When Watson and Crick discovered the structure and information bearing properties of DNA, they did indeed solve one mystery, namely the secret of how the cell stores and transmits hereditary information.” (Page 12)

In this sentence there is discussion about the DNA structure what Watson and crick has proposed. Then the most important task was how you can able to get the information from the DNA. All the biological information is stored in the DNA and they have been discovered by these scientists. Then after this the main problem that was arise that how they have to encode the information from the DNA of the organisms.

“One day he heated some ammonium cyanate, figuring it would release cyanide.” (Page 33)

In this sentence there is discussion about the ammonium cyanate that the professor from the polytechnic school located in Berlin, he have investigated some substances that releases cyanide when heated them. Then these all substances were observed in detail and also some of the experimental tests were performed on the ammonium cyanate and the professor thinks that that will release the cyanide from it. Then after some time he have done more experiments on the substances and thinks that they will release cyanide.

Summary of the DNA, Darwin and the appearance of design

Summing up all the information of the first two chapters of the book named signature in the cell.  In the first chapter that was about the DNA, Darwin and the appearance of design. In this there is discussion about the theory of Darwin which was about the evolution of life. Then after the hundred years of this theory the two scientists named Watson and Crick have done work on the structure of DNA. They have discovered the main structure of DNA in which all the information of the body has been stored in the form of sequence. In this chapter there is also information about the Crick famous idea about the sequence hypothesis.

The after this some questions were arise that were related to information stored in the DNA. For collecting the information from the DNA the scientists have worked really hard and they have proposed that the information can easily been calculated from the DNA of the organism. Then further work has been done on DNA and the scientists have seen that they have found a genome in the DNA in which all the information of the human body was stored. Afterwards in this chapter there is discussion about the classical Darwinism and also about the modern neo- Darwinism. In this chapter there is some observation of Darwin was explained in detail. The in the end of this chapter there is discussion about the appearance of design. In which there is information about the appearance of design. In this part of the chapter the theory of Darwin about the evolution was proved wrong by many of the American natives. Then after this the main origin of biological information was discussed in that part there was information that the sequence was in the form of combined letters which explains all the information of the human body.

 In the second chapter of the book that was about the evolution of a mystery and why this evolution does matter. The professor from the polytechnic school have done investigations on the different substance and then wait for these substances that they will turned into cyanide. Then after this many of the substances were investigated in the chemical labs and then after that when some comparison has been done on them then after this it is concluded that many chemical compounds were found in the living organisms. Then for this many experiments were performed on that and showed that the human body is comprises of many chemical compounds.

The after this there is discussion about the origin of life, the origin of life was came from the big bang theory. This theory was proposed by many scientists and then after this the main question was arising that was from where the stars and sun came from before the beginning of life. Then in the start of the 19^th century more work was done on the human body and then some scientists have discovered the most important part of the body that is DNA in which all the information of the body was stored in it. Then there is some information from the different philosophers around the world. They have given about the idea of the earth how it came into being and they named them as idealism.

 The idea was that without God there will be no concept of earth. Only God is the main source of the idea of the earth, he is the only creator of the earth. Then after this there is discussion about the mystery of the missing mystery. The mystery was about the origin of the earth and many scientists believe that the earth came into being as a result of big bang theory and they considered as a big mystery of that century.  Then later on in this chapter there is discussion about the evolution on a roll in which the theory of Darwin was proved wrong. The theory of evolution does not explain the origin of the first life. Then after this in this chapter there is information about the protoplasmic theory of life. Later on in this chapter there is discussion about the early theories of life’s origins.

Chapter 3-4

Sentence

“There were three teams in the running to unlock the mystery of the structure of DNA, which by now most biologists assumed would help explain how hereditary traits are passed from one generation to another.” (Page 61)

Discussion on the DNA, Darwin and the appearance of design

This sentence was taken from the chapter three in which there is discussion about the mystery of DNA. From the last two chapters some questions were raised about the discovery of DNA in the human body and these questions were about how the information was taken through the DNA and then after some time this become a mystery and then to solve this mystery a team of 3 people was designed to solve this mystery of DNA that how the information is gathered with the help of DNA. 

 “At some point in the history of the universe, biological information came into existence.” (Page 85)

Discussion of the DNA,

In this sentence of the part of the chapter there is discussion how the biological information stored in the human body. This is through the use of DNA in which all the genetic information of the human body was stored and in the DNA of the body there is a genome in which all the biological information was stored in letter form.

Summary of DNA is consisting of double helix in which all the genetic information

Summing up all the information from the chapter three and that was about the Double helix.  The main structure of DNA is consisting of double helix in which all the genetic information was stored of every human in the world. Then after in this chapter there is discussion about the nature and origins of the DNA double helix structure. There are many experiments were performed for finding the right structure of the DNA. Then after twenty years the double helix structure of the DNA was discovered. Then after this the most important mystery that was about the heredity was discussed in detail. The scientists have noticed that how the basic information of the gene was transferred to the next organism, the work of Gregor Mendel was proposed in 1860 and his work was about the traits of the human generation. He have done experiments on the peas and worked on their generations and he called the yellow peas traits as the dominant and on the other hand the green peas traits as the recessive.

Later on in this chapter there is discussion about the chromosomes that are responsible for the reproduction of the human body and other living organism. Then there is important information about the fruit flies because it has the fourteen day life cycle and also four pair of chromosomes. Then after few years there are some advancement has been done on the structure of DNA because all the information of the gene was stored in it. Many scientists have worked on the chemical composition of the DNA in which most of the part was consisting of proteins. The structure of DNA was like a puzzle the scientists have to put all the pieces together to solve this mystery. After few years the scientists have seen that the proteins present in the DNA are responsible of transferring all the heritage data. Many structural models of DNA were proposed in the further few years. Then after that there is information about some of the unlikely heroes who have played a major role in finding the real structure of DNA. They have collected some clues from the previous studies about the DNA and then after few years the scientists have discovered that the real structure of DNA is consisting of double helix in which all the sequence were assembled in correct manner for the basic information of the gene. Watson has made a series of models for the DNA to solve the main puzzle of the structure of DNA. Then in the end of the 1953 the double helix structure of the DNA has been proposed and this has a very impressive chemical and structural complexity.

In the fourth chapter of this book there is information about the signature in the cell. In this there was discussion about the DNA that how it stores all the genetic data of the human body and how we can able to read all the important data of the gene through the use of DNA. Then after this there is some definitions about the information that was stored in the DNA, in this many scientists have proposed their definition about the information. This definition of DNA is not applicable in the English dictionary this information definition is only for the biological use.

Later on in this chapter there are different theories about the information from different scientist like Shannon and his theory was based on the fundamental intuition. . Many scientists have worked on the chemical composition of the DNA in which most of the part was consisting of proteins. The structure of DNA was like a puzzle the scientists have to put all the pieces together to solve this mystery. Then after this there are some of the defects in the Shannon theory about the information because his theory was unable to differentiate between the two different symbols of the sequence. Then after this there is information about the genetic information from the DNA and what is meant by this information and also about the puzzle of proteins because the basic structure of DNA is composed of proteins and these proteins are assembled in very complex way. Then after that in this chapter there is information about the sequence hypothesis in which all the previous history about the sequence was discovered in detail. In the last of this chapter there is information about the origin of life and in which there is discussion about the properties of DNA and how the DNA supports the information of the gene.

Chapter 5,7

Sentence

“As scientist began to discover more about how the cell uses the information in DNA to build proteins, they realized that DNA is only part of complex system for expressing and processing information.” (Page 113)

Discussion of DNA is consisting of double helix in which all the genetic information

In this specific sentence from the chapter 5 there is discussion about the information about the DNA and how the information stored in it. From the past research it can be seen that the scientists have discovered how the cells present in the living organism uses the information present in DNA and then after they build proteins. All the scientists who have worked on the basis information about the DNA have realized that this DNA is the most important and only part of the complex system.

Sentence of DNA is consisting of double helix in which all the genetic information

“Historical scientists have developed two key criteria for deciding which cause, among a group of competing possible causes, provides the best explanation for some relevant body of evidence.” (Page 159)

Discussion of DNA is consisting

In this specific sentence from the chapter 7 there is discussion about the past scientist and their discoveries about the evidence. In which they have said that when some groups are similar so their evidence will be also different, they have said that nothing will happen in this world without any cause or evidence. When any earthquake came there will be major reason behind that. In this the most important criteria is the causal adequacy.

Summary of DNA is consisting of double helix in which all the genetic information

Summing up all the information that has been taken from the chapter 5 of the book named signature in the cell. The chapter 5 is about the molecular labyrinth, in the starting there was a scenario discussed about the military surgeon who was treating a commander, for treating him he need high quality imaging software but it was unavailable in that hospital. Then the surgeon tries to read the sequence of this DNA because it was the only way to treat him in doing so he has found the error free information from its DNA. From the past research it can be seen that the scientists have discovered how the cells present in the living organism uses the information present in DNA and then after they build proteins. All the scientists who have worked on the basis information about the DNA have realized that this DNA is the most important and only part of the complex system. Afterwards in that chapter there was discussion about the deducing a code with the help of the DNA.

Then many of the scientists have discovered that the composition of the protein present in the DNA was composed of amino acid sequences. Many models of proteins were discovered by the scientists that will provide the best sequence of the amino acids present in the DNA of the body. In the double helix structure of the DNA there are major and minor grooves are present that will tell about the right information about the sequence of DNA. Then after this in this chapter there is information about the CAD-CAM technology and the protein synthesis. This important technology will help to find the right sequence of the protein. The process of gene expression was discussed in detail through the help of two different steps in which the first step is about the transcription and the second step is the translation.

The seven chapter of this book is about the clues to causes. The past causes to the earth must contain some evidences because without any evidence nothing can be proved easily so that in the staring of this chapter there is discussion about the science of past causes and science also explains the present events. In which they have said that when some groups are similar so their evidence will be also different, they have said that nothing will happen in this world without any cause or evidence. When any earthquake came there will be major reason behind that. In this the most important criteria is the causal adequacy. For explaining all the past events the scientist uses the abductive reasoning, in this reasoning the proper evidence of any cause was given. Like when it is raining so the streets will gets wet. The scientist named as the peter lipton has given the best explanation of the abductive reasoning. For the explanations he have proved that you must have to collect all the evidence regarding this and then according to that you have to make hypothesis and then you can better able to proposed your cause.

Chapter 8, 9

Sentence

“Imagine that a statistician is trying to determine whether a coin is fair by observing the distribution of head and tails that result from flipping it.”(Page 177)

In this specific sentence from the chapter 8 there was discussion about the chance. The explanation about the chance was better explain through this sentence that when the coin was flipped so there is chance of getting head or tails it just depend on the flipping of a coin. There will be 50% chance of getting a head or a tail. For this chance the hypothesis has been made that the coin must be fair when flipping it.

“First the bases in DNA and RNA and the sequence of amino acids in proteins do not contain mere Shannon information.” (Page 197)

In this specific sentence or the chapter 9 there is information about the bases in DNA and RNA. These bases are responsible of storing all the information in the DNA of the human body, these bases is consists of amino acids in proteins. The information pattern that was designed by the Shannon has some defects so because of this his information model was not considered for information sequence of the DNA.

Summary of chapter 8 and chapter 9 of the book named signature in the cell

Summing up all the information from the chapter 8 and chapter 9 of the book named signature in the cell. In the chapter 8 of this book there is information about the chance elimination and also about the pattern recognition. In the starting there is information about the chance and then some definitions was given that will help to explain about the chance. Some scenarios in this part will help to give proper explanation about the chance. How the scientists gives demonstration about the chance is the best question. The explanation about the chance was better explain through this sentence that when the coin was flipped so there is chance of getting head or tails it just depend on the flipping of a coin. There will be 50% chance of getting a head or a tail. For this chance the hypothesis has been made that the coin must be fair when flipping it.

Some scientists give explanation about the chance elimination. The improbability paradox about the chances and how to eliminate the chances was explained in detail. For explaining this different cases are discussed. Pattern recognition plays a major role in elimination of the chance if someone recognize the future pattern so he can easily able to remove all the upcoming chances. In the last of the chapter there is discussion about the final factor named as the probabilistic resources because probability plays a major role in our life for creating the chance. There are some of the tools that will help in further investigation.

In the chapter 9 of this book that was about ends and odd. In the start the chance hypothesis has been done on the models of DNA and RNA and in this there is discussion about how the main structure of DNA and RNA was proposed and it was done on the bases of chance hypothesis that has been done by different scientist. Then after few years there are some advancement has been done on the structure of DNA because all the information of the gene was stored in it. Many scientists have worked on the chemical composition of the DNA in which most of the part was consisting of proteins. The structural model of the DNA and RNA is consists of bases. These bases are responsible of storing all the information in the DNA of the human body, these bases is consists of amino acids in proteins. The information pattern that was designed by the Shannon has some defects so because of this his information model was not considered for information sequence of the DNA. The significant pattern of the DNA and RNA has all the information of the human body, if these sequences are not proper so that we are unable to take information from them. The improbability of producing genes and proteins through the use of chance was explained in detail. After this there was discussion about the symposium that was done for calculating all the chances for the proteins and genes present in the DNA, then ending up this chapter through the use of conclusion.