This section of the research study explains the theory and facts that are related to the delays on the waste water projects in Oman. It also explains the concepts about the water back ground in Oman. The theories and the work of the several authors are explained in this chapter for all of the variables and factors that will be measured in this study. The work of the various researchers is explained in this section of the study for the treatments plants of the Hya water. The water reusing options are also explained in this section of the study.        

The water quality deterioration and inadequate water supplies are an area of concern for many environments, agricultural industries as well as municipalities all over the world. The contribution has been made by various factors in this regard such as surface & groundwater contamination, a growing population of urban areas, water resources with unequal distribution as well as droughts, which have been coming due to changes in patterns of global weather (Asano, 2002). There is one solution, which has attracted a lot of attention to combat with the issue of water shortage and that is the treatment of wastewater to make it good enough for using as a resource again. This reuse of wastewater has been practiced around various parts of the world and they have its different kind of applications like power generation, portable & non-potable reuse, recreational & recycling reuse, and irrigation (Goyal and Conant, 2010).

 One of the major infrastructure projects in the wastewater sector that reflects development in a country is the attention of the government towards health and environmental aspects. In modern wastewater networks, the wastewater networks are protected from groundwater is service and wastewater leakage can pollute the fresh underground water reservoirs. To introduce new technologies in the field of wastewater treatment the proper wastewater treatment is required by using state of art technologies. The choice of intermittent cyclic extended aeration system, as well as membrane and bioreactor systems, are based on traditional wastewater treatment systems that extend the water cleaning process. The activated sludge system in wastewater treatment plants and the extended aeration process is considered traditional. While on the other hand modern technologies can be used to deal with the different treatment phases of wastewater. Some of the procedures to clean the wastewater includes dismissal of wastewater, reuse of safe and healthy water, and treatment of wastewater is one of the necessary procedure to deal with healthy environment developed in a society. 

Amid the period 1979 via 1994 development of water equipment concentrated principally on crisis arrangements in regions where security conditions were great (Ministry of Rural Development, 2002). All the more as of late, the concentration has moved from crisis alleviation to long haul improvement. In rustic Oman to supply water by means of hand pump wells or shallow, hand burrowed (open) wells to decrease the danger of contamination during waterborne sickness.. (MRD, 2002)

It is reviewed that according to author Vinothkuumar & et.al (2008), built up a connection between a rate of heat exchange coefficient among water as well as glass and rate of convective warmth exchange coefficient from water to glass dependent on Lewis connection. Creator completed the nitty gritty survey of different plans of dynamic solar stills and featured on different parameters influencing the execution of these sun-powered. They completed warm displaying for different kinds of dynamic single slant sun based refining framework and featured on the degree for further zones of research. The author planned basic Solar Still as yet utilizing tubes to desalinate the ocean water. The vanishing area involves even straightforward thin-walled plastic/glass containers of 0.10– 0.25 m internal distance across, half-loaded up with ocean water which retains sun-powered radiation. Author Carried out a recorded survey on desalination procedures as well as sustainable power source use with an accentuation on sun oriented energy use for desalination plus presumed that what is another advancement for us will be a history for cutting edge's the most prudent sun-powered still made a cost investigation of 17 prevalent plans of sun based stills and inferred that the best normal and best greatest day by day efficiency is for sun based stills of single incline and pyramid formed, the most elevated normal yearly profitability was accounted for Pyramid molded sun based still as 1533L/m2 and the least normal yearly profitability was assessed for altered still with sun following framework as 250 L/m2. (Vinothkuumar & et.al, 2008)

2.1 Water Background of Exploring Factors Influencing Delays on Wastewater Projects in Oman

1 Time to evacuation in case of a storm

In the case of the storm, the time to evacuation available generally 72 hours through its changes in a few hours. Where the time to evacuation is the period among the actual occurrence of the emergency. 

2 Traffic Volume Analysis

Time efficient and safe movements of the peoples, as well as the goods, are depending on the traffic flow that is directly connected to the characteristics of the traffic. Traffic flows have three main components speed, volume, and the density. In the case of the storm, the flow of the traffic is increased, due to the reduction of visibility plus the pavement friction. 

3 Population estimation

In the climate changes on the coastal flooding, a combination of the growing population is raising the sea level to create the major hazards. Approximately 160 million populations, around 50% lived in a coastal flood plain. (Lumbroso & et.al, 2017) 

2.2 Possible Wastewater Reusing Options of Exploring Factors Influencing Delays on Wastewater Projects in Oman

The treated wastewater has been observed to be reused in urban areas of different countries like the United States, the Middle East region as well as European countries. These countries have made sure that they reuse this water in urban areas. There are various kinds of urban reuses for treated wastewater like irrigation is done for highway medians, golf courses, public parks, commercial properties & residential buildings landscape areas as well as public parks. There are few more urban reuse facilities like laundry, vehicle washing, street fountains for decoration in streets, toilet flushing, fire protection, construction projects usage as well as dust control. In the Mediterranean region as well as Southern Europe, there are various local water deficiencies, which are compensated through such kind of projects so that environments’ quality is preserved (Lu and Leung, 2003). The application of reuse water in Europe comes with golf course irrigation as the most used method, because the consumption rate of this method is high as compared to other methods. The urban non-potable reuse like car wash, road cleaning, toilet flushing, irrigation, fountains, fire protection, and waterfalls etc. are becoming as the most crucial elements in reuse of wastewater and developing as a policy of integrated water management (IWM), which is largely being applied in urban settings of UAE, Morocco, Tunisia, Egypt, Europe, Japan and United States (Lazarova et al., 2001).

The use of wastewater in agriculture and domestic purposes is increasing so many years however the plant used for the treatment of wastewater was introduced tow three decades ago. The demand for water is dramatically increasing with the increase in technological development, the urbanization industrialization and population growth are different procedures that reduce stress on the natural water cycle. In response to different problems the professionals a call wastewater treatment as a planned process to reuse that treated wastewater and to use reliable alternative water sources. Responses to this problem emphasize on the use of water in non-portable and Agriculture. The initial emphasized mainly on the trends along with the beneficial uses Woodbury claimed a water industry energy production, restore ration of aligning aquafire and portable uses of these opportunities and applications. Government is responsible for managing to operate and building wastewater projects in the Muscat government. According to the higher whatever the anti pitting trend is related to the generation of clear and clean water by treating wastewater and according to the research of 2017 80% of those are connected with the sewer network. Therefore these companies are working to start new procedures and to explore several options for the disposal and the uses of wastewater. The company is treating a large number of wastewater treatment plants that produce 7 million cubic meters as a large volume of treated wastewater.

The world’s 70% water is used for irrigation purposes, whether it comes from underground pumping or water coming from rivers. It means that there will be a food shortage for the world if there is a shortage of water due to any given reasons. The situation in this regard is quite critical in the region of North Africa as well as the Middle East. There are water resources, which are conventional and they have been exploited in various parts of the world including Jordan, Yemen, Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, Oman, UAE, and Saudi Arabia. The prediction has been made that if things continue like this, then water resources will be completely exploited within the next ten years or so. The semi-arid, as well as arid regions such as Oman, are in a critical condition because fresh waters reserves have reached their ultimate limits, so needs for wastewater recycling is crucial as well as single affordable method to be used for different agricultural activities (Kretschmer et. al., 2003).

The food crops can be irrigated with the help of recycled wastewater with high quality. On the other hand, it can also be used for purposes like irrigation of non-food crops like fiber & fodder, golf courses, pasture lands, and commercial nurseries (Wallace, 2000). There are various sources for polluting the lakes & rivers, and wastewater is one of them. Its use in irrigation can also be questionable because there is a possibility that it would pollute the underground and soil water. The issue is at the same level both for rural & urban environments. It means that it is need of the time to look at the pros and cons of wastewater reuse for various purposes including irrigation, and it should be made sure that effective water management, as well as treatment methods, are used regarding the reuse of wastewater for the purpose of irrigation so that environmental pollution and public health issues can be handled (Valencia et al., 2011).

There are many future challenges waiting for the world, and one of them is the good enough supply of irrigation water as the population of the world is consistently growing. It is required that suitable policy and strategy is adopted regarding wastewater management and treatment so that various objectives can be achieved such as the scarcity of water resources should be spread through awareness, the negative effects of contaminated water on environment & human health, and the water resources’ increasing competition (Bouwer, 2000). After analyzing both positive and negative elements, it can be said that wastewater is always considered to be a risk for the environment and human health, even when it is treated for reuse. Moreover, the time gap between the requirement by irrigated agriculture and wastewater supply is another issue because it is costly to store wastewater. That’s why there are various things to be kept in mind while managing and planning agriculture reuse projects with wastewater such as psychological, technical, environmental, financial, social and legal aspects (Lazarova et al., 2001).

The countries which are considering or actually implementing the wastewater reuse for agricultural purposes, they must realize that they have to deeply study and analyze the elements associated with it so that proper strategy is derived and qualified entities are developed for managing the whole process. The developing countries cannot effectively use this process because they don’t have system and institutions to adequately manage and continue the process of wastewater reuse in various projects and activities (Valencia et al., 2011).

2.3 Groundwater Recharge of Exploring Factors Influencing Delays on Wastewater Projects in Oman

The 97% water of the planet is oceans’ salt water, and out of remaining 3%, the ice polar, mountains and snow water is 2%, which means the quantity of fresh water is only 1%. In this fresh water, the ratio of surface water is just 2%, and the remaining 98% freshwater comes from groundwater sources. The formation of groundwater is done by extreme rainfalls, and this water goes deep into the surface, and its percolation is done to reach groundwater and formation of aquifers. For humid and mild climates, almost 50% precipitation is infiltrated into the water beneath the ground (Durham et al., 2002).

The 10 to 20 percent precipitation in Mediterranean climates goes into the groundwater, and ratio for the dry climates can only be 1% or it can be even less than 1% in various cases. The natural recharge rate determine and give an estimate that how much water pumped from underground sources is safe for various uses for sustainable purposes. There are so many regions of the world, where groundwater is the only major source of fresh water, and that’s why the quantity of water pumped from underground is more than the actual recharge rate, which means that level of underground water is quickly going down. The experts in this field have raised serious questions on this practice, as they believe that such wells will be dry very soon if an excessive amount of water will be kept pumping in such areas. That’s why it is important to avoid any such situation by using artificial recharge method for the underground water. It has been mentioned earlier that 98% fresh water for this world is taken from underground sources, so there are lots of opportunities to recharge the water aquifers. This artificial recharge can be achieved with the application of water on the surface of the land when water is infiltrated in soil (Asano and Cotruvo, 2004).

The aquifer recharge has been found to be the most important method in reclaiming water by augmentation of water supply with the wastewater treatment, especially in dry areas. In coastal potable as well as non-potable aquifers, the reclaimed wastewater can be a handful for reducing the intrusion of saltwater with the help of groundwater recharge. It also helps in preventing the ground subsidence. There are areas, where agricultural irrigation is extensive; the aquifers are means to store ground recharge water, which eliminates the need for developing storing facilities so that other seasonal and occasional demands can be met for crops irrigation (Durham et al., 2002).

There are a few potential issues identified with the flow as well as future farming in addition to aquaculture rehearses that may affect water quality. The Environmental Justice Foundation (2002) recognized a few apprehensions with respect to pesticide use in Oman. In spite of the fact that this class of pesticides is restricted under Oman law, powerless authorization adds to proceeded to advertise nearness. There has been a proposal that Oman has turned into a dumping ground for pesticides prohibited in more created nations. The examined angle in two beachfront areas in Oman, as well as three inland waterway areas; green mussels, were tested from six waterfront areas. Below demonstrate that in the vicinity of 1989 furthermore 1998, pesticide imports to Oman multiplied, however, stayed level in the vicinity of 1998 moreover 2002. The investigation in Takeo region demonstrated 87% of the 120 ranchers reviewed utilized pesticides plus that there has been a relentless increment in pesticide use from 1993 to present. (Chenda & at.al, 2002)

Figure: pesticide imports to Cambodia

In Oman, access to protected as well as clean water remains a test, especially for country family units as access to water offices along with foundation is constrained outside the fundamental urban communities

References of Exploring Factors Influencing Delays on Wastewater Projects in Oman

References of Exploring Factors Influencing Delays on Wastewater Projects in Oman

Chenda & at.al, 2002. Agro-Chemical Use in Cambodia, Case Study in Tramkak and Traing District,, s.l.: Royal Government of Cambodia..

Lumbroso, D. . & et.al, 2017. Enhancing resilience to coastal flooding from severe storms in the USA: international lessons. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., Volume 17, pp. 1357–1373,.

MRD, 2002. Drinking Water Quality in Cambodia,, s.l.: s.n.

Vinothkuumar, K. & et.al, 2008. Performance study on solar still with enhanced condensation’. Desalination. Volume 230, p. 51–61.