevent the accomplishment of the consumer needs. As such, the future
sustainability of freight transportation will entail maintaining a balance
between freight transportation and conservation of the environment (Lacefield,
2010). The balance is to ensure that the competitiveness of a nation is not
compromised as well as ensure that the effects of the transportation process on
the environment is maintained to minimum acceptable levels.
Hoffman
(2009) has recommended the adoption of an efficient transportation system that
advocates for the use of clean energy that will not only reduce the amount of
carbon dioxide released into the environment, but will also reduce the
depletion rates of fossil fuels. Leveraging technology is another approach that
can be implemented to attain efficient freight transportation. IT innovations
are currently being undertaken to minimize the use of fossil fuels in freight
transportation and to minimize their levels of carbon emissions (Coyle,
Thomchick&Ruamsook, 2015). Sophisticate engine monitoring devices,
computerized system to measure fuel efficiency and alerts to give directions to
reduce the chances of the driver missing direction are currently in place. The
idea of the new technologies is to accomplish maximum efficiency during the
transportation process.
Collaborative
transportation also supports the execution of an efficient transportation
process by allowing for sharing of trucks, such that continuous movements are
reported. The benefits is that the trucks do not ply any route without carrying
a full capacity loads of goods thus ensuring there is proper management of
time, costs and the possible implications of the transportation process on the
environment (Broaddus,
Browne & Allen, 2015).. In essence, attainment of freight
transportation sustainability requires the achievement of a balance between the
environmental and economic value of the activity, such that the environment is
protected and the economic growth of the country promoted.
Carbon
off-setting refers to the approach taken to counteract the carbon emissions
with an equal reduction of carbon dioxide from the environment. Carbon
off-setting technique is mainly implemented by corporations that desire to
reduce the amount of green houses being released into the environment from
their activities (Zhao, Escobedo &Gao, 2010). According to Jo (2002) when
properly used, off-sets can be effective in assisting the corporations attain
their sustainability goals. The approach does not take into consideration the
effects of the corporations’ activities on the environment, but focuses on
trapping any excess green gases from the environment irrespective of their
source. Nevertheless, Escobedo et al (2010) have asserted that a company
should not rely solely on carbon off-setting as a strategy of minimizing the
amount of greenhouse gases released into the environment. Rather, the focus
should be to adopt other strategies including use of clean energy, minimization
of wastes among other before engaging in carbon off-setting. In deed Zhao, Escobedo
&Gao (2010) has communicated that carbon off-setting should be used
as a strategy for tapping excess and unrecovered greenhouse gases from the
environment. Depending independently on carbon off-setting as a greenhouse
gases emission management strategies cannot yield good result that can promise
the attainment of sustainability, since not all greenhouse gases will be consumed
by the reduction in the amount of carbon dioxide in the environment.
The
commonly adopted strategy in carbon off-setting is planting of trees. According
to Jo (2002)
trees will use higher volumes of carbon dioxide thus can be used to
consume the carbon dioxide coming from a manufacturing plant in case of
deficiency in the atmosphere. The approach has proved to be effective
especially for corporations that have measured their carbon foot print,
implemented other carbon dioxide management approach and adopted the carbon
off-setting strategy as the last resort to ensure that all the carbon emissions
are controlled (Escobedo et al., 2010). In case, where avoidance and reduction of
carbon dioxide emissions have failed, than off-setting is the only sure way
that can be adopted to minimize the emission of the greenhouse gases. Off-setting
of carbon emissions offers immediate results and additional social and
environmental benefits making it a more sure way of reducing the amounts of greenhouse
gases in the environment.
2.8. Sustainability Performance Measurement
As
defined in the Brundtland report, sustainability refers to the ability of the
economy and the environment to meet the needs of the current generation without
compromising on the possibility of meeting the needs of the future generation.
Sustainability measurement therefore is a holistic approach that does not only
focus on being environmentally friendly but also encompasses the economic and
social components of sustainability (Cheney et al., 2004). According to Epstein
(2008) sustainability represents more than just conservation of the
environment, waste management, protecting ecology or reducing energy use. In
this regard the measurement of sustainability thus encompasses a holistic
approach that measures all the dimensions of performance touching on the
economic, ecological and social aspects (Shaltegger& Wagner, 2006).
Most
widely applicable sustainability measures focus only on the environmental
parameters. Quantities such as the amount of green house gases emitted into the
environment, and the amount of natural resources used have been used as the
main parameters to measure the sustainability levels of a corporation or an
activity (DeSimone&Popoff, 2003). This form of measurement has however been
disputed by Johnson (2008) who argued that it only focuses on one dimension of
sustainability. According to the scholar, sustainability performance
measurement should adopt a systematic approach that deals with the social,
economic and environmental aspects of an organization. Business strategies and
academicians in the recent past have developed a framework for sustainability
performance measurement that takes into consideration all the aspects of
sustainability. Environmental and social performance of the organization was
the main approach suggested to measure the sustainability performance of an
organization. Later on, the theorists included the concepts of corporate social
responsibility as a measure of sustainability performance of an organization
(Hubbard, 2006). Despite the well-defined measure of sustainability performance,
the measurement process still varies depending on what is to be measured and
the nature of the organization. As Waddock&Bodwell (2007) points out, when
the environmental and social performance that determines the sustainability
performance levels keep changing, there is likely to be a variance in the
approaches adopted in undertaking the sustainability measure. Thus explains the
existence of the different frameworks used in measuring sustainability.
2.8.1. Sustainability performance Indicators
The
quest to attain sustainability has led to the development of different
frameworks and tools used in measuring the extent of sustainable development of
a corporation. According to Cortanda& Woods (2004) the frameworks are
important not only in assisting the organization, understand their extent of
sustainable development but also in guiding the development of policies that
can be implemented to improve the drive of the corporation towards
accomplishing its sustainability goals. The approach of measuring the extent of
sustainable development is not new to the presently existing organizations, but
was also explored by Bauer (1966) and Moore (1968) who focused on formulating a
framework for measuring the social development of an organization. By defining
the social development indicators, the scholars were able to come up with a
framework that measures the social progress of a corporation, thus were able to
establish the national sustainability goals and priorities that needs to be
taken into consideration by the different companies.
Later
on in the year 1970, the program for Organization of Economic Corporation and
Development came up with other social indicators for sustainability
measurement. The purpose of the indicators was to measure the progress of
sustainability development as reported by various countries across the world
(OECD, 1982). The indicators were created in form of a scale that was equally
used in ranking the countries based on their social development performance.
The measurement framework was not only used to identify the better performers
in sustainable development, but also formed the basis for the formulation of
policies that were promoted to improve the engagement of the various countries
in the quest towards the accomplishment of global sustainability.
The
Human Development Idex (HDI) marks the next indicators that were developed for
sustainability measurement. According to UNDP (2000) the HDI framework detailed
the indicators necessary for measuring the level of human development as
reported in different countries of the world. The framework was formulated in
form of a scale that measures the achievement of a nation in terms of human
development in three significant dimensions, education attainment, longevity,
and living standards. The HDI framework led to the emergence of other
measurement scales including Human Poverty Index, Gender Empowerment Measure,
and Gender-related Development Index amongst others (Iddrisu& Bhattacharyya, 2015).
The basis for the formation of the scale that focused on measuring
sustainability, was that sustainable development can only be attained when the
needs of the current generation is adequately met. In this regard, the
accomplishment of the said need was based on the level of human development
that can be reported in a country.
While
the approach was effective in measuring the extent of human development in the
countries, it’s effectiveness in sustainability measurement has been disputed
by a number of scholars. The fact that the scales focused only on the social
aspect of sustainability made it less reliable in the measure of sustainable
development (Kylili
et al., 2016). A need was thus presented for the design of a
sustainability measurement framework that will not only emphasize on the social
component of sustainable development but will also taken into consideration the
economic and environmental aspects.
New
and more complex sustainability measurement frameworks emerged after the 1992 UNCED
that advocated for the integration of social, economic and environmental
indicators in the sustainability measurement frameworks. The need presented led
to the creation of a program in the year 1995 that brought together the UN,
non-governmental and intergovernmental organizations to discuss and come up
with indicators that can be implemented in measuring the sustainability levels
reported in a country. According to Bateman (2005) the Commission on
Sustainable Development program defined and elucidated the methodologies of
different indicators chosen to measure sustainability at the national level.
The indicators were not just set for evaluation of the sustainability
performance, but also to provide guidance in sustainability reporting such that
a common goal is accomplished across the different nations.
The
initial approaches to the development of sustainability measurement indicators
were thematic in nature. However, the shortcomings of the thematic indicators
led to the emergence of the systemic approach in sustainability measurement
(Bossel, 1999). The systemic approaches to formulation of sustainability
performance indicators, considers sustainability as a dynamic process that
contains interrelated natural and human systems. As such, the change and the
impact of the systems in each other and their evolvement must be taken into
consideration when coming up with indicators to measure the sustainability
performance of an organization. According to Holden, Linnerud& Banister
(2017) the thematic and the systemic approaches in developing
sustainability indicators have similar requirements and characteristics.
Clarity of purpose and the issues to be addressed are the major characteristics
exhibited by both indicators. The purpose might be to measure the performance,
assess progress, monitor or for evaluation purposes, thus the need to specify
the intended purpose of every sustainability indicator. Also, Azapagic (2004)
has reported that an appropriate indicator should be reliable, relevant and
feasible. The quality of data used in the development of the indicator
determines its quality. As, there is need to carry out extensive research to
come up with a high quality indicators that will objectively measure the
sustainability attained by the nation. Also Kylili et al (2016) has
indicated that the sustainability scales must be adaptable and revisable to the
needs of the users. Since different countries have varying systems of
operations, it is important that the scales are made adjustable such that
changes can be easily made to ensure that its fits the contents and needs of
the users.
Most
thematic sustainability measurement indicators are applicable at the national
levels. According to Holden, Linnerud& Banister (2017) different programs and authors have come up
with indicators developed in a form of a scale that have been widely used for
the measure of the level of sustainability development accomplished by a
country. Indices such as the Economic Policy Stance Index (EPSI) have been used
in the measuring of the economic performance of countries over an extended
period. The index was used for measuring the nation’s long-term ability to
maintain a higher level of economic performance. The Regional Integration Index
has also been used in the assessment of the economic performance of a country.
The index mainly focused on analyzing the economic performance of a country and
its competitiveness within a specific region. Trade Competitiveness Index, Overall
Sustainability Index and Economic Sustainability Index are other indices that
have also been used in the measurement of sustainability performance at the
nation level.
Regardless
of the effectiveness of the indictors in ascertaining the level of sustainable
development in the different countries, the indices cannot be adequately
adopted at the corporate level. According to Searcy (2011) the difference
in the systems or operations as evident at the corporate levels makes the thematic
indices less effective in the measurement of sustainability at an
organizational level. This led to the emergence of a systemic approach in the
formulation of the performance indicators that can be used in evaluating the
effectiveness of an organization in achieving its sustainability development
goals.
The
development of sustainability performance measurement systems is becoming more
pronounced in the corporate sector. Organizationsare devoted to adopting
sustainable practices in their attempt to manage the challenges and risks
associated with environmental pollution and depletion of resources (Kylili et al.,
2016). The reasons for the adoption of a sustainability performance
measurement system may vary from one organization to the next, however, the
main focus of most corporations is to evaluate their performance and determine
the effectiveness of the sustainable practices implemented in accomplishing the
company’s strategic goals.
Corporate
sustainability performance measurement systems are developed based on the
assumption that they are capable to determine the ability of the company to
attain sustainability as a prerequisite of enhanced business performance.
According to Lohman et al (2004), the specifications in the sustainability performance
system may vary from one company to the next, however, Bititci et al (2005)
have asserted that the system should be highly integrated, informed, balanced
and focus on the business processes. Different studies on the development of sustainability
performance measurement system in the contest of specific corporate
organizations have been presented (Keeble et al., 2003; Singh et al., 2007;
Palme &Tiliman, 2008). These studies have suggested different performance
management systems for various organizations operating in different sectors of
the economy including manufacturing, mining, and aviation amongst other
sectors. The global initiative has also been involved in the formulation of
sustainability performance measurement system that is specific to 15 different
sectors within the economy. From the review of literature on the formulation of
the sustainability performance management systems, it can be deduced that
specificity is a major prerequisite to attain an effective measurement system.
The fact that the authors come up with a performance measurement systems
applicable to individual corporations indicates the significance of specificity
and applicability when developing a performance management system.
A
typical sustainability performance management system allows a corporation to ensure
that all its impacts and responsibilities are addressed. An effective system should
ensure that all actions of the corporations on matters sustainability are
measured, monitored and reported. Also, the system should ensure that the
relevant stakeholders are included in the evaluation process. According to Maletič (2013) collection
of quality data needed in the formulation of the sustainability performance
management systems also contributes to the effectiveness of the performance
measurement process. The process of formulating a sustainability performance
measurement system entails identification of the social, economic and
environmental impacts of the company’s activities followed with the formulation
of a sustainable policy based on the impacts identified. The next step focused
on the development of a sustainable performance action plan that entails a
guide on the implementation of the policies needed to achieve sustainable
development (Milic,
Jovanovic&Krstic, 2008). The system is then operationalized,
monitored and audited to determine its effectiveness in measuring the
sustainability performance of the organization.
According
to Searcy
(2011) the goal of a sustainability performance measurement system is to
enhance the sustainability performance of the organization, by monitoring its
progress and identifying areas requiring changes. The effectiveness of the
sustainable performance measurement systems is therefore paramount in ensuring
a corporation accomplishes its sustainable development goals. Kylili,
Fokaides& Jimenez (2016) while exploring the importance of an
effective sustainability performance measurement system, Holden,
Linnerud& Banister (2017) pointed out that an effective system must be
comprehensive, credible and integrated. Credible means that the system measures
and monitors all actions and impacts of the organization while integrated mean
that all the stakeholders are involved in the formulation of the performance
measurement system. Comprehensive means that the system is capable of measuring
all impacts and responsibility of the corporation, mainly social, environmental
and economic impacts. Sustainability performance measurement systems are
specific to a corporation due to the difference in the corporate systems and
the probable impacts of the organizational activities on the environment and
the society. As such, the formulation of a performance management system should
be specific to a corporation; however, the involvement of all stakeholders in
the formulation process is paramount.
The
concept of corporate social responsibility defines the ability of an
organization to promote sustainable activities that are out of profitability
agenda. The CSR addresses the voluntary and non-voluntary responsibilities of
organizations in working towards the attainment of sustainable development
(Enquist et. al, 2007). In the early 60’s, an awareness for the need to manage environmental
problems significantly motivated various stakeholders to embark on the
conservation and management of the environment. Businesses were assigned
responsibilities of ensuring that their impacts on the environment and the
society are properly managed. Despite the
argument by Friedman’s (1970) argument against other forms of responsibilities
including sustainable development to only focus on increasing their profits the
new vision that arose as a result of internationalization to ensure that all
stakeholders take part in reducing the negative effects of business activities
on the environment, intensified the assigned responsibility on every
organization to engage in sustainability practices (Elkington, 2001).
In
a different study Carrol’s (1991; 1979) dismissed the assertion of Friedman as
fallacy and stressed the importance of CSR to businesses. In his view of
involvement of businesses in CSR will not only address the negative
implications of their businesses on the environment but will also aid in
building strong relationships with the
external communities. Also, Grant (1991) dismissed Friedman’s (1970) point of
view and support the idea of CSR.
The
voluntary involvement of an organization in strategies that promotes environmental
conservation and social development is the main principle of (Enquistet.al.
2006). Based on the Triple Bottom Line of environmental, economic and social factors
as supposed in the sustainability concept, a balance between the identified
aspects in a corporate environment is likely to lead to better performance than
just focusing on the profitability of the firm. Social and environmental
efficiency is becoming more important in any business since the community has
serious expectations on the corporate sustainability performance (Elkington,
1998; Enquist et.al., 2006). The rise in the interest of the national
governments and international communities in fighting against climate change
and environmental pollution has also fueled the concerns on the role of
corporations in conserving the environment. At the corporate level, the extent
of corporate social responsibility can be used in evaluating the performance of
the organization in relation to sustainable development (DeSimone and Popoff,
2000). As much as CSR cannot be used for measuring performance at the national
level, the voluntary engagement of organization in sustainable practices is a
better way of accomplishing their social obligations and ensuring that they
take part in the conservation of and protection of the environment, other than
contribute towards its destruction.
2.9. Enablers and Inhibitors of Sustainability
Most
countries and organizations hold the belief that sustainability is a “good
thing” and is the right goal to accomplish. The management of the various
organizations also believes that sustainability is an integral part of the
business and that working towards the attainment of the sustainability goals is
an action that they must explore. However, regardless of the conviction that
sustainability is desirable, very few companies attain the set sustainability
goals. Going by the organizations’ reports on sustainable development and their
engagement in sustainability practices, it is noted that most companies fail to
meet the set goals, even after manipulating the contents of the sustainability
reports. The deduction is that moss firms are willing to engage in the
sustainability practice, however, there are certain barriers or inhibitors that
prevent their full accomplishment of the sustainability goals.
Garcia-Sabater&
Marin-Garcia (2009) in his study looked at the drivers and
inhibitors of sustainability. In a study that involve workers and the
management from different companies, mostly those dealing with manufacturing,
the researcher obtained that green distribution, past performance anchor and
strategic discourse and firefighter amongst others are the main inhibitors of
sustainability.
Green Distribution
Going
green in all activities of an organization may be a positive approach towards
the attainment of sustainability. Nevertheless, according to Grant
&Marshburn (2014) the green light may sometime be seen as a signal
that the concept of sustainability is misunderstood, thus an inhibitor to the
attainment of sustainable development. Similar view has been presented by Le Roux &
Pretorius (2016) who asserted that there is normally confusion about the
meaning and what sustainability entail. There are two different schools of
thoughts on the concept of sustainability. Some corporations think that the
aspect of going green is enough in guiding the corporation towards the
attainment of sustainable development. On the other hand, others assume that
sustainability only encompasses the economic aspects. Since most people
associate the concept of sustainability with going green, they focus more on
the implementation of practices directed at controlling the negative
implications of the company’s activities on the environment. The focus in most
cases is on the consumption of fewer amounts of natural resources and
minimizing the amount of wastes released into the environment. While the
understanding aid in the attainment of some aspects of sustainability, the full
attainment of sustainability is hindered. As seen in the earlier discussion,
sustainability does not only focus on the environmental aspect, but must also
include the social and economic aspect in order to attain sustainable
development. As such, the belief that going green leads to the attainment of
sustainability have not only lead to misunderstanding of the sustainability
concept but have also hindered corporations that hold the same belief from the
attainment of full sustainability.
Lack of teamwork
The
attainment of sustainability is dependent on how well the sustainable practices
are executed by an organization. The employees to the organization need to work
as a team to execute the various sustainability best practices that can lead to
the attainment of enhanced levels of sustainability. From their analysis Garcia-Sabater&
Marin-Garcia (2009)have reported that the team work is normally lacking
in most corporations. Employees involved in the study indicated that they have
no direct obligation to implement the sustainability practices. As a result,
some employees always adhere to the sustainability practices while others do
not. The implication is the inability of the organization to fully accomplish
its sustainability goals.
Past-performance anchor
Anchoring
on the past performer is a sustainability inhibitor that impedes the ability of
a corporation to enhance its sustainability performance. The anchoring holds
organizations back and prevent them from implementing new sustainability
practices that will improve their contribution towards the attainment of
sustainable development. According to Le Roux & Pretorius (2016) as much as
an organization can report a higher level of performance in a previous year,
there is need to still continue working towards the attainment of
sustainability. If anything, there is a high impossibility of meeting all the
sustainability goals set by a corporation within a year. As a result, an
organization should continually be working towards the attainment of the set
sustainability goals. Making of strategic decisions that are specific to the
actions being undertaken by the organization in a yearly basis is important in
ensuring that the set sustainability goals are accomplished. As reported by Garcia-Sabater&
Marin-Garcia (2009) nature and the community at large is subjected to
different kinds of change in every season. What was viewed as desirable in the
previous year can be detrimental to the environment and the society in the
subsequent years. As such, performing well in terms of sustainability
management in a given year does not mean that the same level of performance
will report in the subsequent years (Grant &Marshburn, 2014). Anchoring on
the past sustainability development performance does not accrue any benefits to
the organization, but rather inhibits the ability of the organization to engage
in activities that will improve its level of sustainability.
Firefighting
Firefighting
refers to the hefty response to a problem evident in an organization. The quick
response to sustainability issues isa major inhibitor of the attainment of
sustainable development by corporations. According to Garcia-Sabater& Marin-Garcia
(2009) sustainability is a process that can only be adequately attained
when organizations focus on the long-term goals of sustainability. Long-term
solutions contrary to any sustainability problem arising within the company
should thus be implemented for the company to accomplish its sustainability
goals. Nevertheless, as Scherrer, Daub & Burger (2007) indicates, this is
not the case observed in most situations. It is evident that most companies
when faced with any issues that are sustainability-related focus on the
adoption of a firefighting approach to take part in addressing the issue
presented.
Firefighting
is an ineffective approach that can be implemented to address the issues of
presented. The approach does not only prevent the practitioners from weighing
and selecting the most suitable strategic approaches needed to address the
situation, but also fails to give an opportunity for the identifications of the
requirements needed in sustainability management(Stubbs & Higgins, 2012). Hast
and quick reactions lead to the formulation of ineffective sustainability decisions
that cannot support the attainment of the formulated sustainability goals.
Also, the process of sustainability management is likely not to involve the
entire stakeholders and may be lacking an appropriate budget. Sustainability
cannot be attained within one day, making decisions or adopting an approach
that push for swift address of the sustainability issues with the intention of
abolishing the whole process, is a big hindrance in the attainment of
sustainable development.
Strategy Discourse
The
nature of the strategic discourse determines the possibility of attaining
sustainable development. According to Scherrer, Daub & Burger (2007) a faulty
strategic discourse is likely to hinder the attainment of the set
sustainability goals. Sustainability strategy must be part of the company’s
overall business strategy to indicate their level of commitment in
accomplishing the set goals. Apart from including the sustainability strategy
in the overall business strategic plan, the contents of the strategic approach
and how it is communicated will determine whether the employees will work
towards the accomplishment of the sustainable development goals. According to Stubbs &
Higgins (2012) most strategies detailing the sustainability strategic
goals and recommended practices are not known to all the employees of the
company. In their study Le Roux & Pretorius (2016) indicated that more
than 70% of the employees involved in an interview to determine the inhibitors
of sustainability, asserted that they are not aware of the sustainability
strategy set in place by the company. According to them, they are only sure of
the overall organization’s goals towards conservation of the environment and protection
of the natural resources. However, the details on the sustainability goals to
be accomplished and the practices to be implemented are not known to them. Grant
&Marshburn (2014) while justifying the importance of a suitable
sustainability strategy discourse communicated that formulating the
sustainability strategy is not enough, and does not guarantee the
accomplishment of the set sustainability goals. There is need for various
sustainability practices to be implemented by the organization’s workforce. The
effectiveness of the implementation process, that can only be achieved when
there is clear communication between the management and the employees, determines
the success in sustainability management. As such, a faulty strategic discourse
and the management failure to communicate effectively the content of the
strategy are major barriers in the attainment of sustainable development.
2.9.2. Enablers of sustainability
Enablers
of sustainable development refer to factors within the organization that promotes
enhanced sustainability. Regardless of the challenges experienced in the
implementation of the sustainability strategies and practices, the enabling
factors are capable of assisting the company overcome most if not all the
challenges. Organizations that have included the enabling factors in their
operations are thus likely to report a higher level of sustainability. The
critical review of literature on the enablers and drivers of sustainability is
advanced below
Information Communication Technology
The
emergence and development of information technology has contributed
significantly towards the attainment of sustainable development. According to Lehrer
&Vasudev (2010) ICT is one of the significant enables of sustainability especially
in promoting the green building activities.The ICT has allowed for the
development of intelligent systems that are capable of managing carbon
emissions from construction activities and in the built environment. Better
building designs and introduction of automation have been supported by the
advancements in information technology (Darby, 2010). The technologies have
been vastly used in the developed economies leading to a more than 15%
reduction in the amounts of carbon emissions (Bull, 2015). While the
information technologies have been useful in the reduction of carbon emissions
in the built environment of most developed countries, their usefulness in the
developing economies has not been fully realized. According to Shirky (2008)
most sophisticated technology emerged from the developed economies thus their
implementation in the underdeveloped and developing countries have been
minimal. However, with more research and adoption of the new technologies in
the emerging and developing economies, the advancement in information technology
will greatly promote the execution of green building practices.
Information
communication technology has also promoted information sharing amongst different
corporations and individuals. According to Ghonim (2012) the emergence of the
internet and the social media platforms have enabled the ambassadors to create
awareness on the benefits of sustainability thus convincing most organizations
to engage in the sustainable practices. Feedbacks on the level of
sustainability already attained can also be made through the communication
platforms that have been supported by the emergence and the development of
information technology. ICT thus plays a significant role in promoting sustainable
development.
Culture
Over
the past decade, studies have reported culture as an important enabler of
sustainability. The role of culture in economic development and poverty
alleviation makes it a vital contributor towards sustainable development.
According to Naor
et al (2008) culture mainly drives the social aspect of sustainability.
A culture-led development and approach in sustainability ensures that the
social needs of people are taken into consideration when executing any task. As
such, the organizational impacts are controlled to prevent any adverse social
effects on the individuals. Respecting the cultural values and beliefs of a
given community leads to social development. Also, the involvement of the
community’s cultural dictates in the management process provides good insights
in the selection of the environmental management practices, and identification
of the ecological challenges that needs to be addressed (Husted, 2005).
Thus, understanding the culture of a community is essential if sustainability
is to be accomplished. It does not only focus on meeting the human social needs
but also gives valuable insights on approaches to environmental conservation,
reduction of biodiversity loss and it preventing the adverse effects of climate
change. Culture contributes towards the attainment of sustainability through
its link with biodiversity, its association with the consumption patterns and
its role in influencing the sustainability management practices.
Leadership and Commitment
The
top leadership in any organization is responsible for knowledge management
amongst the employees. These individuals are also charged with the direct
responsibility of formulating and implementing policies. As such, the
leadership of an organization has a huge responsibility in the formulation the sustainability
policies and in managing the employees to guarantee the full implementation of
the sustainable practices (Abebe&Onyisi, 2016). The leadership does not only
make a suitable environment for knowledge management and sharing but also ensures
the employees are highly committed in the implementation of the sustainable
practices (Metcalf
& Benn, 2013). Successful knowledge management and creation of
awareness on the benefits of sustainable development will foster the
implementation of sustainability. This can only be attained when the leaders
are highly committed and are focused in ensuring that the sustainable goals are
accomplished. Any organization with a highly committed leadership will not just
have clear and integrated sustainability policy, but will also effectively
participate in the full implementation of the sustainable practices leading to
sustainable development.
Resources
Implementation
of sustainable practices requires additional resources from the management. Most
of the sustainability practices are costly and requires the implementation of
new technologies. Companies will need additional resources to change towards
the implementation of green resources that will have minimal negative
implications on the environment (Reed,Lemak, &Mero, 2000). Apart from the physical
resources, human resources are also needed to adjust to the new systems of
operations. The implementation of green practices including, renewable sources
of energy, green building amongst others comes with additional costs for the
company to attain sustainability.
Most
profit-based companies are concerned with the maximization of their profits and
enhancing their shareholder value. Incurring additional costs in sustainable
practices means that the organization will not be able to meet its obligations
of proper management is not undertaken. Also, the possibility of most of the
shareholders agreeing with the sustainability decisions are minimal, as such,
the additional costs required in the execution of the sustainable activities
may prevent the company from indulging in the same.
As
much as higher amounts of resources will support the execution of sustainable practices,
(3) from a different perspective has asserted that resources does not have to
influence the implementation rate of sustainable practices. According to the
scholar, simple actions that are likely to reduce the impacts of the
organization’s actions on the environment and the community are in existence
and can be adopted to support the attainment of sustainable development. Also,
the scholar argues that costs associated with the implementation of the
sustainable practices cannot surpass the perceived benefits. As much as the
availability of resources is considered an enabler of sustainability, it cannot
be used to justify the failure by an organization to participate in the
processes that promotes the attainment of sustainable development.
Total Quality Management
Total
quality management entails the customer-centric approach implemented in an
organization with the goal of improving total quality and delivering services
and products that adequately meets the needs of the customers. TQM supports the
enhancement of quality through the organization’s manufacturing process by
ensuring that only the needed commodity is manufactured at a specific time. The
effect of the approach is that there is minimal wastage in resources since the
goods are manufactured depending on the needs and wants of the customers. Also,
TQM advocates for the elimination of any form of defects along the production
line. According to Robson et al (2002) the process of TQM focuses on
identifying the probable defects at their initial stage and adopting corrective
measures to ensure that there are minimal wastes out of the manufacturing
process. Another principle of TQM requires that the needs of the customers and
all the other stakeholders are taken into consideration during the
manufacturing process. Through engagement of the employees in the manufacturing
process and creation of a suitable working environment, the attainment of total
quality is assured.
The
adherence with the TQM principles supports the attainment of sustainability in
an organization. It’s focus on the needs of the customers and efficient
production process ensures that there is maximum efficiency in production and
that minimal wastes are released into the environment, significant requirements
in the attainment of sustainable development. The ethical considerations needed
in meeting the needs of the current generation without compromising the wants
of those who will leave in the future is also attained through maximization of
product quality and minimization of resources wastage that leads to their
conservation. The principle of TQM when effectively implemented can lead to the
attainment of sustainable development.
Total
quality management (TQM) is defined as a management approach that focuses on
the attainment of to long–term success through assuring enhanced customer
satisfaction. Simply put, TQM focuses on the continuous improvements of the
organization’s products and processes with the goal of accomplishing the needs
of the customers. According to Griffin (1998) making quality a concern and a
responsibility of every individual in the workplace, and ensuring that the
consumers are the main focus of the organization results in the attainment of
TQM. For an organization to implement a TQM approach in its management, it is
mandatory thatall the members of an organization participate in improving
processes, products, services, and the culture in which they work.
TQM
is defined as a management approach that focuses on the accomplishment of
maximum quality in business operations and enhanced level of customer
satisfaction. Adopting a customer-focused approach in conducting any activity
within the organization guarantees the attainment of maximum satisfaction.
Also, the engagement of employees in all the business processes and ensuring
their improvement also supports the attainment of TQM. Zhu &Sarkis
(2004) havealso pointed out that TQM
uses effective strategic approach, proper communication and a disciplined
quality culture, such that the resulting outcome of the business processes
adequately meets the needs of the consumers. Different researchers have
presented their views on the meaning and definition of the term “Total quality
management”. While most of them have presented the definition on varying
discourse, the meaning of the words presented remains the same.
TQM drawn from different scholarly studies is a
philosophical management whose primary objective is to integrate all
organizational operations including finance, production, marketing, customer
service, organizational objectives and customer focus (Adam, Flores &
Macias, 2001; Ho et al., 1999; Rampersad, 2001). TQM maintains that all
institutions must continuously strive to improve operations by incorporating
the knowledge as well as worker experiences for optimum output (Ho et al.,
1999). It is an approach for organizations to continuous improvement of
competitiveness, flexibility and effectiveness primarily for stakeholders’
benefit. TQM involves planning, organizing every individual activity that
constitutes such principles as consumer focus, commitment from top management,
training of employees, their involvement, management of operational processes,
supplier team, continuous improvement, quality audit and leadership. According
to Das et al., (2011) these practices offer a competent and valuable ways through
organizations can not only improve its performance but get the employees
involved in decision making. Also, studies on the principles of
TQM have identified different principles; however, the most notable principles
in line with the definition presented are advanced below.
Customer-Focused
The
first principle of TQM is the focus on customers. According to Wagner
&Llerena (2008) customer-focus principle indicates that the
consumers have the last say on the level of quality they desire. As such, the
actions and processes of the organizations must be focused on achieving the
quality as determined by the customers. Also, Matias&Coehlo (2002) have pointed
out that regardless of the approaches implemented by the organization to ensure
it offers quality services and/or products the customer is the main determinant
of quality. The employee training process, the improvement in production
design, purchasing of new tools and upgrading the performance of technical
systems are efforts that can be undertaken to enhance its quality,
nevertheless, the customers have the authority to determine whether the efforts
are worthwhile.
This principle represents the primary considerations
when creating an organizational strategy is consumer needs. According to Samson
& Terziovski (1999), consumer focus is the fundamental principle that firms
consider when implementing TQM. While this is the case, many scholars have argued
that customer focus traps organizations into working on captive markets with
focus only in meeting the demand of an existing market and therefore see the
business in terms of the existent consumer perception. As a result, these
organizations may fail to pursue the search for innovative solutions by
ignoring the untapped potential market (Lagrosen, 2001; Flynn, 1995; Das et
al., 2011). TQM further combines the consumer knowledge with other information
and using the planning process to put in order future actions, managing the
daily activities and achieving the organization’s objectives. The process of
planning is the root that holds the TQM activities together. According to Das et al., (2011) the
implementation of TQM by an organization comes with the knowledge that
consumers will only be satisfied if they receive the products and services that
meets their demands at the right time, and with the prices they can afford.
Organizations make use of process management techniques to come up with
processes which control the total overheads. These processes through TQM
consumer focus are stable and with capability to achieve customer expectations
(Das et al., 2011).
Based on stipulations from ISO 9004:2000, the primary
benefits of customer focus include increase in revenues and market share that
come from flexibility and fast responses to the market demands; increased
effectiveness in the use of organizational resources to improve customer
satisfaction and loyalty that bring about repeat business (Kaynak, 2003). The
principle of consumer focus pushes the organization to invest in research and
design with the aim to understand the customer needs as well as their
expectations. Additionally, customer focus ensures that the organizational
objectives are linked to their demands and expectations, communication with the
consumers and those within the organization (Agus, 2004). Organization
objectives under the customer needs clause in the ISO 9001: 2000 states that
identification of consumer demands and expectations once determined sees the
conversation of the product requirements with emphasis and energy being put to
meet the consumer needs (Fotopoulos et al, 2010).
Management
Leadership
Management leadership principle is one of the primary
drivers of TQM. It has significant effect on the effectiveness of TQM on
organizational performance (Soltani, 2005). Management leadership is defined as
the guidance and supervision that comes from the management level of an
organization. The management level gives the required resources to train
employees with the aim to meet the ever changing consumer demands and
consequently develop a conducive environment in which the employees can as well
take part in the production and processes of change (Kaynak, 2003; Flynn et
al., 1995). Flynn et al., (1995) further points out that management leadership
is important to influence the decision while making a selection of qualified
suppliers and when certifying them for quality products. According to Deming,
(1986) management is responsible for product design mentoring and putting into
consideration the market demands as well as consumer needs.
Evidence from empirical research points out that top
management is of huge significance as it guides organizational activities
towards being better (Schneider & George, 2011). According to Young et al.,
(2001) top level management guides and directs organization to put TQM into
place. An argument by Young et al (2002) is that being an institutional aspect,
leadership has huge impact on TQM and implementation in the long run.
Management leadership is necessary to ensure that any managerial and innovative
ideas are put in place with the aim to boost the organizational performance.
The commitment by the top management according to Dwyer (2002) is strongly
associated with quality management. Efficiency based on his findings is primary
as it gives an organization its competitive advantage only in places where
there is commitment by staff. This implies that leaders play a rudimental role
in the increased performance as they proactively assume constructive attitude
that constantly shapes the landscape of competition and steers an organization
to the desired course (Young et al., 2001).
Management leadership from the persepective of TQM
posses transformational attributes. These attributes include inspirational
motivation, ultimate influence, logical stimulation and personalized
consideration. According to Schneider & George (2011) top management
inspires transformational leadership which influence other employees to pursue
goals and increase confidence as well as job performance among the employees.
Transformational leadership in an organizational context significantly relates
to the firm getting commitment by the tem and subsequently an empowered work
environment leading to competitive advantage by the organization because all
the employees are working towards the same goal. One of the significant aspects
from leadership management as Ahire & Dreyfus, (2000) puts it is the
ability to facilitate change. This involves providing a sense of direction and
taking responsibility in embracing as well as supporting change and becoming
the agents of change within in an organization. Total quality management is
achieved through effective leadership when the top management fosters positive
team environment for productivity and better organizational performance
(Schneider & George, 2011).
Conclusively, top management in TQM leads through
unity of purpose by putting in place appropriate policies on quality,
establishing measurable objectives and demonstrating full commitment to the
development process, sustaining and continuous improvement of quality
management systems. Drawing from the literature, organizational leadership has
the capacity as well as authority to create and keep an organization’s internal
environment. Top management through the development of clear organizational
vision challenges the whole team by setting goals that need to be met at a
given time. They also give prerequisite resources such as training and staff
development to encourage, inspire and reward their contributions towards the
organizational goals. The management therefore ensure that all activities
required to undertake TQM comprehensive is put in action without due delays.
Total Employee Involvement
TQM
management approach also advocates for total employee involvement in the
management process. According to Hill &Huq (2004) all employees must
participate in the processes design to assist the company maintains a quality
level that will be satisfactory to the customers. In order to ensure that the
employees are engaged in the business activities, the management should foster
empowerment and eliminate any form of fear from the organization. Also,
empowerment can aid the company accomplish total employee commitment such that
they are fully involved in the actions and activities of the organization. Provision
of high-performing systems, a suitable working environment and self-managed
teams ensures will promote total employee commitment.
Management of employees contributes largely to the
success of every project in an organization (Kaynak, 2003). Top leaders through
TQM take personal responsibility during the implementation, promotion and
monitoring of every little activity in the organization. This way, the
employees are properly trained and are capable of actively taking part in the
company operations and subsequently achievement of the objectives. Employees
through TQM work together to create a firm value environment and giving
everyone a primal role. This principle gives the employees the ability to
measure and make use of data effectively and efficiently (Ahire & Dreyfus, 2000).
According to a research by Ho et al. (2001), elements of human resources
including employee relation, employee training positively relates to quality
improvement that comes from the use of quality data and subsequently reports.
For TQM to be a success, the collaboration as well as coordination between
workforces of an organization is paramount. Success comes from deep
understanding by the employees of the principles and philosophies of TQM.
TQM in an organization makes the employees highly
conscious of the data as well as reporting controls prepared by working staff
which makes it easy to uncover the reality and therefore mitigate any possible
flaws in operations. By so doing, research points out that the management of
human resources provides a positive effect on the production of quality data as
well as reporting (Ahire & Dreyfus, 2000; Ho et al., 1999). Employee
involvement brings about a number of benefits including motivation, commitment
by the employees to the company mission, innovation from their part and
accountability among them all of which pushes the organization to better
performance. Additionally, employee involvement opens a discussion channel
where employees can openly raise their concerns, share their experiences and
knowledge and actively seek opportunities to improve their competence. All
these enhance organizational performance.
Employee involvement implies sharing of knowledge,
encouraging employees through incentives and recognizing their efforts by
letting them contribute to issues raised (Lawler et al., 1992). It further
involves making use of their experience as well as operating with honesty. As a
principle of TQM, involving employees creates awareness among them and informs
them of the significance of meeting the demands by the market. By making use of
this TQM principle, persons in an organization can identify their performance
constraints, can evaluate the same and set their standards purposely for
improvement. By so doing, they actively and consistently look for opportunities
that will improve their competence and are able to freely share their knowledge
and experience of the same. Conclusively, employee involvement acts as a
foundation to employee motivation and as an approach to enhance their
creativity as well as innovation by providing an environment where persons can
own their mistakes and problems, and take full charge of their
responsibilities. This pushes the company performance a notch higher.
Process-centered
A
fundamental principle of TQM is its focus on business process. According to Barkemeyer, Holt,
Preuss& Tsang (2014) business process consists of all the steps from
the acquisition of raw materials to release of the finished product to the
consumers. The procedure undertaken in converting the raw materials to the final
products forms the business process. The processing stages are well-defined and
their performance measures are continually determined to ascertain the
effectiveness of every stage.
Integrated System
Companies
mostly consist of different functionalities that are organized in vertically
organized departments. These functionalities are what lead to the attainment of
the organizational goals; however, the departments are also interconnected with
horizontal processes that are the major focus on TQM management approach.
According to Lozano
(2015) the micro-processes in an organization sum-up to make aggregated
business processes. The effectiveness of the integration of the processes
determines the attainment of quality products. TQM management approach
advocates for the attainment of a maximum quality from the production process,
thus recommends a highly integrated business process. Apart from just a highly
integrated system, every employee within the organization is required to
undertake and understand the vision, principles, objectives, policies and
critical processes of the organization, to be able to work effectively within
the highly integrated system.
Strategic and Systematic Approach
Strategic
and systematic is also a critical component of TQM. The process of strategic
planning, and management must be included in the management of the
organization’s business activities. Also, there must be proper inclusion of a
strategic approach in the management of the business activities, including
working towards accomplishing the company’s goals, and objectives. The
strategic management approach entails the formulation of a strategic plan in
accordance with the company, vision and mission, followed with highlighting of
the business goals and objectives that the company desires to attain.
Continual Improvement
Another
fundamental of TQM is continual improvement. The processes within an
organization can only operate effectively and efficiently when are subjected to
a continual improvement process. According to Zhu &Sarkis (2004) the continual improvement process allows for
an enhancement of innovations and creativity amongst the A major thrust of TQM
is continual process improvement. Continual improvement drives an organization
to be both analytical and creative in finding ways to become more competitive
and more effective at meeting stakeholder expectations.
Continuous improvement as a principle of TQM includes
the involvement of staff in every organizational level and entities in
activities that seek to improve the distinctive capabilities of an organization
(Rampersad, 2001). Considering the ever changing expectations and preferences
from the consumers, raising the quality of a product is fundamental to the
success of an organization. According to Rampersad (2001) continuous
improvement therefore does not only seek to meet the demands, but be able to
meet them as they change with time. One of the fundamental aspects that this
principle consider is that, when consumers are selecting and assessing the
quality of a product is that they do not only do so in comparison with the
previous quality, but with the present quality produced by other competing
organizations (Fotopoulos et al., 2010). For this reason, QM is primarily
concerned with the strategic levels and productivity in this principle.
Continuous improvements therefore aim at improving the company results as well
as the capabilities to produce better results in the coming future.
One of the approaches used to help organizations to
fulfil this principle; the plan-to-do-study-act (Ahmed & Ravichandran,
2002). This is a four phase life cycle that guides organizations on the
appropriate activities that will see them accomplish sustainable operations
over time. It is a never ending process. The first activity is plan, which
implies that top leaders in an organization must be in a position to evaluate
every little process while developing plans based on these problems. This way,
they can document every little procedure, data collected and problems
identified with a purpose to develop an improvement plan with specific measures
that evaluates performance on the problems and better options to execute these
plans. Do being the second phase in the life cycle documents all these changes
made and the collected data for purposes of evaluation. Study, the third phase
puts together the documented information that is to be used in the development
of a plan by looking at the possible approaches in every situation. Act is the
last phase of the cycle which involves taking actions based on the results from
the three phases already put in place. By putting in place all these phases,
organizations are able to continuously improve their performance and be able to
consistently meet the consumer needs by developing products based on their
demands while overcoming the challenges (Flynn et al., 1995).
Waste
Reduction
Waste can be defined as surplus resources, or anything
beyond the minimum amount (Rawabdeh, 2005). According to Rawabdeh (2005), there
are seven categories of waste. These categories include overproduction,
inappropriate processing, production defects, time used to wait for materials,
unnecessary motion waste, unnecessary inventory and transport. All of these
raises the costs of operations and adversely affects an organization’s
productivity as well as performance. Attempts to identify and get rid of waste
can bring down the cost of operations, save time and reallocate resources which
would go waste profit generating activities. Rawabdeh (2005) further mentioned
that these types of waste have effects on each other by different weights. He
points out that overproduction and defective wastes have the hugest influence
on the company operations compared to the other types of waste. Another way
from which waste can be generated is from the office such as paper and
electricity and solid waste (Denton, 1996; Pit et al., 2002).
One of the lean ways through waste can be reduced and
eliminated through TQM is the use of environmental management system. EMS is a
management system that organizations put to use with the primary purpose to
control the impact of an organization’s activities on the environment (Zaman,
2015). This system manages waste by
monitoring and checking an organization’s performance from the perspective of
the environment with the aim to enhance its long-term finance performance by
creating processes and products that improves the performance of an
organization. Lean approach from the EMS integrates management of the
environment into the company’s daily operations, planning as well as other
quality management systems (Chavan, 2005). According to Watson et al., (2004)
the cost of quality framework points out to four types of cost that come with
internal failure cost including disposal of waste and clean-up of the
environment costs, cost on the environment as a result of pollution and the
market share loss because of the consumer perception on poor environmental
image of the organization.
The existence of TQM based systems in an organization
encourages the development and acceptance of these management systems.
Organizations make use of TQM approaches to develop a system broad and
integrated approach that reduces and eliminates waste during the streaming and
of designs, manufacturing, disposal of waste and use. Waste reduction as a
principle of TQM makes use of integrated systems that sees the development of
waste minimization programs including systems analysis orientation processes
with the primary purpose to reduce inefficiencies and identify problems in
products, data driven apparatus including diagrams as cause and effect,
evaluation of quality diagrams, pareto analysis as well as control charts, team
orientation by making use of employee knowledge to develop solutions that
mitigate waste and therefore increase the overall company performance.
Fact-based decision making
In
order to know how well an organization is performing, data on performance
measures are necessary. TQM requires that an organization continually collect
and analyze data in order to improve decision making accuracy, achieve
consensus, and allow prediction based on past history.
Communications
During
times of organizational change, as well as part of day-to-day operation,
effective communications plays a large part in maintaining morale and in
motivating employees at all levels. Communications involve strategies, method,
and timeliness of the different approaches that the organization seeks to undertake,
an effective communication process is needed in ensuring that the important TQM
principles are adequately communicated to the employees such that they are made
aware of what is expected of them.
The
identified principle of TQM is essential in ensuring total quality with zero
defects is accomplished from the manufacturing process. The principles are so
critical in TQM that they are sometime labeled as values and principles that an
organization must operate under to attain maximum quality out of its many
processes.
2.10.3 Total Quality Management
Principles and Organisational Sustainability
At
the business level, sustainability is achieved when the business entity meets
the needs of its direct and indirect stakeholders, such as customers and the
society respectively, without hindering future generations of stakeholders from
meeting their needs (Dyllikc & Hockets, 2002). For total quality management
to be achieved, the business must follow three sustainability elements of
integrating economic aspects of a business with the environmental and social
aspects in accordance with the Brundtland report. These three elements are
referred to as the “triple-bottom line” elements. Dyllikc and Hockets state
that the concept of total quality management and the organizational
sustainability are complementary aspects that are guided by the following three
principles.
(i)
Principle of Waste Reduction
One
of the fundamental principles of TQM is to increase customer efficiency by
getting rid of all processes that do not add value to the customer or the
product to be purchased by the customer. Waste reduction principle focuses on
getting rid of processes that reduce organizational wastage. King and Lenox
(2001) describe wastage in an organization as any practice, process or material
whose use leads to creation of unusable byproducts. Consequently, the TQM’s
policy of zero wastage encourage prudent and efficient use of resources in a
manner that prevents both wastage and leads to customer satisfaction.
(ii)
Process-Centered Focus
Process-centered
focus emphasizes on quality practices in all steps of the processes. This
principle encourages the attainment of the desired quality from the beginning
to the end of every process. According to King and Lenox (2001) a mistake
committed at the beginning of the process should not be corrected in the later
stages, since it will have negative impacts on the whole process. rather, it
should be corrected at the point of origin and measures taken to avoid its
repetition elsewhere. Similarly, Sawhney et al. (2007) points out that
environmental sustainability should be implemented at the point of origin
rather than finding solutions to counter problems at the end of the process.
(iii)
Involvement and Participation of Employees
Martinez-Jurado
and Moyano-Fuentes (2014) argue that TQM requires the organization to involve
the human resources with the system to create a friendly relationship. The
people need to be trained on how to use tools and equipment as well as employ
techniques aimed at improving their output. Teamwork, workers’ versatility and
group evaluation help in familiarizing the employees with the total quality
management system. Business entities and other organizations should adopt TQM
as part of their organizational culture to improve the principles and practices
of the organization.
Evidence
shows organizations that adopt TQM systems create a conducive environment for
the adoption of environmental policies that promote green manufacturing, hence
achieving desirable environmental performance. Vinodh et al. (2011) points out
that TQM principles and practices have been evidenced to promote attainment of
environmental goals that lead to organizational sustainability. Vinodh further
discusses the relationship between the level of total quality management and
organizational performance. Although many authors (Vinodh et al., 2011; King
& Lenox, 2001) have linked high levels of TQM to organizational performance
and sustainability, a few other authors found negative relationship existed
(Rothenberg et al., 2001).
Critical
Factors for Achieving Economic Sustainability from TQM
Several
authors and researchers have developed critical factors that assist in
achievement of economic sustainability through the use of TQM system. Hines et
al. (2008) explains that focusing on the implementation of a few TQM practices
does not guarantee a firm organization sustainability, therefore, it is vital
that the firm takes steps such as culture change to guide the thinking of the
employees, in a bid to instill the TQM culture in the organization. For an
organization to achieve sustainability, the TQM practices must be implemented
throughout the organization, and this should include the suppliers and other
stakeholders. Besides, the company should have the capacity and capability to
retain the good values that are born out of the implementation of TQM
practices. Further, Hines et al. insists on the need to learn from past
mistakes especially on the part of misdeeds by the workers. The company should
jointly evaluate management’s leadership to ensure it is effective as it is the
pinnacle of the company and is responsible for guiding the implementation of
the TQM system.
Lucey
et at. (2005) addresses the need for a clear and concise vision for the
company. Lucey states that the organization must have a management that
understands the vision of the company and has measures in place to pursue it.
For instance, the management should be quick to communicate changes, consult
various stakeholders when making decisions, outline processes to be followed by
the subordinates and monitor and evaluate processes. The management should
introduce and maintain a high appetite for changes by training the workers to
embrace change.
Turesky
and Connell (2010) address the four stages to implementation of the TQM system.
In the adoption stage, the top
management of the organization introduce and promote the TQM system. This stage
is characterized by continuous communication and training and development. The initial stage deals with creating the
foundation for a healthy TQM system where projects are selected and assigned
personnel to lead them. this stage is characterized by desire to succeed and
management of resistance to change (Turesky & Connell, 2010). The implementation stage deals with the roll
out and implementation of the TQM in the selected projects. Results are closely
observed and recorded. The sustainability
of results stage separates the desirable results from the undesirable ones,
introduces improvements and retaining of the desired traits, results and
processes (Turesky & Connell, 2010).
TQM
has been found to increase efficiency through reduction in materials used and
energy consumed, leading to lower environmental pollution and ultimately saving
the organization resources, hence achieving sustainability. The reduction in
raw materials means the firm uses up less capital for its operations, hence
this is a cost-reducing process. Finally, TQM use of lesser raw materials
reduces pollution, hence helping to protect the environment.
TQM
and Economic Sustainability
Bateman
and David argue that human resources play a major role in the implementation of
the TQM and the retention of the results. The human resources are involved in
the adoption of the TQM culture that allows for the direct involvement of the
personnel in running the organization (Bateman & David, 2002. The process
of achieving sustainable results through TQM is complex as some processes have
to be carried out simultaneously. This makes it hard to imitate the formula
used by another organization. It is important that every organization devises
its own path to follow based on its scope of operations, organizational
culture, industry it is in and the level of TQM required to bring positive
results.
TQM
and Social Sustainability
Getting
improved results is not enough for firms to acquire TQM. Business organizations
have to be responsible of their surroundings by pursuing social equity. They
need to be informed about their impact on the local communities. They need to
have positive impact on the lives of the society by ensuring their operations
are beneficial to the people, by being a sign of motivation to the society, by
taking the suggestions put forward by the society into consideration and
respecting the will of the people. Increased integration between the
organization and the people, both within the organization and those surrounding
the organization, is vital for the success of the entity.
TQM
and Supply Chain Management
TQM
is integrated with supply chain management to help in reducing waste, reducing
the costs of supplies, improving the efficiency of the supply chain and making
the entire process flexible (Martínez-Jurado& Moyano-Fuentes, 2014). The
objective of TQM principles in supply chain is to make the material management,
flow of information and capital and the integration between the suppliers and
the company efficient and effective with the aim of reducing the material
supply and warehousing costs.
Results
of the TQM in supply chain management are realized in the form of
round-the-clock availability of raw materials for production, reduced cost of
purchasing and holding inventory, reduction in the cost of production and
ultimately, a reduction in price of the products or services. Further, there is
improved quality of the products due to the insistence of the right processes,
there is harmony among the employees and wastage of resources is greatly
reduced.
Different
theoretical underpinnings have been put-forth by researchers that attempt to
explain the concept of TQM. Noone (2008) in his article discusses the Deming's
philosophy that pointed out 14-principles to explain how a service-based
organization can accomplish maximum quality from its processes. The identified
principles by the theorists outlined the responsibilities of the management in
ensuring that the employees are able to deliver quality services that exceeds
the expectations of the customers. Other theorists have also presented their
views on the TQM concept indicating its role and effectiveness to an
organization. A discussion of the various TQM theories is advanced herein
Deming Theory
The
theoretical essence of the Deming approach to TQM concerns the creation of an
organizational system that fosters cooperation and learning for facilitating
the implementation of process management practices, which, in turn, leads to
continuous improvement of processes, products, and services as well as to
employee fulfillment, both of which are critical to customer satisfaction, and
ultimately, to firm survival (Anderson et al., 1994a). Deming (1986) communicated
the role of the leaders in change process. According to the theorist leaders
pays an important role in supporting the implementation of TQM, thus have a
huge responsibility of ensuring that the TQM implementation process is a
success. The top managers and the supervisors are responsible for the actions
of the employees, as such, they should provide clear guidance on the approaches
that needs to be undertaken to attain total quality. The management should
offer a guide on acceptable quality standards that the employees must
accomplish in their line of duty. The methodologies to be implemented should
also be conveyed to the employees. Deming (1986) further communicated the
significance of the identification of consumer of consumer needs, development
of a strong supplier relationship, improvement of the employees’ skills and
adoption of a continuous improvement method in production.
While
analyzing the assertions made under the Demining theory, Anderson et al. (1994)
created a theory of quality management based on the Deming management method.
The scholars asserted that the effectiveness of the Deming management method approach
arises from its advocate for enhanced leadership in the development and
implementation of TQM(Zhang et al., 2000). Thus to enhance quality levels in an
organization, one must be able to adequately control and effectively manage the
business processes. Deming (1986) advocated for the use of specific tools and
statistical methods to accomplish proper design and improvement in the
organization’s processes.
The
theorists proposed 14 principles of TQM that when implemented can lead to the
accomplishment of total quality (Deming, 1986). The 14 principles of TQM as
identified by Deming include: (1) developing a purpose to work towards
improvement of product and service quality, (2) adoption of a new philosophy of
change in the organization, (3) refrain from over-dependence on mass control
and inspection of quality, (4) avoid awarding businesses based on one tag,
rather minimize on the production, (5) Improve continuously the production
systemsto attain maximum efficiency and effectiveness in the production
process, (6) adopt on-the job training techniques, (7) Institute effective leadership,
(8) empower the employees, (9) eliminate
any form of barrier with the various departments, (10) avoid targets and focus
on the attainment of zero defects , (11) Eliminate the adoption of work
standards rather focus on leadership, (12) abolish merit takings (13) Initiate a vigorous
self-education program for self-improvement, (14) Involve every employee in the
production process. The above mentioned 14 principles, according to Deming can
lead to the attainment of Total quality if effectively implemented.
Juran’s theory
According
to the theory proposed by Juran, TQM is a system of management that is
concerned with directing and managing activities to attain delighted customers,
highly empowered employees, increase in revenues, and lower costs (Juran&Gryna,
1993). Juran believed that major quality problems in an organization are caused
by the management not workers. The attainment of total quality in an
organization requires proper management of activities in all functions of a company.
A constant and wide assessment of quality, the supplier quality management
approach, the use of statistical approaches and quality information system are
vital in quality improvement. Juran’s approach emphasizes on team (QC circles
and self-managing teams) and project work that can lead to the attainment of quality
improvement, effective communication between the employees and the management. The
theorists also emphasized on the significance of leadership commitment,
employee empowerment and recognition and provision of rewards as essential
principles of TQM that can be adopted to improve the quality performance of a
firm.
According
to Juran, understanding the needs of the customer is also an important aspect
of TQM management. The customers’ requirements are applicable to the design,
marketing, services and manufacturing techniques. Identifying the needs of the
customer requires a vigorous analysis and a proper understanding to ensure that
the products being manufactured attain the needs and wants of the customers.
Also, needs and is fit for its intended use, not just meeting product
specifications.Thus, market research is essential for identifying customers’ needs.
In order to ensure design quality, he proposed the use of techniques including
quality function deployment, experimental design, reliability engineering and
concurrent engineering.
Juran
considered quality management as three basic processes (Juran Trilogy): Quality
control, quality improvement, and quality planning. In his view, the approach
to managing for quality consists of: The sporadic problem is detected and acted
upon by the process of quality control; the chronic problem requires a different
process, namely, quality improvement; Such chronic problems are traceable to an
inadequate quality planning process. Juran defined a universal sequence of
activities for the three quality processes, which is listed in Table 2.1. Juran
defined four broad categories of quality costs, which can be used to evaluate
the firm’s costs related to quality. Such information is valuable to quality
improvement. The four quality costs are listed as follows:
·
Internal failure costs (scrap, rework,
failure analysis, etc.), associated with defects found prior to transfer of the
product to the customer
·
External failure costs (warranty charges,
complaint adjustment, returned material, allowances, etc.), associated with
defects found after product is shipped to the customer
·
Appraisal costs (incoming, in-process, and
final inspection and testing, product quality audits, maintaining accuracy of
testing equipment, etc.), incurred in determining the degree of conformance to
quality requirements
·
Prevention costs (quality planning, new
product review, quality audits, supplier quality evaluation, training, etc.),
incurred in keeping failure and appraisal costs to a minimum
Crosby Theory
Crosby
(1979) identified a number of important principles and practices for a
successful quality improvement program, which include, for example, management
participation, management responsibility for quality, employee recognition,
education, reduction of the cost of quality (prevention costs, appraisal costs,
and failure costs), emphasis on prevention rather than after-the-event
inspection, doing things right the first time, and zero defects. Crosby claimed
that mistakes are caused by two reasons: Lack of knowledge and lack of attention.
Education and training can eliminate the first cause and a personal commitment
to excellence (zero defects) and attention to detail will cure the second.
Crosby also stressed theimportance of management style to successful quality
improvement. The key to qualityimprovement is to change the thinking of top
managers-to get them not to accept mistakes and defects, as this would in turn
reduce work expectations and standards in their jobs.
Understanding,
commitment, and communication are all essential. Crosby presented the quality
management maturity grid, which can be used by firms to evaluate their quality management
maturity. The five stages are: Uncertainty, awakening, enlightenment, wisdom and
certainty. These stages can be used to assess progress in a number of
measurement categories such as management understanding and attitude, quality
organization status, problem handling, cost of quality as percentage of sales,
and summation of firm quality posture. The quality management maturity grid and
cost of quality measures are the main tools for managers to evaluate their
quality status. Crosby offered a 4-step program that can guide firms in
pursuing quality improvement. These steps are listed as follows: Management
commitment, Quality improvement team, Quality measurement, and Cost of quality
Feigenbaum’s theory
Feigenbaum
(1991) defined TQM5 as an effective system for integrating the quality development,
quality-maintenance, and quality-improvement efforts of the various groups in a
firm so as to enable marketing, engineering, production, and service at the
most economical levels which allow for full customer satisfaction. He claimed
that effective quality management consists of four main stages, described as
follows:
Setting
quality standards
Appraising
conformance to these standards
Acting
when standards are not met
Planning
for improvement in these standards
The
quality chain, he argued, starts with the identification of all customers’
requirements and end only when the product or service is delivered to the
customer, who remains satisfied. Thus, all functional activities, such as
marketing, design, purchasing, manufacturing, inspection, shipping,
installation and service, etc., are involved in and influence the attainment of
quality. Identifying customers’ requirements is a fundamental initial point for
Feigenbaum, he used the term TQC (total quality control) instead of TQM in his
book. He claimed that it permits what might be called total quality management
to cover the full scope of the product and service “life cycle” from product conception
through production and customer service. According to ISO 8402 – Quality management
and quality assurance – vocabulary, TQM is sometimes called “total quality”,
“company-wide quality control”, “total quality control”, etc.
He
claimed that effective TQM requires a high degree of effective functional
integration among people, machines, and information, stressing a system
approach to quality. A clearly defined total quality system is a powerful foundation
for TQM. Total quality system is defined as follows: The agreed firm-wide
operating work structure, documented in effective, integrated technical and
managerial procedures, for guiding the coordinated actions of the people, the
machines, and the information of the firm in the best and most practical ways
to assure customer quality satisfaction and economical costs of quality. Feigenbaum
emphasized that efforts should be made toward the prevention of poor quality rather
than detecting it after the event. He argued that quality is an integral part
of the day-today work of the line, staff, and operatives of a firm. There are
two factors affecting product quality: The technological-that is, machines,
materials, and processes; and the human-that is, operators, foremen, and other
firm personnel. Of these two factors, the human is of greater importance by
far. Feigenbaum considered top management commitment, employee participation,
supplier quality management, information system, evaluation, communication, use
of quality costs, use of statistical technology to be an essential component of
TQM. He argued that employees should be rewarded for their quality improvement
suggestions, quality is everybody’s job. He stated that effective employee
training and education should focus on the following three main aspects:
Quality attitudes, quality knowledge, and quality skills.
Ishikawa’s theory to TQM
Ishikawa
(1985) theory asserts that quality management goes beyond the material product
and involves the after-sales services. The scholar claimed that the success of
a firm is highly dependent on treating quality improvement as a never-ending
quest. A commitment to continuous improvement can ensure that people will never
stop learning. He advocated employee participation as the key to the successful
implementation of TQM. Quality circles, he believed, are an important vehicle
to achieve this. Like all other gurus he emphasized the importance of
education, stating that quality begins and ends with it (Ishikawa, 1985).
Ishikawa used the term TQC (total quality
control) instead of TQM in his book. According to ISO 8402 – Quality management
and quality assurance – vocabulary, TQM is sometimes called “total quality”,
“company-wide quality control”, “and total quality control”. Ishikawa (1985) suggested that the assessment
of customer requirements serves as a tool to foster cross-functional
cooperation; selecting suppliers should be on the basis of quality rather than
solely on price; cross-functional teams are effective ways for identifying and solving
quality problems. Ishikawa’s concept of TQM contains the following six fundamental
principles:
·
Quality first-not short-term profits
first;
·
Customer orientation-not producer
orientation;
·
The next step is your customer-breaking
down the barrier of sectionalism;
·
Using facts and data to make
presentations-utilization of statistical methods;
·
Respect for humanity as a management
philosophy, full participatory management;
·
Cross-functional management.
The
TQM framework should be built upon a set of core values and concepts. These values
and concepts provide foundation for integrating the key performance
requirements within the quality framework. The fundamental core values that
form the building block of TQM management include quality culture and effective
leadership, proper employee participation, continuous improvement of the
company’s operational system (Juran and Gryna 1980) theory holds that quality
circles utilize organized approaches to problem solving and operate on the
principle that employee participation in decision-making and problem solving
improves the quality of work.
Thapa
(2011) stated that Total Quality Management (TQM) is the latest in a parade of models,
recipes, programs, frameworks, and slogans for guiding academic reform. It
provides a tool to help ensure this quality. The management in TQM means
everyone is the manager of their own responsibilities because everyone in the
institution, whatever their status, position or role is. Information and
technologies have brought sea changes in education and has therefore changed
the interpretation of the term quality. TQM advocates that everything and
everybody in the organization is involved in the academic institutions for continuous
improvement.
TQM
is only one of many approaches to getting work done and accomplishing goals.
Several experiences have shown that by using a TQM approach, organizations can
increase their capacity to do work, increase the quality of work done and, at
the same time, hold staffing levels and budgets at historical levels. This is
possible because: The organization recognizes that the vast majority of
problems are caused by people doing the wrong things right: work that should never
be done, even though it is done very well. The organization recognizes that
those problems are caused by ineffective systems and procedures. That
recognition extends to the belief that the people who do the work are best able
to fix these systems and procedures. The organization recognizes that in order
to unleash the talents of everyone in the company, people must be provided with
opportunities to learn new skills and to practice those skills. The organization
also believes that given the opportunity, people willingly participate in
designing the organization of the future.
Philip
Crosby (1979) in his study reported that quality is neither intangible nor immeasurable.
Rather, it is a strategic imperative that can be used to improve the bottom
line. According to the scholar quality means "conformance tothe set requirements,"
not "goodness. Defining quality as conformance to the set standards and
requirement means that it is not subjective. Any product or service that
conforms to the requirements is thus considered to be of a high quality.
The
requirement that must be met to achieve the desired quality level is based on
customer expectations and the integration of the work process flow. In most
cases the customer expectations are expressed in terms of the convenience of
the product or service offered, its comfort, ease of use, and aesthetics value.
The suppliers are expected to use the knowledge of the manufacturing process
and the needs of the customers to avail products that are highly acceptable.
A
researcher in the quality literature can experiences bafflement in the meaning
of TQM and the differences between TQM and quality associated activities such
as quality assurance, quality control and quality management. This confusion
leads, in many cases, to the use of these expressions interchangeably.
Therefore, it is very important to have a clear definition and understanding of
each of these concepts. Total quality management (TQM) is the system of
activities directed at achieving delighted customers, empowered employees,
higher revenues, and reduced costs (Juran, 1995). On the other hand, quality control
refers to the constant check on the product to identify any form of defects.
This is followed with the engagement of the quality assurance team that focuses
on elimination of the defects.
The
concept of TQM begun in the 1920s as the scientific management principles
became evident in the US industry. The business processes within the
organization and the planning of the strategic approaches become distinct
leading to the formation of worker unions that were to fights against the poor
working conditions bestowed in different institutions. According to Zhang et al
(2000) experiments conducted during the times indicated how workers were
subjected to unjustified harsh working conditions that had significant negative
implications on their productivity.
In
the year 1930s, Walter Shewhart developed a method that could be used to
control and manage quality in the organizations. The aim of the scholar was to
ensure that the employees working in any business enterprises maintain the
provision of quality services irrespective of the harsh working conditions.
Further development led to the creation of a statistical method in the 1950s,
by Edwards Deming that were used for teaching of control mechanisms and techniques
that can be employed by engineers and executives working in the various
Japanese automotive companies.
The
happenings in the 1950s can be considered the main origin of the TQM concept. According
to Powell (1995) the formation of a union by Japanese scientists and engineers
market the initial point of the emergence of the TQM concept. The union
consisted of scholars and government officials who were mainly focused on
enhancing the productivity of the country. Scholars such as Joseph Juran and
Edwards Deming taught the statistical methods that could be implemented in
quality control. Also, ArmanFeigenbaum published a book on the concept of total
quality control, a book that has been continuously used for the present
understanding of the concept of TQM. During the same time, Phillip Crosby was
engaged in teaching and promoting the need for zero defects in any
manufacturing process. The implications were enhanced quality levels in the
various manufacturing plants. As Zhu &Sarkis (2004) indicates, the many
activities that occurred during the period and the seriousness of most of
scholars in creating awareness on the concept justifies why the period of 1950s
is considered the main origin of the TQM concept.
In
the 1960s, the Japanese named their strategy in quality management as “quality
control” it was during the same period that the term “quality management
system” arose since it was used to define the approaches undertaken by the
management to ensure that they operations and activities are conducted in an
effective manner to attain maximum quality. The synthesis of the quality
control concept by Kaoru Ishikawa during the same period further contributed to
the creation of awareness and communication of the importance of the quality
control concept (Zhu &Sarkis, 2004). In fact, the Japanese were able to
ascend into quality leadership and ambassadors for the campaign on quality
management in the various manufacturing firms.
Currently
TQM is referred to as a broad philosophy and a systematic approach adopted in
the management of an organization’s quality. According to Hill &Huq (2004) the
concept refers to the adherence to the quality standard such as ISO 9000 series
and the ability of the organization to manage its activities and processes in a
way that enhanced consumer satisfaction is accomplished. Apart from adhering to
the set quality standards, attaining a high quality in the operations of the
organization can be determined by a company receiving quality awards such as the
Deming and the MalcohnBaldrige awards. Adhering to all the principles as
outlined in the TQM framework also justifies that the organization has attained
maximum quality in its operations and processes.
Prior
to the emergence of the TQM concept, most companies including the Japanese
firms focused on quality control. According to Stuelpnagel (1993) most of the
principles of TQM as identified today were adopted by the early companies prior
to the emergence of the TQM concept. As such, it may not be easy to accurately
establish the date of the emergence of the TQM concept. However, as Bemowski
(1992) points out, the term TQM begun with the Naval Air system commanders in
the 1980s when they gave a description of the Japanese approach in quality
management and improvement. While the Japanese termed the process “quality
control” the commanders offered a broader definition and saw it more as a
management approach as opposed to a control approach. Perhaps, the emergence of
the TQM concept can be the replacement of the term “control” with the word
“management”.
The
reasoning that quality is not just a control process within an organization, it
was important that the management term is incorporated to achieve the TQM
concept. As reported by Deming’s (1982) control is not needed when the goal of
the organization is to achieve zero defect level in the manufacturing process. Holding
the same view, Crosby (1979) also posited that the word control is not clearly
understood since it can be used to mean control over the business activities,
an assumption that is clearly not the goal of the TQM concept, thus the reason
for labeling the concept as a management approach.
The
concept of TQM emerged as a result of the actions and the management approach
undertaken by the Japanese firms. In the USA, the development of quality
management occurred following the penetration of the Japanese products into the
USA economy. In the early 1970s, the Japanese products got entry into the USA
market due to their enhanced level of quality and performance. Coupled with the
writings of the early scholars who focused on communicating the importance of
the concept to manufactures the knowledge on the TQM concept and its perceived
benefits reached the USA market. The movement was explored to other nations
leading to companies within the UK considering the implementation of the
concept in their management process.
Significant
researchers contributed towards the development of the TQM concept and creation
of understanding of its principles and goals. As much as most scholars have
provided near similar findings on the principles and benefits of the concepts,
significant contradictions are evident in their belief on the origin of the
concept. While most researcher who took their researcher in the 1960s believe
that the concept emerged in 1950s, following the description of the approach
undertaken to describe the Japanese quality management systems, some argues
that the concept was non-existing in those early years. Dale who undertook his
study after the year 1981 believed that the concept TQM emerged in the UK,
following the actions of the Department of National Quality Campaign. A similar
discussion has also been put forth by Jonh MacDonald’s who argued that he was
the first scholar to use the term TQM in his communication, before it was
picked and analyzed by other scholars. Despite the contradictions on the origin
of the term TQM, it can be noted that quality related terms emerged in the
early years. As much as the users and advocated for enhanced quality in
organization’s did not stress the management concept when analyzing quality,
their intention and desire have been vividly outlined in the current TQM
concept. As such, regardless of the different terms used in defining quality in
the context of organizational operations, it can be deduced that they all
upheld a similar meaning, ensuring that the company’s processes are of higher
quality that meets the set standards and assures the attainment of a higher
level of customer satisfaction.
The
use of the term TQM in literature was limited in the 1980s. As much as it can
be argued that the concept emerged in the early years and was used by various
scientist the use of the term by academic scholars cannot be justified.
According to Benavides-Velasco,
Quintana-García&Marchante-Lara (2014) a sample of papers written on
quality management in the 1980s indicates that term such as quality management,
total quality, and total quality management are rarely used in the papers.
However, in the 1990s, the concept of TQM became more widespread and reached
its peak in 1993, when most companies wanted to improve the quality of their
processes, presenting the need for more comprehensive information on the same.
As much as there was a decline in the amount of papers on TQM after the year
1993, the campaigns on sustainability have led to the re-emergence of
literature on TQM. Today, information on the importance of TQM, on enhancing
performance and promoting sustainability are presented to create awareness on how
to implement the concept, and its expected benefits to the organization.
Critical
success factors refer to the drivers that promote the attainment of total
quality in an organization. On the other hand, inhibitors are factors that
prevent a corporation from achieving the desired quality level in its
operations that will ensure it adequately meet the needs of the customers. Chistos&Evangelos
(2010) in their study obtained that major TQM drivers are the quality
management practices adopted by the leadership, the extent of employee
involvement in the organization’s processes, the ability of the company to
focus on the customers, and the proper management of the organization’s
processes and data. Also, the scholar reported that adoption of quality tools
and sophisticated techniques in the production process also supports the
attainment of total quality. In support of the above assertion Barkemeyer, Holt,
Preuss& Tsang (2014) indicated that adhering with the identified
practices ensures that the company achieves maximum quality in its operations
that will translate into satisfaction of the customers, thus the attainment of
Total Quality.
Customer Focus
Customer
focus is considered as a fundamental success factors in quality management.
According to LeBoeuf (2000) focusing on the customers means that every employee
and not just those operating in the front office, puts the customer first in
their activities. The idea is to ensure that all activities and end products
are made in line with the needs and requirements of the customers. The planning
for the release or a new product, the acquisition of the raw materials, the
manufacturing process, the marketing approach and the distribution strategy
implemented by the company should focus on the needs of the customers. To
attain a customer-focus approach in management, every employee should uphold
the customer-focus approach in all their undertakings. LeBoeuf (2000) also
emphasize that maintaining a good relationship with the customers and adopting
an effective customer relationship management approach also promotes a
customer-focus approach in management.
In
another study Benavides-Velasco, Quintana-García&Marchante-Lara (2014)
obtained that customer focus is the overriding critical success factor in TQM.
According to the scholar, quality refers to the ability of an organization to
adequately fulfill the needs of the customers. In this regard, the company must
identify the needs presented to be able to offer maximum quality services and
goods. This can only be attained when a customer-focus approach is implemented
in all the actions and activities of the organization. As much as it is not
easy to determine the needs of the customers, it is vital that companies gather
information on the consumer needs and feedbacks on the quality of the existing
products, to identify the possible changes or improvements that the customers
may need (Ferris, 2010).
A committed leadership
As
much as the customer focus is considered a fundamental success factor of TQM,
it can only be attained when all the employees focus on achieving maximum
quality in all their actions. According to Siva et al (2016) TQM advocates for the
engagement of all the employees in the organization processes focused on
achieving maximum quality. The attainment of the same is only possible when the
company in question has a highly committed leadership. All the managers and
supervisors must demonstrate their seriousness in the attainment of quality. Also,
the leaders should ensure that they communicate the principles of TQM to the
employees and its benefits so that they are encouraged to take part in its
implementation.
Cortanda&
Woods (2004) while exploring the role of leadership in promoting the
implementation of TQM pointed out that a quality organizational policy is also
vital in ensuring the TQM principles are implemented. The scholars stated that
leaders are obliged to develop quality policies that communicate the process of
TQM implementation. Also, constant monitoring of the performance achieved is
important in ensuring that deviations from the set norms are spotted and
corrected. As Maxwell (2009) posits effective leadership begins with the
creation of the organization’s objectives and formulation of suitable
strategies needed to ensure that the set objectives are accomplished. As such,
having a highly committed and effective leadership promises the attainment of
the Total quality in organizations.
Involvement and
empowerment of employees
Employee
empowerment refers to the approach undertaking by the management to give more
discretion to the employees. According to Brymer (1991), the process undertaken
to decentralize the decision-making process in an organization such that
autonomy is availed to the subordinates enhances their engagement in the
organization. Thomas &Velthouse (1990) also indicated that empowerment
motivates the employees through instilling a sense of value and encouraging
them to make vital decisions within their place of work. It is also evident
according to Ugboro&Obeng (2000) that empowering employees does not only
give them a sense of ownership of the company’s activities and resources but
also enhances their engagement in the company.
Empowerment
and involvement of the employee is thus important in promoting the attainment
of total quality in the organization. Pearson et al (1995) asserted that the
involvement of the employees enables the company benefits from the quality
services that are availed by the staff. In fact, the benefits are more
pronounced when the employees are involved in forms of teams that give them an
opportunity to freely interact and associate with others, thus promoting
knowledge sharing. Also, empowerment improves the performance of the employees
such that they adequately and effectively undertake various tasks within the
company. Proper involvement and empowerment of employees is thus important for
any company that desires to accomplish total quality in its operations.
Even
though employee empowerment is believed to contribute effectively towards the
attainment of total quality, it must be undertaken appropriately for the
perceived benefit to be realized. According to Hill (1991), it is advisable
that companies communicate the reasons for and the goals of the empowerment
process to avoid ambiguity in their actions. Also, the empowerment programs
should be done to eliminate any form of domination within the workplace. The
unnecessary control powers exhibited by some employees should also be abolished
such that a level ground is created for all the employees (Hill &Huq,
2004). The sharing of responsibilities between the management and the employees
enabled by the empowerment process is essential in flattening the
organizational chart, an endeavor that is fully supported by the TQM management
system.
Effective Communication
Communication
if a key requirement in any management process, TQM is not an exception. With
proper communication, the quality issues can be easily outlined and the appropriate
approaches for corrective measures conveyed. Also, communication can support
the creation of awareness on the TQM principles and the suitable approaches for
their implementation. There is a strong positive correlation between effective
communication and attainment of quality in organizations (Burroughs, 2008). TQM
requires effective communication that flows vertically and laterally within an
organization. The buyers and sellers have to communicate effectively, for the
needs of the customers to be understood such that maximum quality is promoted.
The attainment of such an effective communication process assures the
improvement of quality in the organization.
Training
Training
of employees is a prerequisite in TQM. The principle of TQM can only be
understood and properly implemented when there is continuous training of the
employees on the same. According to Kappelman&Prybutok (1995), training
gives the employees an opportunity to understand the TQM goals and to acquire
knowledge and skills needed to ensure the goals are achieved. Also, training
process ensures that the employees are always empowered. Continuous training of
the employees is thus a sure way of ensuring that they work towards the
attainment of zero defects that promoting TQM.
Rewards and recognition
A
system of rewards and recognition improves the motivation levels of the
employees. Taking a positive approach in ensuring that the company’s goals and
objectives are accomplished is essential and likely to yield positive results.
According to Charantimath (2006) looking for good deeds of the employees and
recognizing their efforts through the provision of rewards is important in
motivating them to focus on accomplishing the organization’s goals. Instead of
focusing on the wrong doings of individuals and criticizing them, it is
important to adopt a reward system that acknowledges and offer rewards to the
high level of performance reported by individuals.
Adhering to the set
operational standards
Qualitative
measurement of the performance of an organization is important in ascertaining
the extent of achievement of the set goals. Measurement is significant in
enabling an organization set objectives and priorities as well as evaluate the
effectiveness of the approaches undertaken to execute them. Standards and
measures of all the processes and procedures undertaken by the organization
should be set(Burroughs, 2008). Also, the standards should be set in a way that
they reflect the customer requirements and needs. The role of the standards is
to ensure that the employees are always doing the right thing and that there is
a benchmark that guides the actions of the employees such that no errors are
reported.
The
measurement of the performance levels in an organization is important in
determining the effectiveness of the organization is attainment of its goal.
According to Isaksson
(2006) organizational performance refers to the actual results of an
organization in relation to its intended output. The process of determining the
performance of an organization requires the identification of the
organization’s goals, evaluation of the extent o their attainment and reporting
on the deficiencies observed. Performance types such as financial, operational
and quality exists, however, TQM is more focused on measuring performance in
terms of operational efficiency and employee and consumer satisfaction.
The
relationship evident between TQM and the performance of an organization is based
on the role of quality in enhancing the performance of an organization.
Different studies have focuses on analyzing their form of relationship and
obtained that the performance of most manufacturing companies is influenced by
their TQM levels. According to Das et al (2006), there is a positive
relationship between TQM and organization’s performance. The scholars in their
research found out that the implementation of the TQM principles leads to an
enhanced performance levels. The implementation of principles such as focusing
on the customers, continuously improving the processes of the organization,
adequate involvement of the employees in the execution of tasks and having a
highly committed leadership who embrace the need to accomplish total quality
within the company leads to the achievement of a higher performance levels. The
authors also argued that the provision of rewards and adoption of an effective
recognition system did not only enhance the willingness of the employees to
work towards the attainment of total quality but also positively influenced the
performance of the manufacturing firms.
In
another study by Saleheldin (2008) similar findings were obtained, where the
researchers revealed that the implementation of the TQM principles leads to a
significant positive improvement in the performance of the organization. The
researchers further pointed out that TQM had positive effects on both the
organizational and operational performance of the firm. As much as an
organization takes a customer-focused approach in the management of its
business activities, the possibility of reporting a higher level of performance
is high. Also Burroughs (2008) has argued that continuous improvement of all
the processes from the acquisition of raw materials to the release of the final
product into the market leads to the attainment of a higher product value and
enhanced customer satisfaction that positively contributes towards the
attainment of a higher performance.
From
a different perspective Sadikoglu&Olcay (2014)discovered that the different
principles of TQM have varying implications on the performance of an
organization. The most significant principle that has positive implications on
the performance of the organization is customer focus. Also, the researchers pointed
out that the lack of employee involvement in the organization’s activities and
the lack of appropriate firm infrastructure were barriers to the implementation
of TQM leading to the lower level of performance. Abuzaid (2015) while looking
at the effects of TQM on the firm performance taking the case of a hospital
obtained that a highest focus of the hospital in TQM practices led to the
higher level of performance that was reported. Also, the customer orientation
processes, supplier management and the nature of support availed by the
leadership of the hospital also contributed significantly towards the
attainment of a positive performance. The implementation of TQM therefore
assures the attainment of a higher level of financial performance.
Most
managers have recognized that the concept of TQM is useful in assisting them
generate quality products and minimize on their operational costs. According to
Atkinson et
al (2014) focusing on the needs of the customers and working towards
attainment of maximum quality ensures that only those products that will meet
the needs of the customers and that will be highly acceptable to the targeted
consumer is developed. In this regard, the company is avail high value product
that will not only accrue maximum sales, but will also attract more customers
into making purchase. The evolvement of TQM as a philosophy has provided a
significant opportunity for the management to identify the best principles that
are likely to promise the attainment of a higher performance levels
(Sadikoglu&Olcay, 2014). The role of TQM practices and principles in improving
production efficiency, eliminating wastes, reducing production costs and reducing
leads time thus justifies the ability of the concept to enhance the performance
of an organization.
As
much as TQM provides an opportunity for enhanced level of performance and
competitiveness it does not promise the continuous attainment of improved
profitability. According to Tena et al (2001) most companies have failed to
register a sustained profitability even with the implementation of the TQM
practices. However, as Abuzaid (2015) reported a higher level of performance
and sustained profitability is only evident when the company effectively
implements the TQM practices and principles. The idea is to accomplish all the
quality standards from the beginning of the production process to ensure the
higher performance desired is achieved.
TQM
offers significant benefits to both the organization and the consumer.
According to Li (2013) TQM can be adopted to ensure that the needs of the
customers are met and to guarantee the provision of quality services to the
same consumers. TQM approach also provides an opportunity for the customers to
seek for compensation if they feel that the services offered are not worth the
value received. Such cases as discovered by Sadikoglu&Olcay (2014) are more
evident in the banking sector where customers receive some payments when they
stay longer in the queue or receive poor service. TQM thus ensures that the
consumers are highly satisfied.
TQM
can also be implemented to ensure the customers receive just in time delivery
of services of products. According to Das et al (2006) the engagement of the
suppliers and the employees in the production process assures the timely
production of the goods needed by the customers, thus a timely delivery is
inevitable. Also, TQM suggests the use of the very best services providers,
thus all the company’s activities are likely to be of higher quality. The
adoption of TQM in management is not only beneficial to the organization but
also supports the accomplishment of the needs of many consumers.
Despite
the identified perceived benefits of TQM, the concept is not without some form
of criticism. According to Burroughs (2008) TQM is not new and is just another
approach of management. As such, the possibility of the concept in
revolutionizing the manufacturing process is minimal. Taking a customer
approach in management, upon which the consumers determines the quality of the
product, the price and the functions to be undertaken within the organization
posits the company as a subordinate to its clientele base (Maletič, 2013)..
Also, TQM is seen as a management approach under which the employees are given
much power to act towards accomplishing the needs of the consumer. While some
scholars may argue that the approach is effective and associated with increased
organizational performance, others such as Tena et al (2001) have disputed the claim
stating that TQM is just and entrepreneurial spirit undertaken by organizations
to empower its employees. It has nothing to do with improving the performance
of the organization, since in an environment that the customer dictates the
occurrence within the company; more mistakes are prone to occur.
Other
scholars have criticized the concept of TQM as an approach undertaken to just
test the efficiency and effectiveness of the production process. Also, the
scholars argue that the assumption that the management approach promises the
attainment of maximum quality is false. To them, the quality standards and
manufacturing processes cannot be dictated by the happenings without the
organization. The views and ideas presented by the consumers
Most
quality focused firms embrace the concept of TQM in their management. The
pursuant of the ISO 9000 certification and the adherence with the principles of
TQM ensures that the company embraces a customer-centric approach in
management. TQM is based on the philosophy that the operations and activities
of an organization should be managed in a way that they resulting product or
services offered to the customers exceeds their expectation (Abuzaid, 2015).
Adherence to the set organizational and international standards of operation
ensures that the desired maximum quality is attained to meet the needs and the
requirements of the customers.
Elimination
of any form of defect during the production process is the ultimate goal of a
TQM management approach. The emphasis on the attainment of maximum quality with
zero defects means that the companies that employ the concept register lower
amounts of defects in their manufacturing process (Feigenbaum, 1983). Minimization
of defect is considered a major requirement in companies, especially those
operating in the manufacturing sector. The need by these companies to minimize
the amount of defects from their operation has spurred the implementation of
the TQM concept as currently evident in most companies (Matias&Coehlo,
2002).
The
association of TQM and sustainability is based on its elements that focus on
achieving maximum production efficiency and minimization of defects. According
to the statistical process control supported in the TQM management system and
the innovations to accomplish maximum quality are the TQM factors that
contribute to sustainability, thus the linkage between the two concepts.
According to Oakland (2003), statistical control process is a technique
implemented by an organization to control and monitor the manufacturing
processes of the company. The technique allows for the organizational processes
to operate in a maximum potential and the right consistency to avail a product
that will conform to the requirements of the customers. Statistical process
control is a TQM technique that ensures minimal wastes are released during the
manufacturing products by availing highly conforming products. The technique
can be applied in any business process however; proper planning process with
the management of the company and the employees is required for the desired
outcome to be attained.
The
fact that the Statistical process control technique supports the minimization
of wastes means that it contribute significantly towards the attainment of
sustainability. According to Sadikoglu &Olcay (2014) the technique supports
the detection of any form of defects at the early stages of the manufacturing
process such that minimal wastes are released at the completion stage. Apart
from just minimizing the amounts of physical wastes released into the
environment, the technique also minimizes the lead time of the manufacturing
process, and the recycling time causing significant improvement in the
efficiency of the production process. Waste management and production
efficiency are some of the goals of sustainability and sustainable development,
thus the existence of a technique within the TQM system that supports the same
justifies the positive association between sustainability and TQM.
Lean
production is likely to lead to green production. TQM supports improvement of
process efficiency through innovation and reduction of wastes. The implication
of the innovative and waste reduction is a significant reduction in the adverse
effects of the manufacturing process on the environment. According to Porter
and Van der Linde (1995), the view of environmental pollution and degradation
as a process inefficiency marked the emergence of quality revolution. Many
scholars believed that the inclusion of quality in their management process
will not only lead to an improvement in the efficiency of the production
process but will also minimize the rate of pollution. According to Zhu
&Sarkis (2004) TQM is regarded as a management approach that is consistent
with waste and cost reduction, thus suitable in promoting proper utilization of
resources as required in promotion of sustainable development. The effective
implementation of the TQM principles is therefore likely to lead to the
attainment of sustainability.
The
link between TQM and sustainability is also evident in the support of the
management approach on integration of the organization’s management systems.
According to Simon et al (2011), the TQM system through focusing on the
customer needs and requirements and through continual improvement of the
organization’s operational processes ensured that the management systems are
highly integrated. The integration in this case leads to reduction in work
duplication to attain maximum efficiency in the production process. The
resulting effect is not just enhanced productivity but also minimization of wastes
supporting the attainment of sustainability. Li (2013) has also asserted that integrated
management systems are associated with enhanced level of sustainability; as
such a TQM framework that supports a quality integrated management system is
likely to promote the attainment of sustainability.
Borri&Boccaleti
(1995) also obtained a linkage between TQM and sustainability. The authors
pointed out that TQM management is associated with some aspects of
environmental management. There are significant similarities between the two
concepts thus can be said to have some form of relationship. TQM principle on
customer focus, community and employees
focus ensures that all the actions of the organization offers maximum value to
the stakeholders. As such, the principles of TQM are considered a prerequisite
in environmental management. Similar findings were reported by Curkovic et al
(2003) who argued that the TQM has a basic feature that can lead to the
conservation of the environment and upholding the ethical considerations. In a
more recent study Kuei& Lu (2013) analyzed the possibility of integrating
the TQM principles into the sustainability management approaches. The researcher
argued that the lead manufacturing process supported by the TQM management
system will ensure promote the adoption of green manufacturing processes that
will lead to the attainment of a sustainable development. Through analysis of
the experiences already reported by companies such as Toyota, the researcher
concluded that the inclusion of TQM management approach to promote sustainable
development was beneficial, further justifying the positive relationship
evident between TQM and sustainability.
While
most studies have focused on the association between TQM and the environmental
aspect of sustainability, minimal studies have tackled the nature of the
relationship or the probable effects of TQM on other aspects of sustainability.
Perhaps the assertion that TQM adopts a customer approach in management can be
seen as the contribution towards the achievement of the social aspect of
sustainability there is scanty information on the same (Kuei& Lu, 2013). As
much as Garvare& Johnson may argue that TQM supports the proper management
of the stakeholder, a strong link of the concept with the issues of ethics and
community wants have not been properly presented. Nevertheless, as Sadikoglu&Olcay
(2014) posits it can still be ascertained that TQM influences the social and economic aspects of
sustainability, by ensuring that the needs of the stakeholders are met and by
assuring maximum cost reduction during the manufacturing process. TQM thus has
a positive association with sustainability; effective implementation of the TQM
principles is likely to lead to the attainment of an enhanced level of
sustainability.
Sustainability
refers to the social, economic and environmental form of development that
allows the present generation to accomplish their needs without compromising
the ability of the future generation to access the desired natural resources. The
concept of sustainability is based on three pillars, social, environmental and
economic development
The
historical emergence of the sustainability concept can be traced back to the
year 1798, when the first publication on sustainability by Thomas Malthus
emerged. More publications become evident in the subsequent years such as those
of Garret Hardins . To further develop the concept of sustainability and create
more awareness, conferences by the governments and the UN were held to address
the sustainability challenges. The assertion that sustainability required a
global approach in its management fueled the emergence of most of the
conferences held in different parts of the world
From
the Stockholm conference held in 1972 to the United Nations Conference held in
1988, the conferences focused on the formation of partnerships amongst the
member states that will contribute towards the attainment of sustainable
development. The formation of the world conservation strategy and the Bruntland
report, led to a clear outline and identification of the long-term development
goals that when accomplished will support the attainment of sustainable
development. The strategy also played a role of communicating the goals to the
different nations of the world.
More
conventions were formed post the Brundtland report to create more awareness on
the concept of sustainability and the need to address its challenges. The UN
conference held in 1992 named the Rio Earth Summit focused on communicating the
issues of environment and sustainability, and also identifying the strategies
that can be implemented to ensure that the strategic goals are accomplished.
The conference culminated with the release of the Commission report on
sustainable development and the Rio Declaration Agenda 21, documents that
detailed the strategic approaches suitable for the attainment of sustainable
development
Later
on, the Kyoto Conference held in the 1997, tackled the issues of climate change
and the need to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases to minimal levels. The
world summit on sustainable development held in 2002, also had the same agenda,
however, it also focused on building strong relationships amongst the member
states to accomplish some level of trust needed in ensuring they implement the
Millennium Development Goals
The
most recent Paris conference led to the development of the “Paris Agreement”
document where nations were expected to develop a plan with specific goals and
targets on sustainability. As at February, 2018, 195 states had signed the
agreement and were in the process of developing the plans. Despite the many
conferences and targets on sustainability set earlier one, the challenges and
problems of social, economic and environmental developments have remained
pervasive. Whether the recent agreement signed by the different states will
yield any positive results, is a matter of wait and see.
The
Triple Bottom Line of sustainability has also explained the concept of
sustainability in an expanded manner to include the economic and social
aspects. The Triple Bottom line therefore determines the sustainability
performance of an organization based on the social, economic and environmental
dimensions.
Strategies
such as green building, use of renewable energy sources, efficient
transportation, waste reduction and recycling, offsetting carbon emissions can
be adopted to accomplish a sustainable development. However, sustainability
barriers such as green distribution, lack of team work, past performance anchor
and firefighting have barred most institutions and nations from attaining the
sustainability goals.
It
is however, observed that the implementation of sustainability enablers such as
enhanced information communication system, highly committed leadership,
adequate resources and the implementation of a TQM approach in management will
assist the organization achieve the sustainability targets
Total
quality management refers to a customer-focus approach adopted in management to
achieve maximum quality and enhanced customer satisfaction. The approach is
effective in promoting sustainability since it focus on achieving efficiency of
the production process, through identification of the customers’ needs and only
producing goods that will be acceptable to the consumers. In this sense there
is efficient utilization of resources and maximum reduction of wastes.
TQM
also enhances the economic value of an
organization following its effectiveness in the reduction of the production
cost. The continuous improvement of the production systems as required by the
TQM concept ensures maximum efficiency is reported in cost reduction
TQM
also requires that the needs of the customers are satisfactorily met. As such,
it can be deduced that the TQM concept support the attainment of sustainability
by accomplishing its three main components, economic, environment and social
value. The adoption of TQM as a management strategy alongside other enablers of
sustainability is likely to enhance the sustainability performance of the
company as well as its level of contribution towards the attainment of
sustainable development.
3.0. METHODOLOGY on TQM (total quality management) on Organizational Performance and Sustainability.
This
section presents the research methods adopted in the current study. The section
presents an analysis of the various methods available followed with the
selection of the most appropriate methods and its justification. The section
focuses on analysis of various research methodology theories, philosophies and
design that are fundamental to the current research. Based on the assumptions
of the different study, the use of a mixed research method is justified in the
present research; in this case both quantitative and qualitative research
approaches are adopted. This chapter therefore gives a description of the
various research methodologies available for implementation by researchers and
offers a justification for the suitability and effectiveness of the approaches
to be adopted in the current study.
The
chapter begins with the discussion of the different research philosophies,
research approach, design and the types of research. This is followed with the
discussion of the type of research and methodological approach chosen for the
current study. The second part of the chapter gives a discussion and
justification of the chosen conceptual framework.
Ontology in research is defined
as “the science or study of being”. Ontological philosophy deals with the
nature of reality. According to Hughes & Sharrock (2016) ontological philosophy
refers to a system of belief reflecting the interpretation of what constitutes
a fact. In essence, ontology is associated with a belief or an assumption that social
entities need to be perceived as either objective or subjective. As such, objectivism
(or positivism) and subjectivism are specified as the major aspects of ontological
philosophy.
Objectivism
aspect of philosophy “portrays the position that social entities exist in
reality that is external to social actors concerned with their existence”.
Alternatively, objectivism “is an aspect of ontology that asserts that a social
phenomenon and the meaning pertaining to it is independent of social actors”. On
the other hand, Subjectivism (also known as constructionism or interpretivism) holds
that social phenomena are developed from the perceptions and consequent actions
of the social actors concerned with their existence. Formally, constructionism
can be defined as “ontological position which asserts that social phenomena and
their meanings are continually being accomplished by social actors”. Identification of ontology at the beginning
of any study is important since it influences the choice of the research design
that can be implemented in that study.
Importance
of Ontological philosophy
The
first importance of ontological analysis prior to starting-up a study is that
it clarifies the structure of knowledge. According to Moon & Blackman (2014)
ontology forms heart of any give system designed in the representation of
knowledge. The conceptualization of the
knowledge underlying a study is needed to identify the right vocabulary for the
representation of such knowledge. If we do not have the conceptualizations that
underlie knowledge, then we do not have a vocabulary for representing that knowledge.
Thus the initial step in knowledge representation is conducting effective
ontological analyses of some field of knowledge. Karakayali (2015) asserts
that weak ontological analyses lead to the formation of incoherent knowledge
bases. Consider a domain consisting of different people, some students, some
professors, while others are employees. Initially, a simple ontology would be
used for the different classes of employees, students, professors, males and
females. The ontology is likely to be represents as `types of'' humans. The simple
ontology approach however caused problems since it was noted that students could
at some time be employees and could also stop being students. As such a proper approach
was needed to clarify the ontology of the data domain to support proper
reasoning about the data.
Apart
from clarification of knowledge ontologies enable knowledge sharing. According Hughes &
Sharrock (2016) ontology provide a means for sharing knowledge. As
indicated above, ontological analysis supports the conceptualization of knowledge
that underlies a given study. Also, ontological analysis enables the researcher
to come up with different vocabularies within the knowledge area conceptualized
(Walliman,
2015). The creation of such knowledge bases is not only important in
guiding the research but also provides an avenue for knowledge sharing. The
researcher is able to communicate the findings obtained such that the resulting
ontology can be shared with others who require a similar knowledge
representation thus avoiding the possibility for replicating the knowledge
analysis.
These
resulting ontologies form the foundation for the representation of knowledge
that is specific to a given domain. Contrary to the initial approach to knowledge-representation
such as KL-One, the current approach that embraces much specificity is
considered to be reach in content (Karakayali, 2015). For instance, the approach to
ontological analysis has a large number of terms that symbolize a complex
content theory. As such, specific knowledge bases describing different
situations can be attained. Ontological analysis is therefore important in
supporting the conceptualization of knowledge and in ensuring that the
resulting knowledge can be shared and reused.
3.2.2.
Epistemology:
Epistemology
refers to the study scope and nature of knowledge to justify the belief
assigned to the knowledge. Epistemology analyzes the nature of knowledge in
reference to its relations with the notions of truth, belief and justification
of the same (Chinn
& Rinehart, 2016). The philosophical approach also deals with the approaches
undertaken in knowledge production and the uncertainty about various knowledge
claims. Epistemology is mainly concerned with issues of knowledge creation and
dissemination for inquiry purposes (Hanson et al., 2017). The major questions
that a researcher would ask in regards to epistemology analysis include, what
is knowledge? How to people acquire knowledge? To what extent does that the
level of knowledge influence the actions of an individual? And so on.
Most
debates on epistemology and nature of knowledge is centered on the
philosophical approach to research, analysis of the nature of knowledge, issues
or skepticism associated with knowledge acquisition, sharing and dissemination,
and the process for justification of
knowledge. According to Chinn & Rinehart (2016) epistemology refers to how
people think in order to discover the truth of a matter or the fault in it.
Epistemology philosophy is needed in order to obtain comprehensive information
from the situations and occurrences of the world. Walliman (2015) has asserted
that in the absence of epistemology, humans are unable to think and are thus
unlikely to discover any form of knowledge. It is therefore impossible for the
researchers to ascertain that their beliefs are correct and realistic and not
just mere information and images flashing the minds of an individual. With an
inaccurate epistemology, the researcher is unable to distinguish between an
error and a correct occurrence leading to poor conceptualization of knowledge.
As
Hanson et
al (2017) posit, the extent through which the epistemology is correct,
influences the understanding of reality. Also, the degree through which one
uses knowledge correctly is dependent on how well epistemology analysis is
conducted. Correct epistemology analysis leads to enhanced ability to
understand the occurrences in the environment, on the contrary flaws in epistemology
analysis makes it difficult for one to accomplish any role.
Key
elements of a proper Epistemology
While
every individual have the same senses designed for knowledge acquisition, the
method adopted by various persons in achieving that knowledge varies. According
to Chinn
& Rinehart, (2016) the process of producing, understanding and
disseminating information varies. Some people will subjectively seek for
information, while others will objectively produce knowledge. The different
approaches to knowledge acquisition form the aspects of epistemology. As Walliman (2015)
points out, epistemology is concerned with two main aspects of knowledge
acquisition, positivism and interpretivism.
Positivism
Positivism
is the view that the only authentic knowledge is scientific knowledge, and that
such knowledge can only come from positive affirmation of theories through
strict scientific method (techniques for investigating phenomena based on
gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence, subject to specific
principles of reasoning). The doctrine was developed in the mid-19th Century by
the French sociologist and philospher Auguste Comte (1798 - 1857).
As a philosophical
ideology and movement, positivism first assumed its distinctive features in the
work of Comte, who also named and systematized the science of sociology. It
then developed through several stages known by various names, such as
empiriocriticism, logical positivism, and logical empiricism, finally merging,
in the mid-20th century, into the already existing tradition known as analytic
philosophy.
The
basic affirmations of positivism are that all knowledge regarding matters of
fact is based on the “positive” data of experience and that beyond the realm of
fact is that of pure logic and pure mathematics. Those two disciplines were
already recognized by the 18th-century Scottish empiricist and skeptic David
Hume as concerned merely with the “relations of ideas,” and, in a later phase
of positivism, they were classified as purely formal sciences (Bunge, 2017).
On the negative and critical side, the positivists became noted for their
repudiation of metaphysics—i.e., of speculation regarding the nature of reality
that radically goes beyond any possible evidence that could either support or
refute such “transcendent” knowledge claims. In its basic ideological posture,
positivism is thus worldly, secular, antitheological, and antimetaphysical (Alaka et al.,
2016). Strict adherence to the testimony of observation and experience
is the all-important imperative of positivism. That imperative was reflected
also in the contributions by positivists to ethics and moral philosophy, which
were generally utilitarian to the extent that something like “the greatest
happiness for the greatest number of people” was their ethical maxim (Hughes &
Sharrock, 2016). It is notable, in this connection, that Comte was the
founder of a short-lived religion, in which the object of worship was not the
deity of the monotheistic faiths but humanity.
There
are distinct anticipations of positivism in ancient philosophy. Although the
relationship of Protagoras—a 5th-century-BCE Sophist—for example, to later
positivistic thought was only a distant one, there was a much more pronounced
similarity in the classical skeptic Sextus Empiricus, who lived at the turn of
the 3rd century CE, and in Pierre Bayle, his 17th-century reviver (Alaka et al.,
2016). Moreover, the medieval nominalist William of Ockham had clear
affinities with modern positivism. An 18th-century forerunner who had much in
common with the positivistic antimetaphysics of the following century was the
German thinker Georg Lichtenberg.
The
proximate roots of positivism, however, clearly lie in the French
Enlightenment, which stressed the clear light of reason, and in 18th-century
British empiricism, particularly that of Hume and of Bishop George Berkeley,
which stressed the role of sense experience (Chinn & Rinehart, 2016).
Comte was influenced specifically by the Enlightenment Encyclopaedists (such as
Denis Diderot, Jean d’Alembert, and others) and, especially in his social
thinking, was decisively influenced by the founder of French socialism,
Claude-Henri, Comte de Saint-Simon, whose disciple he had been in his early
years and from whom the very designation positivism stems.
There
are five main principles behind Positivism:
The logic of inquiry is
the same across all sciences (both social and natural).
The goal of inquiry is to
explain and predict, and thereby to discover necessary and sufficient
conditions for any phenomenon.Research should be empirically observable with
human senses, and should use inductive logic to develop statements that can be
tested.
Science is not the same
as common sense, and researchers must be careful not to let common sense bias
their research.
Science
should be judged by logic, and should be as value-free as possible. The
ultimate goal of science is to produce knowledge, regardless of politics,
morals, values,
Positivism is closely
connected to Naturalism, Reductionism and Verificationism, and it is very
similar in its outlook to Scientism (Chinn & Rinehart, 2016). Later, in the
early 20th Century, it gave rise to the stricter and more radical doctrine of
Logical Positivism. Positivism is opposed to the Constructivist belief that
scientific knowledge is constructed by scientists, and therefore not discovered
from the world through strict scientific method.
Types
of Positivism
Logical
Positivism (or Logical Empiricism) is a school of philosophy that developed out
of Positivism, and attempted to combine Empiricism (the idea that observational
evidence is indispensable for knowledge of the world) with a version of
Rationalism (the idea that our knowledge includes a component that is not
derived from observation).
Sociological
Positivism is the view, developed from Auguste Comte's philosophical Positivism
that the social sciences (as all other sciences) should observe strict
empirical methods (Hanson et al., 2017). Today, although many
sociologists would agree that a scientific method is an important part of
sociology, orthodox positivism is rare.
Legal
Positivism is a school of thought in Philosophy of Law which holds that laws
are rules made (whether deliberately or unintentionally) by human beings, and
that there is no inherent or necessary connection between the validity
conditions of law and Ethics or morality (Walliman, 2015). It stands in opposition to
the concept of natural law (that there is an essential connection between law
and justice or morality).
Polish
Positivism was a political movement in the late 19th Century, drawing its name
and much of its ideology from Comte's philosophy (as well as from the works of
British scholars and scientists) (Alaka et al., 2016). It advocated the exercise of
reason before emotion, and argued that Polish independence from Russia, Germany
and Austro-Hungary must be regained gradually from the ground up.
Interpretivism
Deductive
reasoning works from the more general to the more specific. Sometimes this is
informally called a "top-down" approach. A researcher might begin
with thinking up a theory about a given topic of interest. Then he/she narrows
that down into more specific hypotheses that can be test. The researcher can
then narrow down even further to collect observations to address the hypotheses
(Chinn
& Rinehart, 2016). This ultimately leads the researcher to be able
to test the hypotheses with specific data -- a confirmation (or not) of the original
theories.
Inductive
reasoning works the other way, moving from specific observations to broader
generalizations and theories. Informally, this approach is sometimes called a
"bottom up" approach. In inductive reasoning, the researcher begins
with specific observations and measure, begin to detect patterns and
regularities, formulate some tentative hypotheses that we can explore, and
finally end up developing some general conclusions or theories.
These
two methods of reasoning have a very different "feel" to them when
conducting a study. Inductive reasoning, by its very nature, is more open-ended
and exploratory, especially at the beginning of the study. On the contrary, deductive
reasoning is narrower in nature and is concerned with testing or confirming
hypotheses (Chinn
& Rinehart, 2016). Even though a particular study may look like it's
purely deductive (e.g., an experiment designed to test the hypothesized effects
of some treatment on some outcome), most social research involves both
inductive and deductive reasoning processes at some time in the project (Walliman, 2015).
In fact, even in the most constrained experiment, the researchers may observe
patterns in the data that lead them to develop new theories.
In
social studies, it is possible to label the study design as qualitative,
quantitative or mixed research design.
According to Jabareen (2009) research design refers to the
conceptualization of a given research problem followed with the development of
suitable research questions and identification of the most appropriate research
strategy to enable the attainment
of quality findings to respond to the questions developed. In
essence, the research design chosen in any study influences the philosophical perspective,
research approach, strategy and data collection tool that will be adopted.
Research
design has a significant role in fostering a rigorous study. It does not only
form the basis for the selection of the various research methodologies but also
ensures that the right approaches are adopted for the right questions. Bondy et al., (2012) has asserted that the
initial step in selecting the most suitable research design for a give study is
to look at the research questions that
are to be answered. Any changes made to the research questions will
automatically lead to a change in the research design. Proper identification of
a research design in line with the study’s research questions is important
since it communicates the vital features of the study that always differ for
quantitative, qualitative and mixed study designs.
Crotty
(1998) presented four main features to consider in social studies’ design. The
ontology or epistemology that informs the study, the philosophical assumption
underlying the said study, the methodology and the data collection methods and
techniques used to acquire the needed findings for the research design.
Identification of the above features is important in availing a detailed
description of the research design.
Quantitative
research design focuses on the maximization of replicability, objectivity and
generalizability of the findings acquired from a given study. According to Chinn &
Rinehart (2016) a quantitative approach is mostly concerned with the
prediction of the probable outcome of an event following the analysis of a
similar situation. The quantitative approach is developed and adopted based on
the expectation that the researcher carrying out the study will set-aside his perceptions,
views and ideas to ensure the attainment of objectivity when conducting the
study (Jabareen,
2009). Also, the design is adopted based on the assumptions that there
will be no form of biases during the research process.
The
main features of a quantitative research design are the adoption of data
collection instruments such as tests or surveys to acquire the needed data, the
formulation of hypothesis based on existing theories and the use or a
probability approach to statistically test the hypothesis developed (Jabareen, 2009).
These hypotheses are developed in line with the research questions, as such,
responding and testing the hypotheses also leads to answering the research
questions. As such, testing of hypotheses forms the main way of acquiring the
needed information and data in quantitative research.
Quantitative
research method normally adopts a deductive approach in acquisition of
findings. As indicated above deductive approach refers to the data acquisition
process where the researcher moves from specific information to the attainment
of general inferences on the subject matter (Hughes & Sharrock, 2016).
For instance, the researcher is likely to develop specific hypothesis based on
the research questions and existing theories followed with the testing of the
formulated hypothesis to come up with general inferences on the issues under
discussion.
Benefits of the Quantitative Approach of
Using
survey methods across a large group of individuals enables generalization. For
example, if policy makers wanted to instantiate a policy about mentor training,
they would likely require some evidence that this training actually works (Chinn &
Rinehart, 2016). Interviewing a few individuals, or conducting a focus
group with forty matches, might be reflective of specific cases in which the
mentoring training worked, however, it would not provide strong evidence that
such training is beneficial overall. Stronger support for successful training
would be evident if using quantitative methods.
Quantitative
research enables gathering information from a relatively large number of
participants. Also, the method allows the researcher to conduct the study in a
number of groups, allowing for comparison of the findings (Jabareen, 2009).
The approach supports generalizing of data to broader population thus provides
numerical or rating information and enhance informative for instantiating
policy or guidelines. Quantitative research method also supports statistical
techniques that allow determining relations between study variables.
Limitations if
Quantitative
study design is not suitable in case where a researcher needs to recognize new
and untouched phenomena. The design also has a limitation of failing to support
data interpretation without a control group
Qualitative
research methods focus on subjectivity and an understanding of the views,
ideas, feelings and thoughts of the participants in a given research. According
to Hiatt (1986) qualitative research explores reality, meaning or purpose in a
given setting. The design allows for the exploration of a given research topic
in which the needed study findings are collected subjectively. The most
commonly known qualitative data collection methods include case studies,
interviews, ethnographic works and qualitative surveys amongst others. The qualitative
research design differs from the quantitative approach in its focus on
subjectivity and the involvement of the researcher in the study (Niglas, 2004).
In a qualitative design, the researcher and the participants interact in a
naturalistic setting where there are few boundaries resulting in a more open
study. The findings collected from a similar research topic under the
qualitative research design are likely to vary. This is due to the fact that different
researchers are likely to be involved in the varying studies, and since these
researchers are given a leeway to interact with the study participants without
any boundaries, they are likely to influence the outcome of the study.
Replicability
and generalizability of findings attained from a qualitative study design is
unlikely. The general goal of any qualitative study is to provide an
understanding of certain occurrences or happenings in a specific study setting.
The issues existing in the setting and the possible influence of the researcher
during the research process makes the findings unique to the given setting.
Also, the engagement of the researcher in direct interaction with the study
participants can instigate some form of bias thus the information gathered in
the study cannot be replicated in another setting. Generalizability of the
qualitative research findings are therefore less likely to occur in any kind of
study.
Qualitative
research design is mainly inductive in nature. This means that the researcher
moves from a more specific finding to the formation of a general theory. In
essence, the researcher can use the specific data collected from the study
participants to construct some theory, formulate a hypotheses or conceptualize
the details provided to come up with a general explanation of issues. The qualitative
research design is based on the assumption that the researchers are unable to
set aside their feelings and thoughts during the study and as such must
influence the outcome of the research. Objectivity in qualitative study is not
a major consideration; rather the researcher focuses on ensuring that
qualitative comprehensive data are attained.
Benefits of the qualitative approach of
Using
open-ended questions and interviews allows researchers and practitioners to
understand how individuals are doing, what their experiences are, and recognize
important antecedents and outcomes of interest that might not surface when
surveyed with pre-determined questions. Although qualitative research can be
thought of as anecdotal, when pooled across a number of participants it
provides a conceptual understanding and evidence that certain phenomena are
occurring with particular groups or individuals.
Qualitative
research design allows for identification of new and untouched phenomena. Also,
the design can provide a deeper understanding of mechanisms and gives one-on-one
and anecdotal information. Qualitative research approach also provides verbal
information that may sometimes be converted to numerical form. The approach is
also beneficial in revealing information that would not be identified through
pre-determined survey questions
Limitations of
The
data collected through qualitative research approach cannot be generalized to
the general population. The approach also has a limitation owing to the challenges
it has in applying for the statistical methods. Qualitative research also makes
it difficult for the researcher to determine or assess the relations between
characteristics.
In
summary, the qualitative and quantitative approaches to research allow a
different perspective of situations or phenomena. These two main approaches to
research are highly informative, when used appropriately. Each approach has its
benefits and detriments, and being aware of the methods used to gather
information can help practitioners and policy-makers understand the extent to
which research findings can be applied.
Differences between qualitative and
quantitative research of
|
Basis for Comparison |
Qualitative |
Quantitative |
|
Meaning |
Qualitative
research is a method of inquiry that develops understanding on human and
social sciences, to find the way people think and feel |
Quantitative
research is a research method that is used to generate numerical data and
hard facts, by employing statistical, logical and mathematical technique |
|
Nature |
Holistic |
Particularistic |
|
Approach |
Subjective |
Objective |
|
Research
type |
Exploratory |
Conclusive |
|
Reasoning |
Inductive |
Deductive |
|
Sampling |
Purposive |
Random |
|
Data |
Verbal |
Measurable |
|
Inquiry |
Process-oriented |
Result-oriented |
|
Hypothesis |
Generated |
Tested |
|
Elements
of analysis |
Words,
pictures and objects |
Numerical data |
|
Objective |
To
explore and discover ideas used in the ongoing processes. |
To
examine cause and effect relationship between variables |
|
Methods |
Non-structured
techniques like In-depth interviews, group discussions etc. |
Structured
techniques such as surveys, questionnaires and observation |
|
Result |
Develops
initial understanding |
Recommends
final course of action |
Differences in the Data of
In
terms of the actual data, here are some of the key differences
Qualitative
data is not countable. It’s chunks of text, photos, videos, and so on.
Quantitative data can be counted as it’s numerical.
Qualitative
data is usually unstructured, which means it’s not ordered or grouped
logically. A researcher can turn qualitative data into structured quantitative
data through analysis methods like coding.
Most
of the time qualitative data will be collected from a smaller sample size than
quantitative data, because generally you’re not looking for statistical
significance with qualitative research.
Qualitative
data is quite rich, and can give you directional insights about people’s
thoughts, feelings, emotions, and so on. Quantitative data can help to give you
more confidence about a trend, and allow you to derive numerical facts.
The
debate on the most suitable study design for the different set of research
questions has instigated the creation of mixed study design. Many researchers
face difficulties in deciding on the most suitable design between qualitative
and quantitative study designs that should be adopted to ensure accurate and
more reliable findings for the developed set of research questions are attained
(Chinn
& Rinehart, 2016). The emergence of mixed research design has
enabled researchers to incorporate both aspects of qualitative and quantitative
research methods in the study.
Researchers
have been conducting mixed methods research for decades, yet it has recently
become more prominent as a form of inquiry. Researchers who adopt mixed methods
studies are faced with many challenges such as definitions of mixed methods, mixed
methods research designs, integration of qualitative and quantitative data,
sampling techniques, and using mixed methods research to promote social
justice, to name just a few (Bondy et al. 2012). It is important to note that
mixed methods research is a field of its own with unique techniques and
methods. Quantitative and qualitative research fields are mature, and
researchers have agreed upon designs, sampling techniques, and so on.
Nevertheless, there is not much agreement in the mixed methods field on many of
these topics, and there are multiple ideas available regarding the different
steps of the research process (e.g., there are many types of mixed methods
research designs available to researchers) (Chinn & Rinehart, 2016).
Indeed, there is a consensus that this field is changing and growing. This
situation presents researchers with various challenges.
One such challenge is that conducting mixed
methods research can be difficult because a researcher needs to know both
qualitative and quantitative techniques. One remedy for this is to work in
teams (Bondy et al. 2012). When conducting mixed methods research, it is
imperative for researchers to learn how to integrate the qualitative and
quantitative strands so that the results from mixed methods research studies
provide a deep understanding of the phenomena under investigation.
It
is argued that by mixing both quantitative and qualitative research and data,
the researcher gains in breadth and depth of understanding and corroboration,
while offsetting the weaknesses inherent to using each approach by itself. One
of the most advantageous characteristics of conducting mixed methods research
is the possibility of triangulation, i.e., the use of several means (methods,
data sources, and researchers) to examine the same phenomenon (Bondy et al.
2012). Triangulation allows one to identify aspects of a phenomenon more
accurately by approaching it from different vantage points using different
methods and techniques. Successful triangulation requires careful analysis of
the type of information provided by each method, including its strengths and
weaknesses.
Mixed
methods research is particularly suited when one wants to validate or
corroborate the results obtained from other methods. Also, a mixed research
approach can be adopted when a researcher needs to use one method to inform
another method (Tashakori & Teddie, 2008). For instance, when little is
known about a topic, and it is necessary to first learn about what variables to
study through qualitative research, and then study those variables with a large
sample of individuals using quantitative research.
Bondy
et al., (2012) have also pointed out that a mixed research method can be
implemented when one wants to continuously look at a research question from
different angles, and clarify unexpected findings and potential contradictions.
The method is also suitable when one wants to elaborate, clarify, or build on
findings from other methods (Creswell, 2010). For instance, if a causal
relationship has been established through experimental research, but one wants
to understand and explain the causal processes involved in qualitative
research.
The
reason for combining qualitative and quantitative research methods have
instigated heated debates. On each side of the argument are proponents of one
particular type of research method, well-armed with reason and examples why it
is better than the other research method (Kutner et al., 2008). Such arguments
caused the creation of some middle ground, combining the two types of research
methods, the result, and mixed methods research (Creswell, 2010).The rationale
for the creation of common ground was concretized and coded. The coding
mirrored each side's legitimate views and by so doing the weakness of each side
was revealed. A scheme was created to tabulate the justifications for the need
to join the two methods of research.
First,
triangulation: which promulgated that there was a need for some convergence or
corroboration since by so doing the emphasis would be shifted from the
differences and moved towards the amalgamation of the research methodologies.
Secondly, complementarity: which seeks the elaboration or the results acquired
from one method with the results of another method. Thirdly, development: which
highlights the need to use the results acquired from one method to either
inform or develop the different method. Fourthly, initiation: it seeks the
unearthing of irony and incongruity, the remolding of questions from results
gotten from one method with the replica of the other method of research.
Fifthly, expansion: This seeks to increase the span and variety of inquiry by
adopting different ways for different inquiry components. (Niglas, 2004).
Alaka et al (2016)
have also asserted that the insufficient argument either quantitative or
qualitative may be insufficient by itself presenting the need for a Mixed
Method research. Creswell et al (2011) assert that multiple angles argument
that is quantitative and qualitative approaches provide different “pictures.”
The more-evidence-the-better argument, thus a combined quantitative and
qualitative provides more evidence for any study making it more appropriate
where such comprehensive evidence is desired.
A
mixed research method is also adopted when one wants to develop a theory about
a phenomenon of interest and then test it. Usually, qualitative research is
more suitable to build theory, while quantitative research provides a better
way of testing theories justifying the needs to use both methods when one wants
to develop and test a given theory (Alaka et al., 2016). Also, a mixed research
approach is more suitable when one wants to generalize findings from
qualitative research. Despite the
suitability of the mixed research methods to different study designs, there are
some challenges that are likely to be experienced by researchers who adopt the
method (Kutner et al., 2008). The mixed research method is not only costly but
also time consuming. Also, the researcher is also required to be highly
knowledgeable to be able to combine both qualitative and quantitative aspects
of research in conducting the study. This explains why the design is seldom
used by most researchers.
Strengths of Mixed Research Method of
Mixed
method research is the third and more preferred method of research due to its
array of advantages that appeal to many researchers. To begin with, the
combined strength of both quantitative and qualitative research can be found
when using this method of research. Further, terms, pictures, and narratives
can be used to add connotation to numbers (Bondy et al., 2012). Also, while
using a mixed method of research, researchers have the advantage of using
numbers to add precision to words, pictures, and narratives. Another advantage
of applying the mixed method in research is that researchers can generate and
test a grounded theory.
Applying
the mixed method of research allows the researcher to tackle a broader and a
complete range of research questions because the researcher is not confined to
the tenets of a particular method of research (Kutner et al., 2008). Also,
researchers can use the strength of one method of research to counter or
overcome the weaknesses in another method. In other words, it incorporates the
concept of complementarity.
In
the advent of a researcher conjuring up a conclusion under this method of
research, they are in a better position to provide stronger evidence in the
conclusion bit through convergence and collaboration of findings. Furthermore,
the method of research allows the researcher to add insights and methods that
might be omitted when only a single method is adopted (Bondy et al., 2012).
Similarly, the method allows the researcher to simplify to increase the
simplicity of the results. Finally, since the mixed methods of research are all
about the incorporation of both qualitative and quantitative methods of
research, the researcher can produce complete knowledge necessary to inform
theory and practice.
Weaknesses of Mixed Research Method of
Unfortunately,
this method of research also has a few shortcomings despite its overwhelming
support from researchers. Firstly, owing to its duplicity content, the
application of the mixed methodology in one study can prove difficult to handle
by any one single researcher (Creswell, 2010). This is the case especially when
the researcher has two apply two or more approaches concurrently.
Furthermore,
a researcher choosing to rely on this method of research has to learn about
multiple methods and approaches and understand how to mix them appropriately.
Similarly, a lot of researchers are of the view that anyone researcher should
work within either the qualitative or the quantitative method (Karakayali, 2015).
Moreover, the mixed method of research is more expensive and time-consuming
than any other method of research due to its duplicity content. Finally, since
it is a mixture of two relatively different methods of research, a lot of
researchers and methodologists have as yet to fully work out problems of interpreting
conflicting results, quantitative data and the paradigm mixing.
Justification for the use of
Quantitative in the Current Study of
The
nature of the research questions to be answered and the availability of
resources influence the type of research design to be adopted in a study.
According to Sekaran &Bougie (2009) qualitative study design is mostly
adopted in cases where an in-depth understanding of a situation is needed.
Also, the design is most appropriate where the researcher needs to carry out an
exploration of a new subject that has not been studied by the previous
scholars. The attainment of subjective findings in this case is important in
ensuring that comprehensive understanding of the subject is attained. On the
other hand, quantitative study design is mostly adopted in situations where a
high level of precision is needed. According to Baskerville et al., (2007) the
study design is suitable where objectivity is a major prerequisite in the
study. The design is mostly used when the variables of the study can be
objectively determined and when a possible relationship between the study
variables is desired (Bondy et al., 2012). The objective findings assured
through the use of a quantitative research design makes it an appropriate
design in cases where maximum level of accuracy is needed.
The use of a mixed research method has been proposed by researchers who argue that the combination of the two designs is beneficial. According to this form of reasoning, is based on the assumption that mixing qualitative and quantitative research design ensures that the desired benefits of the two designs are merged to achieve more benefits (Rogers', 2002). For instance, the researcher is able to counter the weaknesses of another design with the other. Qualitative design faces the challenges of acquiring objective and accurate findings, while quantitative design has a challenge of enabling the researcher attain comprehensive findings (Sekaran &Bougie, 2009). As, such, the use of the two approaches will ensure that more comprehensive and accurate findings are attained.
Despite the probable benefit of a
mixed research method, the design is seldom used due to its other challenges.
The mixed research design is costly and time consuming since one has to
incorporate the aspects of qualitative and quantitative designs when carrying
out the study (Walliman, 2015). Also, the research design is more complicated
than using the other research design independently. An understanding of both
the qualitative and quantitative research design is thus needed for a
researcher to adopt a mixed research paper. Interpretation of the conflicting
results attained from the two different research designs is also a major
challenge of the mixed research method that bars its implementation by most
researchers.
From the evaluation of the reasons
for application of the different 3 research designs as well as a discussion on
their probable strengths and weaknesses, the current study adopted a
quantitative research design. The aim of the study was determine relationships
between various study variables as such; the quantitative research design was
the most appropriate. Also, there is vast information on the topic under
discussion, the researcher only needed to ascertain the nature of relationship
between total quality management, sustainability and organizational
performance, variables that have been extensively studied, thus disqualifying
the possibility of adopting a qualitative research method. In this case, the
missed research method, could also not be adopted since it encompasses some
aspects of qualitative research design. The researcher thus remained with the
adoption of a quantitative research design. Quantitative research design was
chosen due to its ability to foster the attainment of more accurate and
reliable findings. Also, the approach was more appropriate in ensuring that the
desired nature of relationship between the two study variables is accomplished.
The limited time and resources also forced the researcher to adopt a more
reliable research design that will not require significant reading and
understanding of the different research designs. Also, the difficulties that
come with analyzing data from different research designs also made the quantitative
approach the most appropriate for the current study.
3.5.
Types of Research of
While
there are controversies on who created action research, the creation of the
study is often associated with Lewin (1946). The scholar was the first to
establish his work using the action type of research. The researcher had
earlier on copied the work from the research performed in Vienna Germany
(Altrichterand Gestettner, 1992). Alternatively, Deshler and Ewart (1995)
reported that action research was first developed and used by John Collier to
improve race relations when he held the position of a Commissioner of Indian
Affairs before, during and after the Second World War. The work of Cooke
(undated) later on appears to give strong support for this assertion. Selener
(1997) asserts that the book by Buckingham's (1926) titled “Book Research for
Teachers” forms the initial literature that talked about action research. The
different information availed on the history of action research makes it
certain that we will not know the exact origin of this kind of research.
Rogers' (2002) perception on John Dewey's (1933) notion of reflection indicates
that one could also link the origin to the ancient Greek empiricists further
enhancing the controversies on the origin of action research.
Similarly,
controversies have also arisen on the definition of Action research. Action
research according to Selener (1997) is difficult to define due to two
significant reasons. First, the research is a natural process that comes in
many different guises, and second, action research has been developed
differently for diverse applications. Almost immediately upon Lewin's coining
of the term in the literature, action research was seen as a general term for
four different processes: diagnostic, participant, empirical and experimental
(Chein, Cook and Harding, 1948). By the end of the century, Deshler and Ewart
(1995) could identify six main kinds of action research developed in different
fields of application. According to the scholars, action research was in use in
administration (Collier), community development (Lewin, 1946), organizational
change (Lippitt, Watson & Westley, 1958) and teaching (Corey, 1949, 1953).
In the late 1940s and early 1950s; it appeared in political change, and in
conscientization and empowerment in the 1970's (Freire, 1972, 1982). Action
research also appeared in national development in agriculture (Fals-Borda,
1985, 1991), and most recently in banking, health, and technology generation
via the World Bank and others such as Hart and Bond (1997).
It's important to recognize action
research as consisting of different kinds of action inquiry. Action Inquiry is
a generic term for any process that follows a cycle in which one improves
practice by systematically oscillating between taking actions in the field of
practice and inquiring into it (Baskerville et al., 2007). One plan,
implements, describes, and evaluates an improving change to one's practice,
learning more about both the practice and action inquiry in the process.
Most
improvement processes follow the same cycle. Problem-solving, for instance,
begins with identifying the problem, planning a solution, implementing it,
monitoring and evaluating its effectiveness. Similarly, medical treatment also
follows the cycle: monitoring of symptoms, diagnosis of disease, and
prescription of remedy, treatment, monitoring and evaluation of results
(Selener, 1997). Most development processes also follow the same cycle, whether
it's personal or professional, or of a product such as a better mousetrap, a
curriculum, or a policy. It is clear, however, that different applications and
developments of the basic action inquiry cycle will require different actions
in each phase and will start in different places.
Some
of the different developments of the basic action inquiry process include
action research (Lewin, 1946), action learning (Revons,1971), reflective
practice (Schon 1983), action design (Argrys, 1985), experiential learning
(Kolb 1984), the PDCA cycle (Deming 1986), PLA, PAR, PAD, PALM, PRA1, etc
(Chambers, 1983), deliberative practice (McCutcheon, 1988), praxis research
(Whyte, 1964;1991), appreciative inquiry (Cooperrider; Shrevasteva, 1987),
diagnostic practice (Generic in medicine, remedial teaching, etc.), action
evaluation (Rothman 1999), soft systems methodology (Checkland 1998), and
transformational learning (Marquardt, 1999).
There
are several reasons for the production of the many different kinds of action
inquiry because some people have recognized and conceptualized the cycle
without knowledge of the other versions already in existence, and one can name
the same cycle and its steps in many different ways (Kibert, 2016). Also people
have developed versions customized to particular uses and situations because
there are many different ways of using the cycle, and one can perform each of
the four activities of the cycle in many different ways. Thus different kinds
of action inquiry tend to use different processes in each step and have
different outcomes that are likely to be reported in different ways to
different audiences.
The
kind of action adopted in undertaking research is dependent on the nature of
the research objectives and aims. The processes that one adopts in making the
study and how the study is conducted are essential reasoning that must be
comprehended before the start of the research (Walliman, 2015). Different
people may have different skills, intentions, timeline, levels of support, ways
of collaborating, and so on, all of which will affect the processes and
outcomes. The important point is that the kind of action inquiry used is appropriate
to the aims, practices, participants, situation (and its enablers and
constraints).
The Characteristics of Action Research of
It
makes some sense to differentiate action research from other kinds of action
inquiry, by defining it as using recognized research techniques to produce the
description of the effects of the changes to practice in the action inquiry
cycle. The main reason for using the term 'action inquiry' as a superordinate
process that subsumes action research is that the term 'action research' is
becoming so widely applied that it is becoming meaningless. A definition such
as, "Action research is a term that is applied to projects in which
practitioners seek to effect transformations in their practices (Brown and
Dowling, 2001).
Rather
than adhering to a more open definition of action research, such as the
"identification of strategies of planned activities which are implemented,
and then systematically submitted to observation, reflection and change"
(Kemmis, 1981), there is a need for re-definition of the term. Different
scholars have narrowed the definition to assert that, "Action research is
a form of action inquiry that employs recognized research techniques to inform
the action taken to improve practice." Creswell et al (2011) also added
that the research techniques, in this case, must meet the criteria common to
other kinds of academic research (i.e., withstand peer-review of procedures,
significance, originality, validity, etc.).
That
said, although action research tends to be pragmatic, it is clearly
distinguished from practice, and although it is research it is also clearly
distinguished from traditional scientific research, mainly because action
research both changes what is being researched, and it is constrained by the
context and ethics of practice. Further action research requires action in the
fields of both practice and research, so to a greater or lesser extent, it will
have characteristics of both routine practice and scientific research.
Exploratory
research, as the name implies, intends merely to explore the research questions
and does not intend to offer final and conclusive solutions to existing
problems. This type of research is usually conducted to study a problem that
has not been defined. Alaka et al (2016) have also asserted that exploratory
studies are conducted to determine the nature of the problem, exploratory
research is not intended to provide conclusive evidence or solution to the
problem, but helps the researcher to have a better understanding of the
problem. When conducting exploratory research, the researchers ought to be
willing to change their direction as a result of the revelation of new data and
new insights.
Exploratory Research Methods of
Primary
research is data that someone collects personally, usually from a group of
people gathered specifically for the study. Primary research is collected
through the use of interviews, focus groups, customer surveys, or any way that
organizations can obtain feedback (Walliman, 2015). For instance, social media and blogs
are a great way for business owners to obtain customer feedback.
Secondary
research is the analysis and synthesis of primary research that was compiled at
a previous date. Secondary research can be gathered from marketing research
data, magazines, old reports, or any other source where relevant information
has been stored.
Types of Exploratory Research Design of
Some
of the more popular methods of exploratory research design include literature
searches, in-depth interviews, focus groups, and case analyses.
Literature
Search: It is one of the fastest and least expensive means to discover
hypotheses. There is an enormous quantity of information available in
libraries, via internet sources, in commercial databases, and so on. The
literature search may include newspapers, magazines, trade literature, academic
literature, or published statistics from research organizations or governmental
agencies Census Bureau
Depth
Interviews: It’s important to start with a good literature search, but at some
point, it is desirable to talk to persons who are well informed in the area
being investigated. These people could be professionals or persons outside the
organization. Here, we don’t need questionnaire. The approach adopted should be
highly unstructured, so that the participant can give divergent views.
Depth
interviews are widely used to tap the knowledge and experience of individuals
with information strongly related the situation or opportunity at hand. Anybody
with related information is a potential candidate for a depth interview, such
as existing clients, members of the target market, executives and supervisors
of the client organization, sales representatives, suppliers, retailers, and so
on.
Focus
Group: Focus group is another frequently used method in exploratory research.
In a focus group, only a few people are brought together to study and talk over
some theme of interest. The discussion is directed by a moderator who is in the
room with the focus group participants. The group usually is of 8-12 persons.
While choosing these individuals, care must be taken to see that they should
have a common background and have comparable experiences. This is certainly
needed since there should not be a conflict among the group members on the common
problems that are being talked about. The responses availed by the group
members throughout the discussions form the findings of the study needed in
responding to the research questions.
Case
Analyses: Researchers can understand a lot in regards to a problem by studying
carefully selected examples or cases of the phenomenon. Case histories of
businesses that have gone through an identical issue may be available. These
case studies are suitable to undertake exploratory research. A researcher must
examine carefully the previously published case studies about variables like
price, advertisement, changes in the trend
Descriptive
research does not fit neatly into the definition of either quantitative or
qualitative research methodologies, but instead, it can utilize elements of
both, often within the same study. It can involve the collection of
quantitative information that can be tabulated along a continuum in numerical
form, or it can describe categories of information such as gender or patterns
of interaction when using technology in a group situation (Walliman, 2015).
Descriptive research involves gathering data that describe events and then
organizes, tabulates, depicts, and describes the data collection (Glass &
Hopkins, 1984). It often uses visual aids such as graphs and charts to aid the
reader in understanding the data distribution. Because the human mind cannot
extract the full import of a large mass of raw data, descriptive statistics are
very important in reducing the data to an easily manageable form.
When
in-depth, narrative descriptions of small numbers of cases are involved, the
research uses the description as a tool to organize data into patterns that
emerge during analysis. Those patterns aid the mind in comprehending a
qualitative study and its implications. Most quantitative research falls into
two areas: studies that describe events and studies aimed at discovering
inferences or causal relationships (Alaka et al (2016). Descriptive studies are
aimed at finding out "what is," so observational and survey methods
are frequently used to collect descriptive data (Borg & Gall, 1989).
Studies of this type might describe the current state of an event or patterns
of activity resulting from group work at the computer. Also, descriptive
studies report summary data such as measures of central tendency including the
mean, median, and mode, deviance from the mean, variation, percentage, and
correlation between variables. Survey research commonly includes that type of
measurement, but often goes beyond the descriptive statistics to draw
inferences. See, for example, Signer's (1991) survey of computer-assisted
instruction and at-risk students, or Nolan, McKinnon, and Soler's (1992)
research on achieving equitable access to school computers. Thick, rich
descriptions of phenomena can also emerge from qualitative studies, case
studies, observational studies, interviews, and portfolio assessments.
Robinson's (1994) case study of a televised news program in classrooms and
Lee's (1994) case study about identifying values concerning school
restructuring are excellent examples of case studies.
Descriptive
research is unique in the number of variables employed. Like other types of
research, descriptive research can include multiple variables for analysis, yet
unlike other methods, it requires only one variable (Borg & Gall, 1989).
For example, a descriptive study might employ methods of analyzing correlations
between multiple variables by using tests such as Pearson's Product Moment
correlation, regression, or multiple regression analysis.
Descriptive
research might report the percentage summary on a single variable. Examples of
papers where the approach has been used include the journals by Anglin &
Towers (1992); Barry's (1994) investigation of the controversy surrounding
advertising and Channel One; and Lu, Morlan, Lerchlorlarn, Lee, and Dike's
(1993) examination of the international utilization of media in education.
Descriptive
statistics utilize data collection and analysis techniques that yield reports
concerning the measures of central tendency, variation, and correlation. The
combination of its characteristic summary and correlational statistics, along
with its focus on specific types of research questions, methods, and outcomes
is what distinguishes descriptive research from other research types.
Types of Descriptive Studies of
There
are three main types of descriptive methods: observational methods, case-study
methods and survey methods. This article will briefly describe each of these
methods, their advantages, and their drawbacks. This may help you better
understand research findings, whether reported in the mainstream media or when
reading a research study on your own.
Observational Method of
With
the observational method (sometimes referred to as field observation) animal
and human behavior are closely observed.
There are two main categories of the observational method — naturalistic
observation and laboratory observation.
The
biggest advantage of the naturalistic method of research is that researchers
view participants in their natural environments. This leads to greater ecological validity
than laboratory observation, proponents say.
Ecological validity refers to the extent to which research can be used
in real-life situations (Anglin & Towers, 1992). Proponents of laboratory
observation often suggest that due to more control in the laboratory, the
results found when using laboratory observation are more meaningful than those
obtained with naturalistic observation (Zikmund et al., 2010). Laboratory
observations are usually less time-consuming and cheaper than naturalistic
observations. Of course, both
naturalistic and laboratory observation is important regarding the advancement
of scientific knowledge.
Features of Observation of
Eye
Observation – In an accurate sense, observation involves the use of the eyes
rather than the use of the ears and the voice. An experienced worker never
believes in hearsay he only trusts if he has observed that with his own eyes or
if the report is a firsthand evidence of his eyes (Zikmund et al., 2010). So it
can be said that observation done with the help of the eyes acts as a most
trustworthy medium for making an observation.
Aim
– Observations which act on scientific grounds are brought in use by the
scientists or the researchers with some of the other aim to achieve something.
Such scientists make their observations in a very minute and a detailed manner
which helps them in achieving specific goals. These goals can include the
discovery of something, verification of the hypothesis, etc.
Planning
– The value of observation in operation is only if it is done properly –
Observation should be carried out in a very phased and a planned manner to get
an in-depth understanding of an activity.
Recording
– The various operations that we perform and the results that we obtain should
be remembered, but a known fact is that memory is very deceptive. With the
passage of time, things tend to get out of mind, so it is very important to
keep a record of such activities (Alaka et al (2016). One very common method to keep
track of these activities is to write down the various impressions, but
nowadays a tape or in some cases a video camera is used for the recording
purposes.
One
of the major advantages of the recording done by a tape or a video camera is
that the chances of going wrong, i.e., committing any mistake are very less or
almost negative. In the tape, actual words can be recorded which results in
zero chance of committing an error.
Physical
and mental activity – Sense organs have a very critical role to play in the
observation process. During the observation researcher or an investigator has
to use his sense organs for seeing and hearing things and then has to keep in mind
the whole set of observations for an in-depth analysis of the matter later on.
Exactness
– Observation should be based on standardized tools of research which makes an
observation exact and more accurate.
Direct
study – Observation is a very vital scientific method that helps a lot in the
collection of the primary information that is reliable in nature in which
direct study of the situation is involved.
Advantages of Observation of
Observation
is a very direct method for collecting data or information making it best for
the study of human behavior. The approach is also suitable for collecting very
accurate and reliable data. Observation improves precision of the research
results and helps in understanding the verbal response more efficiently (Bondy
et al., (2012). By using good and modern gadgets observations can be made
continuously and also for a larger duration of the period. Observation is also less
demanding in comparison with other descriptive data collection methods, which
makes it less bias in working abilities. Through observation, one can identify
a problem by making an in-depth analysis of the issues.
Disadvantages of Observation of
One
main disadvantage of observation is that problems of the past cannot be
studied. Having no other options, one has to depend on the documents available
in making observations. Also, observations like the controlled observations
require some especial instruments or tools for effective working, which are
very much costly (Alaka et al (2016). One cannot study opinions and attitudes by
this means. Sampling cannot be brought into use in any observation method. Observation
involves a lot of time as one has to wait for an event to happen to study that
particular event (Walliman, 2015). The actual presence of the observer himself Vis
a Vis the event to occur is almost unknown, which acts as a major disadvantage
of observation. A complete answer to any problem or any issue cannot be
obtained by observation alone.
Case Study Method on
Case
study research involves an in-depth study of an individual or group of
individuals. Case studies often lead to
testable hypotheses and allow us to study rare phenomena. Case studies should not be used to determine
cause and effect, and they have limited use for making accurate
predictions.
There
are two serious problems with case studies — expectancy effects and atypical
individuals. Expectancy effects include the experimenter’s underlying biases
that might affect the actions taken while conducting research (Alaka et al
(2016). These biases can lead to
misrepresenting participants’ descriptions.
Describing atypical individuals may lead to poor generalizations and
detract from external validity.
Survey Method of
In
survey method research, participants answer questions administered through
interviews or questionnaires. After
participants answer the questions, researchers describe the responses given.
For the survey to be both reliable and valid, it is important that the
questions are constructed properly.
Questions should be written, so they are clear and easy to comprehend.
Advantages of Surveys of
Advantages of
Surveys
are relatively easy to administer, thus the reason for their wide adoption in
different studies. Also, the data collection tools such as questionnaires and
interviews that are mainly adopted in surveys can be easily developed and
administered in a limited period (Zikmund et al., 2010). The use of survey is
also beneficial to the researcher since they are cost-effective, nevertheless.
The cost incurred depends on survey mode and the nature of the participants
that are to be involved in the study. Surveys can also be administered remotely
via online, mobile devices, mail, email, kiosk, or telephone (Alaka et al.,
2016). The convenience that comes with the administration of the survey
makes it more preferred by researchers. According to (Walliman, 2015) surveys can
be conducted remotely thus capable of reducing or preventing geographical
dependence. The researcher does not need to be in one location with the study
participants to administer the questionnaires.
Sekaran
& Bougie (2009) have also pointed out that surveys are widely used since
they are able to assist the researcher collect data from a wide number of study
participants. Through the use of questionnaire, the researcher is able to ask
numerous questions about a subject to the large number of respondents enabling
him/her to collect comprehensive information from the study respondents
(Zikmund et al., 2010). Also, the researcher is able to attain maximum
flexibility in data collection and analysis, making it a suitable way of collecting
comprehensive and more accurate findings. The emergence of the survey software
has further made the technique very effective in collecting information from
different participants (Sekaran & Bougie, 2009). The software supports the
use of statistical techniques to analyze the nature of the collected data and
to determine the validity and reliability of the findings attained. As such
more accurate findings can be achieved through the use of the software in the
administration of the surveys.
Standardization
of the questionnaire also enhances the benefits of conducting surveys and using
questionnaires as data collection tools. According to Creswell et al (2011)
standardization supports the attainment of a broad range of data detailing the
different values, opinions, believes, attitude and behavior exhibited by the
study participants. Also, the standardization of the questionnaire allows the
researcher to eliminate any form of errors that might be evident, thus
enhancing the accuracy and reliability of the data collected (Walliman, 2015).
Surveys do not only support the attainment of more comprehensive and reliable
findings, but is also cost-effective and can be executed within a limited time,
this justifying why it is mostly adopted by researcher.
Disadvantages of
Despite
the many benefits of survey type of research, the method of study is not
without some disadvantages. The method is known to produce reliable finding,
however, the reliability of the data collected is dependent on the nature of
the respondents involved in the study, the attitude of the study participants
and how the said participants feel encouraged to offer honest responses (Creswell
et al., 2011). According to Yusuf et al (2012) the respondents may not feel
encouraged to participate in the study, as such, the kind of answers that will
be availed by the respondents is likely to be less reliable. The possibility of
such respondents to present themselves in an unfavorable manner is also high,
thus lowering the reliability of the findings that can be collected from the
survey.
The
respondents required to participate in a study may not be fully aware of the
reason for participating in the study. As such, these respondents are unlikely
to offer more reliable findings that will respond to the research questions
developed by the researcher (Saunders et al., 2003). Such respondents can also
be influenced by external factors to offer answers based on their perceptions
and attitude towards the researcher. The results will be poor quality findings
that do not meet the necessary required threshold.
There
are different data collection tools that can be adopted for the collection of
data in a given survey. The researcher can consider the use of interviews or
questionnaires as data collection tools. While interviews enable the researcher
to have control on the responses being provided by the study participants, questionnaire
does not offer such an opportunity to the researcher (Yusuf et al., 2012). The
use of questionnaire requires that the study participants respond to the study
questions with minimal guidance or control from the researcher. The approach may
be effective in ensuring that limited time is used in collecting the needed
information. Nevertheless, the challenge of having unfilled question is high.
The respondents can decide to respond to some questions and leave the rest
(Saunders et al., 2003). Also, the respondents can give irrelevant responses
for failure to understand the question, a challenge that cannot be encountered
when the researcher has direct control of the responses. These challenge can
however be addressed by the researcher ensuring that the questionnaires are counter-checked
and responses are attained for the most critical questions.
The
kind of research philosophy and methodology adopted by a researcher is
dependent on the nature of the research questions to be answered and the
availability of resources. According to Creswell et al (2011), the adoption of
an objectivism approach leads to the implementation of realism and positivism
research philosophies as well as the adoption of a quantitative research design.
On the other hand, the adoption of a subjectivism approach will prompt the
researcher to adopt the interpretivist and constructionism research
philosophies as well as a qualitative research design (Saunders et al., 2003).
The current research adopted a quantitative research paradigm meaning the study
findings were determined objectively. Also, the researchers adopted a positivism
philosophy by holding the assumption that any occurrence can be studied
objectively without any interference from the researcher within the research
period (Saunders et al., 2003). The use of survey as a method of data
collection further justified the adoption of a quantitative research approach.
According
to Forza (2002) the need to enhance the accuracy and reliability of social
science research instigated the adoption of a positivist philosophical approach
in undertaking suck kind of studies. Positivism philosophical approach and a
quantitative research paradigm provides more accurate results and thus are
widely used in cases where the study findings will form the basis of making
critical decisions or policies (Zikmund et al., 2010). Also, the objectivism
approach in social studies assures the possibility of result generalization to
other settings making the approach more relevant in situations where data
generalizability cannot be avoided.
The
philosophical approach and the research design suitable for a given study is
determined based on the nature of the research. As currently observed, the
study focuses on sustainability, total quality management and performance of
the firm. Sustainability and sustainable practices can be determined
objectively (Collins & Hussey, 2003). Also, the extent of involvement in
such sustainable practices can be quantified, thus justifying the suitability
of the quantitative research design (Antwi & Hamza, 2015). The total quality
management practices, the extent of an organization’s involvement in the same
and the performance level accomplished by the organization can also be
determined objectively, further justifying the suitability of adopting a
quantitative research approach in the current study.
Survey
is the main method of data collection in a quantitative study. The method
allows for the collection of quantitative data either through the use of
questionnaire as a data collection tool, or the use of an interview guide
(Forza, 2002). The current study will make use of questionnaire as the data
collection tool. As such, survey by questionnaire data collection method will
be adopted.
The selection of questionnaire as a data collection
tool is based on the many advantages it has over interviews. Apart from
enabling the researchers reach a wider audience, the use of questionnaire is
beneficial since it is less costly and less time consuming. The researcher is
able to attain information from a large group of study participants within a
limited time that could have not been achieved through the use of interviews
(Collins & Hussey, 2003). Questionnaires are also suitable as data
collection tools in the current case, since all the study variables can be
quantified and objectively determined.
There
are different methods of surveys that can be adopted in the collection of
quantitative data. Forza (2002) identified three different methods of survey
research, exploratory, confirmatory, and descriptive survey research.
Confirmatory survey focuses on testing of theories though use of prepositions
or frameworks. This approach is mainly adopted when there is adequate
information on the issue under investigation to allow for development of
suitable hypotheses (Zikmund et al., 2010). These hypotheses can be used in the
formulation of relationships that can be tested and varied through collection
of quantitative data from the research participants.
Exploratory
surveys are adopted where the researcher needs to acquire initial insights on a
given research issue. In most cases, information is lacking on the said
research topic, thus the researcher conducts an exploratory research to gain
in-depth findings that will form the initial findings of the issue under
investigation.
Descriptive
survey is adopted when a researcher needs to attain adequate findings for
theory build-up. More insights on the phenomena is attained such that a
description of the same is assured. However, descriptive survey does not focus
on development of theory.
While there is vast information on the concept of sustainability,
limited information is available on its co-implementation with total quality
management and the resulting implications on the performance of an
organization. As such the study adopted an exploratory survey method that aim
at attaining initial insights on the issue under discussion (Yusuf et al.,
2012). Exploratory survey questionnaire
was thus designed through critical review on sustainability practices, total
quality management and the probable implications on the performance of the firm.
Sampling frame refers to the source material from
which a sample is drawn. Ideally, a sample frame forms the list of individuals,
households, companies in a given population who can be included as study
participants. The sample frame for the current study consisted of manufacturing
companies in the UK. These companies’ deals with the production of goods whose
quality attributes would influence their acceptability by the consumers. The manufacturing
companies in the country were searched from Google and their address and
telephone numbers jotted down. The researcher then came up with a list of manufacturing
firms that could form the sample for the current study.
Since it is not feasible to include all manufacturing
organizations in the study, a selection was done to identify those companies
that could be comfortably covered during the data collection methods. Simple
random sampling technique was adopted in the selection process. According to
Saunders et al (2003) simple random sampling technique is adopted when the
study respondents within the sample frame have equal chance of being involved
in the study. The technique allows for random selection of the respondents such
as issues of bias are largely minimized. This enhances the possibility of
attaining accurate findings. Convenience sampling technique was then adopted to
choose the employees from every company to involve in the study. Convenience
sampling approach was used to enable the researcher include only those
knowledgeable on the issue in the study. According to Sekaran & Bougie
(2009) convenience sampling is more appropriate in cases where the researcher
is looking for specific information from a certain group of participants, thus
justifying its suitability in the current context.
Through convenience sampling the chief executive
officers of the different organizations included in the study, the manager in
charge of sustainability, quality control and assurance managers, and selected
employees from the production, and quality control departments were included in
the study. These employees and managers are likely to have a proper
understanding of the sustainability and total quality management concept, thus likely
to avail more informed responses to the research questions postulated in the
questionnaire.
Quantitative questionnaire are pre-formulated using
open-ended questions that respondents are required to answer within closely
related alternatives. Likert scale is used to quantify the responses provided
by the respondents (Sekaran & Bougie, 2009). Open ended questions are used
in a questionnaire when the researcher seeks to attain quantitative results.
Also, these kinds of questions make the tool most appropriate for the
quantification of the study findings justifying its use in quantitative
studies.
The current research made use of open-ended
questionnaires since it focused on collecting qualitative data. Also, the use
of quantitative questionnaire was justified since the study focused on
establishing relationship between variables. According to Couper (2017) any
study that is developed based on an objectivism philosophy and a positivist
epistemology requires the use of a quantitative questionnaire as a data
collection method. According to the scholar, apart from fostering the
attainment of quantitative data, such tool is essential in ensuring that the
researcher is not involved in the study, and that the responses acquired are
contributions made by the respondents without any significant influence from
the researcher (Sun et al., 2010). The use of a quantitative questionnaire in
the current study is justified, since it did not only focus on attaining
quantitative data, but also emphasized on positivist and objectivism
philosophies as the basis of the study.
Questionnaire contains a list of questions that are formulated
to enable the researcher provide responses that will give insights on a given
topic being investigated. The nature of the questions used in the questionnaire
is determined based on the type of study being conducted. In a qualitative study, open ended questions are
used to enable the researcher provide qualitative findings, while in a
quantitative study, the research makes use of structured questions and a likert
scale to allow for quantification of the responses being provided (Couper, 2005).
The -
The
current study made use of structured or closed-ended questions that required a
“yes” or “no” answer. The closed-ended questions were used because the study
was a quantitative research and required the collection of quantitative data.
From the critical review of literature it is clear
that there is no theoretical basis for co-implementation of sustainability and
total quality management practices. As such, proper design of the questions to
be included in the questionnaire must be assured. According to Dillman (2007)
total design method approach can be adopted in the design of the questions to
be included in the questionnaire. The questionnaire questions should be
formulated to respond to three main variables, including behavior, attitude and
opinion of the study participants (Bryman & Bell, 2004). The total design method
entails 18 steps needed to be undertaken by a researcher to come up with
quality standard. These steps contain information on what should be avoided or
observe to ensure most appropriate questions are included in the questionnaire.
According to the model, the following issues should be considered when
designing the questionnaire
Uphold maximum simplicity when formulating the
questions. The researcher must ensure that the questions included in
questionnaire are easy to understand. The language used should be simple and
understandable to the target respondents (Dillman, 2007). Also, the questions should
be direct and specific to the research objective being sought by the
researcher. Simplicity and understandability of the questions will give the
study respondents and easy time of communicating the desired responses.
The questions included in the questionnaire should be
straightforward such that the targeted respondents are able to know what is
required of them. Ambiguous questions cannot lead the researcher to the
attainment of the desired study findings (Sekaran & Bougie, 2009). As such,
the researcher used straightforward questions in designing the questionnaire to
enable the respondents comprehend the kind of answers needed to adequately
respond to the questions.
The current study required the collection of
quantitative data as such, open-ended questions were avoided. Also, the use of
open-ended questions makes the questionnaire complex and prolongs the time
needed for data collection. Closed-ended questions that require minimal time to
respond to were used since they are likely to be more preferred by study
respondents (Zikmund et al., 2010). These questions are also easy to standardize
making it possible for the attainment of alternative responses that do not only
facilitate coding but also allow for easy interpretation of the data collected.
Short and precise questions were also used in
designing the questionnaire to ensure the respondents are motivated to answer
the questions. Short questions are suitable and highly preferred than long
questions since they do not bore the study respondents. According to Couper (2017),
the questions included in the questionnaire should not be more than 20 words if
more responses are to be attained. This rule of thumb was adopted in the
formulation of the questions such that short and precise simple questions were
included in the questionnaire.
The relevance of the questions included in the questions
included in the questionnaire was also assured. The researcher focused on
formulating questions whose responses had a higher chance of answering the
research questions of the study (Zikmund et al., 2010). The main idea was to
link the questionnaire questions with the research questions such that maximum
relevance is achieved.
The flow of questions in the questionnaire is another
issue that was taken into consideration. It is recommended that the questions
in the questionnaire adopt a sequence where the questions flow from relatively
simple and easy questions to more complex
questions (Sekaran &Bougie, 2009). This sequence of question flow
facilitates easily flow of responses from the research respondents. Also, the
flow ensures that more response is attained before the study participants get
tired of providing the information needed. The progression from simple to more
complex questions is essential in ensuring that the study participants moves
from answering general to specific questions (Sekaran & Bougie, 2009).. The
use of this approach in question ordering in the current research was important
in building confidence amongst the respondents such that they showed a maximum corporation
when filling the questionnaires.
The use of likert scale in the questionnaire was to
allow for quantification of data. The likert scale adopted in the current study
ranged from 1-5, where 1 was represented an extreme low satisfaction and 5
indicated an extreme high satisfaction the value 3
represented neutral or modest value between the two extremes (Rattray &
Jones, 2007). An assumption was made that every response had important
weight either in ascending or descending order. Also, the different values
indicated varying extent of involvement in sustainability and implementation of
total quality management practices ((Sekaran & Bougie, 2009). The likert
scale was thus suitable in the determination of the extent of co-implementation
of total quality management practices and sustainability practices as reported
by the companies included in the study, as well as the resulting implications
of the implementation on the performance of the organizations.
Pilot testing is another aspect of questionnaire
design where the researcher determines the effectiveness of the questionnaire as a data collection tool.
Piloting is done to identify the ease observed in the use of the questionnaire
as well as the probable difficulties that might be encountered. According to
Flynn et al (1990) piloting is important in ensuring the researcher have an
understanding of the respondents’ perspective of the study. The findings
attained from the pilot test are used in redesigning the questionnaire such
that problems will not be encountered by the respondents in their attempt to
respond to the questions presented. The information drawn from the pilot
testing are also essential in testing of the validity and reliability of the
questions included in the questionnaire (Rattray & Jones, 2007).
A pilot test was carried out before the real
administration of the questionnaires to the target respondents of the current
study. A group of experts were involved in the formulation of the questionnaire
questions to make sure they were highly valid and reliable. This was followed
with the presentation of the drafted questionnaire to the pilots to obtain
thieve view on the relevance and suitability of the questionnaire. The findings
provided by the pilots formed the basis for the redesign of the questionnaire
that was used in the actual survey.
There are different approaches that can be adopted in
the distribution of questionnaire. According to Creswell et al (2011)
questionnaires can be distributed over the internet, through telephone conversation
or personal interview. Also, the questionnaires can also be administered via
mail (postal distribution). The approach to be adopted by a researcher is
dependent on the availability of resources such as money and time (Walliman &
Appleton, 2009). The benefits and drawbacks associated with each method
of questionnaire administration also form the basis for the selection of the
method to adopt. Administration of questionnaires over the telephone or through
personal interviews is time consuming and might be costly on the researcher.
These methods can also only work for study respondents that are readily
available and willing to spend much time conversing with the researcher (Dillman, 2007).
On the other hand, administration of the questionnaires through posting via
mail is associated with low response rate since the researcher cannot easily
ascertain whether the questionnaires have been obtained or not. Also, the speed
of distribution of the questionnaire is lowered since posting takes time before
the document reaches the respondents. Distribution of the questionnaire over
the internet, (through email) is not only affordable but also saves on time
that the researcher would have incurred to travel from one location to another
(Homburg & Pileser, 2000). Also, the method gives an opportunity for the
respondents to have ample time in responding to the questions presented. The
cheap and efficient nature of distributing questionnaires over the internet
justifies its selection as a questionnaire distribution method for the current
study (Sekaran & Bougie, 2009). Since the study did not focus on collecting
sensitive information, the researcher was more comfortable adopting emails as
an avenue for the distribution of the questionnaires. The researcher formulated
emails directed to the study participants to inform them of the study and the
reasons for its execution. The email also contained detailed information on
assurance of confidentiality of the information presented by the participants.
The distributions of the questionnaires over the internet ensure maximum
efficiency in terms of response rate and resources used is attained.
Conceptual framework refers to a model
illustrating the relationship between variables in a study. Jabareen (2009) defined conceptual framework as a
systematic order of information and ideas that informs a study and the
resulting relationship between the constructs of the study. The current study
focuses on establishing three main constructs, sustainability, total quality
management and organization’s performance. As such, the conceptual model will
focus on illustrating the relationship between the sustainability, total
quality management and organizational performance variables.
Total Quality Management of on Organizational Performance and Sustainability.
From the critical review of literature, it is evident
that the concept of TQM emerged as early as the 1920s, however, more emphasis
were on enhancing the quality of the technical processes of the organization.
Total quality management during that time was driven by the Japanese
organizations, an approach that was later on adopted by other companies across
the world. Recent development has seen the manufacturing firms also considered
other aspects such as customer satisfaction and employee empowerment as
measures of quality (Arumugam, Ooi & Fong, 2008). As currently
observed, total quality management practices have been classified as soft and
hard quality. The soft aspect of quality focuses on employee engagement,
training and development of the staff, teamwork, compensation and commitment of
the management amongst others (Delbridge, Turnbull & Wilkinson, 1992). On the
other hand, hard aspects of TQM focus on the effectiveness of the production
techniques and processes. Also, the management of suppliers and production time
is classified under the hard form of TQM.
Most studies have emphasized on the role of the hard
aspects of TQM in meeting the needs of the customers through availing quality
products. Also, these scholars emphasize on the hard aspects of the TQM since
it is directly linked with the proper utilization of different processes to
ensure that the desired needs of the customers are meet. Minimal emphasis has
been put on the soft form of quality that aims at improving the effectiveness
of the employees in provision of services such that the desired higher quality
products are attained. However, recent studies by Idris (2011) and Wong et al (2014)
have highlighted the importance of the soft aspects of quality, and its relevance
in ensuring that quality products that meet the needs of the customers are
availed. According to the scholars, any discussion on TQM should thus focus on
both the soft and the hard aspects of Total quality management.
The current study therefore included the soft and hard
aspects of TQM in the development of the conceptual framework. The approach
taken is in line with the framework used by Benavides-Velasco et al., (2014) who
adopted the EFQM framework in their study on total quality management. The model
emphasized on the inclusion of both hard and soft dimensions of quality in any
discussion on total quality management. The most commonly discussed topics
under the soft and hard aspects of quality include the management, employees,
resources, processes, products, resources, strategy and partnership.
The
management and leaders to an organization are considered vital component in the
attainment of total quality management. The capacity of the leaders to offer
quality supervision and proper control of resources determine the level of
quality that can be accomplished. As such, the management is considered a vital
component in TQM.
Employees
are also vital enablers of TQM. Their contribution and delivery of quality
services influences the attainment of effective production processes that
assures the achievement of maximum quality (Oakland, 2011). Empowerment,
training and motivation of the employees is thus mandatory for them to offer
quality service to promote TQM.
The strategic plan adopted by the organization and the
availability of resources also influences the attainment of TQM. Also, the
nature of partnerships evident between the organization and other stakeholders
informs the level of performance that can be achieved (Harrington &
Keating, 2006). The series of activities executed by the organization and the probable
value created by such activities also determines the level of quality that can
be accomplished. The inclusion of the above quality variables in the conceptual
framework is thus justified since they are significant enablers of Total
Quality Management.
Sustainability of
Sustainability focuses on the proper use of resources
such that they meet the needs of the current consumers without compromising the
needs of future generation. Organizations have a role to play in promoting
sustainable. Their activities should have minimal negative implications on the environment;
they should efficiently use the existing resources as well as adopt sustainable
practices that focus on minimization of wastes. From the review of literature
it is evident that there are different sustainable practices that can be
adopted by an organization. These practices focus on recycling of wastes, use
of renewable sources of energy, conservation of resources, amongst others to
accomplish sustainability.
While sustainable practices are associated with better
environmental performance, the effects of the strategies on economic
performance have been strongly disputed by scholars who argue that the primary
role of a business entity is to enhance the shareholder value (Wagner &
Llerena, 2008). This contentment has been disputed by Freeman (1994) who
has asserted that an organization’s is not only responsible for achieving
maximum shareholder value, but should also focus on managing proper
relationships with other stakeholders including employees, suppliers and other
customers. According to Adnan et al (2014) profitability is not only the
determined of higher performance, the social performance of an organization
also has significant influence on its overall growth and profitability.
Adoption of sustainable practices is therefore important in enhancing the
overall performance of an organization.
From the critical review of literature, the construct
of sustainability can be defined in two main approaches. First, sustainability describes
the relationship between the company, stakeholders and the society, and
secondly, the construct describes the company voluntary involvement in
activities that promotes environmental conservation (Carroll & Buchholtz,
2014). As such, when looking at the construct of sustainability, social,
economic and environmental issues pertaining to sustainable development must be
taken into consideration.
Organizational Performance of
The measurement of the performance of an organization
is complex. According to Sila (2007), the performance of an organization can be
measured through different accounting and financial angles. Also, the marketing
outcome and the satisfaction of the customers can be used in the measurement of
the performance of the organization. Helfat et al (2007) also pointed out that
the market share and the satisfaction of the employees are other variables that
can be used in the measurement of the performance of an organization. Despite
these different approaches in the measurement of the performance of a firm,
most scholars have agreed that accounting viewpoint in the measurement process
is the most appropriate (Homburg & Pileser, 2000; Kaplan & Norton,
2001; Helfat et al., 2007). This is justified by the fact that the overall goal
of any organization is to make profits; as such profitability is the main
determinant of the overall performance of the organization. Other performances
such as customer and employee satisfaction culminate to the overall
profitability of the firm, thus justifying the accounting viewpoint measurement
of performance as the most appropriate.
Relationships between the Variables of
The
adoption of sustainable practices in an organization is influenced by different
factors. While the benefits of sustainable development are known, most
organizations are yet to implement the strategy in their management process.
Previous scholars have posited that the presence of an enabler or inhibitor of
sustainability will determine the level of adoption of the sustainable
practices in an organization (Lehrer &Vasudev, 2010; Darby, 2010). For
instance, enablers of sustainability such as information technology, total
quality management, organizational culture that supports the sustainable
practices and adequate resources will positively influence the implementation
of the sustainability practices in the organization. On the contrary,
inhibitors of sustainability such as green distribution will bar an
organization from fully implementing the sustainability practices.
Based
on the findings of the scholars and as expounded in the literature section, it
is hypothesized that there
is a positive relationship between sustainability enablers and implementation
of sustainability practices.
Hypothesis
1: There is a positive relationship between sustainability enablers and
implementation of sustainability practices
Previous researchers have indicated that TQM and the
adoption of sustainable practices have positive implications on the performance
of the organization. In the context of TQM, the researchers obtained that TQM
practices influence the innovation and operational performance of the
organization (Sadikoglu & Zehir, 2010). Also, the previous studies have
indicated that employee performance and customer satisfaction are associated
with the implementation of the TQM practices (Das et al., 2008). Agus &
Sagir (2001); Bondy et al., (2012) and Yunie et al (2013) also obtained an
association between the implementation of TQM practices and the financial
performance of the organization.
It is thus hypothesized that there is a positive relationship
between both TQM and sustainability practices, and organizational performance
Hypothesis
2: There is a significant relationship between both TQM and Sustainability
practices and organizational performance
A significant relationship has also been established
between the implementation of sustainable practices and TQM. According to Sun
et al (2010) different quality performance measures of an organization are
influenced by the implementation of the sustainability practices. For instance the
TQM principles focus on offering maximum quality to the customers and also
ensuring that there is minimal wastage along the production line. Organizations
that adopt a TQM approach in the management of their production activities will
only focus on making goods that are likely to be acceptable by the customers
(Sadikoglu & Zehir, 2010).. Also, these organizations will aim at
minimizing wastes and conserving the available resources to achieve maximum
quality (Das et al., 2008). Sustainability is concerned with minimization of
wastes along the production line as well as effective and efficient use of
resources to assure their conservation. As such, the adoption of a TQM approach
will thus require the implementation of sustainable practices such that the
desired needs of the customer are attained. Companies that focus on TQM are
therefore likely to adopt most if not all of the sustainability practices. It
is thus hypothesized that organizations
with a strong TQM implementation practices are better at implementing
sustainability practices.
Hypothesis
3: Organizations with a strong TQM implementation practices are better at
implementing sustainability practices.
The
profitability of the firm as well as other measures of performance such as
customer and employee satisfaction are influenced by the engagement of a firm
in the implementation of sustainable practices (Mishra & Suar, 2010;Sun et
al., (2010). Similar the implementation of a TQM approach in the management of
the organization’s practices is likely to assure the attainment of a higher
level of performance. TQM focuses on meeting the customer needs as well as
efficient use of resources factors that are likely to enhance the performance
and profitability of the organization (Das et al., 2008). The co-implementation
of the TQM practices and Sustainability is thus likely to lead to a even higher
level of performance. It is therefore hypothesized that the co-implementation of TQM and
sustainability has a direct positive effect on organizational performance
Hypothesis 4: The co-implementation of TQM and
sustainability has a direct positive effect on organizational performance
Conclusion on TQM on Organizational Performance and Sustainability.
The current chapter presented a discussion on the
methodological approaches adopted in the current study. The chapter provided the
ontological, epistemological positions of the study as well as availed a
justification for the selection of the philosophical approaches. This chapter
also presented a discussion on the research design of the study, justifying the
reasons for the adoption of a quantitative research design. The sampling frame
and sampling strategy adopted in the current study is also discussed. The data
collection method chosen for the collection of the quantitative data is also
justified. The researcher provided a rationale for the adoption of the survey
method of data collection as well as gave a discussion on the process adopted
in the design of the questionnaires and their administration. The last section
of the chapter presented the conceptual framework for the research and a
discussion on how the framework was developed. A justification for the
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