Wastewater Research in Oman of Exploring Factors Influencing Delays on Wastewater Projects in Oman

In Oman, extensive studies have been carried out on wastewater by several researchers. Meanwhile, when it comes to sludge research, there is comparatively less information available in the published studies. Wastewater studies have focused on aquifer recharge with the use of treated wastewater, effects on soil, and increasing crops among other relating problems (Alkhamisi et al, 2015). Sludge researches paid more attention to quality and its likely utilization in the production of crop and remediation of sites which are contaminated (Al-Busaidi, 2014). In accordance with the report which has been published recently by Haya water (2016), seems to offer information treated wastewater quality in the region.

A research was carried out with the aim of increasing the utilization of treated wastewater, with the identification of crops at short-season, supplementation of groundwater, and alteration of the area under crop cultivation. Field studies were carried out for assessing the yield elements of maize, cowpea, and wheat crops grown with the water for irrigation. It is shown by results that with the conjunctive utilization of groundwater with treated wastewater (supposing the salinity of irrigation of 1 dS/m and TWW or treated wastewater availability of approximately 38,267 m3 per day) area of cropping can raised to 2245 ha from 695 ha of wheat, 346–754 ha maize (318% increment), and 313–782 ha cowpea (250% increment). 57.6% of the overall requirement of irrigation 24.24 M m3 was to be reached with treated wastewater and groundwater had to reach 42.4 percent. It was confirmed by field studies that yield parameters of maize, cowpea, and wheat were increased by TWW irrigation without any negative influence (Alkhamisi et al, 2015).

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TWW, in the second study, was utilized for comparing two application methods of irrigation water: raised furrow bed and drip. The aim of this research was to alter the system to furrow bed while evaluating its efficiency of water use compared to the system of drip irrigation. Wheat was the crop which was tested and is grown as a forage crop for grain production and livestock in Oman. And each of the plots had an irrigation system of either a furrow bed or drip with a width of 60 cm. The division of plots was random, using block design with 2 treatments (irrigation method: drip and furrow bed; water source: TWW and freshwater) and 3 replications. With the seeding of wheat, parameters for plants and soil were evaluated. On a daily basis, drippers were used for irrigating plants or five days in a single week by furrows on the basis of the value of crop evapotranspiration.

From the data of soil salinity, it was identified that some salts were added by both of the methods to the zone of roots with fewer founds identified in the method of furrow bed because of the heavy process of leaching taking place during irrigation. But, a significant difference wasn’t shown by general data in salinity among both methods of irrigation. Considering the fact that TWW has extra nutrients in comparison with freshwater, hence the growth of the plant was more efficient with TWW in comparison with freshwater. In general, all data collected from methods of irrigation did not show a great difference. Data on water productivity offered better results in terms of furrow bed in comparison with the drip method. Furrow bed’s higher efficiency is indicated by this in comparison with the old technique of furrow irrigation. But it is important to note that drip irrigation could be more effective in decreasing the evaporation of water while furrow bed is a simple method in obtaining satiable yield with high productivity and low cost (Al-Busaidi et al, 2014).

A research was conducted by Al-Busaidi et al (2015) for evaluating the effectiveness of TWW for date palm irrigation and monitoring the division of heavy metals such as Zn, Fe, Mn, Pb, Cd, Cr, and Cu, etc. among fruits, plants, and soil. It was identified by results that their concentration in both TWW and groundwater were matching the global standards. At the studied placed, there were great variations in the concentrations of heavy metal in soil. Their concentrations, in most cases, were comparatively higher in soils which were irrigated with TWW in comparison with soils which were irrigated by groundwater. In general, their concentrations in leaves of data palm weren’t that different in plants for which groundwater or TWW was used. But there were variations in concentrations in the data fruits which were irrigated with a number of water sources. In date fruits, concentrations of some specific metals like Ni, Zn, and Fe were higher in plants which were irrigated with wastewater while other elements like B, Pb, Cd, and Cu were significantly higher in plants treated with groundwater. In all of the cases, concentrations were matching passable limits. Hence, long-term influences of TWW didn’t point out any negative effects of using wastewater and groundwater on the mineral composition of fruit including the present heavy metals.

The aim of another study was to determine the tools or means for optimizing the reuse of treated water in a conjunction with other resources of water by taking their quality and quantity into consideration, in addition to economic, environmental, and agronomic factors. The research was carried out in an open field at the Oman University of Sultan Qaboos. Eggplant, okra, and radish were irrigated and grown by 4 kinds of waters (A: 50-50 percent of both TWW and groundwater, B: complete groundwater, C: twenty-five percent groundwater and seventy-five the TWW, and D: complete TWW). Physiochemical properties of soil didn’t show a significant difference with irrigation using TWW in comparison with groundwater. Meanwhile, an increment was determined in certain chemical properties when TWW was applied like major elements like K, P, N, and total carbon. Physical analysis of crop indicated a significant increment in productivity of plant when TWW was used for irrigation with minor changes in concentrations of metals among treatments and biological contamination was has absent from crop yield (Al-Busaidi and Ahmed, 2015).

Improvement of properties of soil and investigation of the percentage of heavy metals in amended soil and sludge has been another aspect of research on sewage sludge. Even though sewage sludge’s land application has proved to be effective because it is significantly rich in nutrients of inorganic and organic plant, trace metals in sludge are of concern regarding their impact on animal and human health. Trace metals’ bioavailability relies significantly on properties of soil like rate and length of sludge application, manganese and iron oxides, clay content, redox potential, and soil pH. Another issue is the health and environmental risks which are posed by the presence of organic chemicals in the sludge of sewage (Harrison et al. 2006).

The interest of the Haya Water Organization is in knowing how willing farmers are in buying if a project of sending water to farms from treatment plants was implemented. Such an estimate would allow an organization to evaluate the financial viability of this project. A significant proportion of owners of farms in the research area are leisure/hobby, i.e. farming being undertaken by farmers not for financial profits but as a hobby. Meanwhile, treated water is not available to Omani farmers yet and hence, its importance is unknown. These conditions seem to warrant the utilization of CVM for estimating TW value. A theoretical review of CVM (Gunatilake, et.al, 2007) and its applications for estimating WTP for the supply of water is offered by Gunatilake, et.al. (2007). Survey techniques are used by CVM for eliciting WTP of commodities which are non-marketed and where indirect or revealed techniques of valuation cannot be implemented. In CVM, WTP is expressed by respondents on an explained hypothetical situation, as in this research the TW supply. Only some studies have been considered for estimating it for TW in comparison with researches on fresh water supply for domestic and irrigation use with the utilization of CVM.

CVM has been utilized by Abu-Madi (2004) with a game of bidding to identify the willingness of farmers to offer money for reclaimed wastewater in Tunisia and Jordan. In answer to suitable prices, farmers have to reply either in no or yes for TW differing among $0.25-0/m3 with an increment in bids by $ 0.05/m3. In addition, a logit model was utilized while responses to 7 bids are considered as a dependent variable. It was indicated by results that higher rates of water and higher profit of farmers increase the WTP of farmers. Almost eighty-four percent of respondents indicated an interest in taking reclaimed TW only if the cost was $0.05/m3. When the price reached $ 0.10/m3, a decrement in percentage occurred to 47 percent. Benefits have been estimated by Tziakis et al., (2009) from reuse and treatment of wastewater using CVM in Crete of the northwest. A model of Tobit regression has been utilized with 2 dependent variables, viz; and WTP for the provision of WTP and wastewater treatment as the percentage of fresh water cost. It was indicated by tier results that WTP of farmers on average for recycled water 61.2 percent. And farmers with even higher income (almost 1800-1200 €/month)  are willing to offer money for recycled wastewater with a higher average bid in comparison with farmers who had lower incomes (>1200 € per month).

CVM has been utilized by Alebel et al., (2009) in Ethiopia, Addis Ababa for determining the value of irrigation through wastewater. It has been identified by authors that irrigation experience, net annual revenue, education, and policy option influenced the WTP of farmers in terms of wastewater. It has been highlighted by authors that WTP of farmers for crop production and wastewater increases with an increment in income. Non-market benefits of citizens of Murcia were estimated by Alcon et al., (2010) in terms of improved wastewater treatment utilized for farming on Segura River. CVM was utilized by them for determining WTP of citizens to preserve the ecological condition of the river. The optimum WTP was seemingly obtained through a question which was open-ended while payment vehicle is an increment on a monthly basis in the water bill. In the study, Tobil model was considered while visits to the river, income size, gender, education level, and age were independent variables. It was determined by results that $0.34 per m3 was average WTP. Participants who had large families were paying less while those who utilized the river for the only recreation were paying more compared to them.

In terms of TW, WTP of farmers was analyzed by Alfarra et.al., (2013) in Jordan Valley for evaluating TW’s future demand considering the increment in supply and if a higher price will be paid by farmers in the future to cover a larger cost portion. 0.01 $ per m3 was being paid by farmers for both TW and freshwater. Farmers were presented with six bids with TW prices varying from the present cost to a cost almost 10 times higher. In the study, a structured logit model which is derived from a model of logistic regression for dependent variables was used. A dependent variable was WTP while twelve independent variables varying to religious prohibition from the cultivated area were utilized in the model. Main findings were concerned with the fact that higher profits of the farm are associated with higher bids; lower prices of water negatively influence the decision of farmers on WTM; and on WTP, lower bids were made by farmers with significant concerns.

Tang et al. (2013) and Azahara et al., (2012) in China and Spain respectively utilized CVM for estimating WTP for the warranted supply of water for irrigation under conditions of scarcity and willingness to offer more for water. It has been indicated by Azahara et al., (2012) that participants with a high gross income/hectare were seemingly willing to offer more for service improvement of the warranted supply of water in comparison to farmers who had lower income. It has been indicated by Tang et al., (2013) that households who have a higher income seem to have a higher WTP mean for water irrigation. Ministry of Water Resources and Regional Municipalities has determined that over-pumping of annual groundwater has increased more than 316 M/m3 as of now (MRMWR, 2013). Furthermore, the decreasing quality of water from the ground has added more constraints (Zekri, 2009). It can be said that the land affected by the salinity of groundwater because of over-extraction of seawater and groundwater intrusion has been measured to be seventy percent of the national agricultural arable area (Al-Rawahy et al., 2010).

Challenges and issues that occur in the wastewater treatment plant in Oman

The challenges and issues that occur in the wastewater management treatment plan in Oman are as mentioned below:

Inappropriate policies from the government of Exploring Factors Influencing Delays on Wastewater Projects in Oman

Even though the government of Oman has already made many efforts for the wastewater treatment plan in the country, but still, there is a lack of policies which support the plan. For example, there is no appropriate policy from the government to guide the allocation of funds to increase the progress of the wastewater treatment plan itself. The government of Oman still has not established for appropriate laws, procedures, and also the monitoring standards that will able to promote the progress of wastewater treatment systems. There is no commitment from the government to pronounce the wastewater policy along with the strategy for the entire countries of the region, especially the countries that suffering from the water inadequacy (World Health Organization, 2005).

High-cost of wastewater treatment systems

 The government of Oman is challenged by the high cost of wastewater treatment systems, which considered to be above the previous financial budget. If the country wants to apply the proper wastewater treatment systems, the government need to spend more budget to get the systems. Until now, Oman is still using low-cost and practical systems to apply to the wastewater treatment plan. As a result, the systems might not be suitable for the local circumstance of the country (Zimmo & Imseih, 2010).

Lack of proper wastewater treatment systems of Exploring Factors Influencing Delays on Wastewater Projects in Oman

So far, Oman still does not have a conservative and centralized wastewater collection along with the treatment systems. The country still needs to figure out for proper wastewater treatment systems which will able to be applied by using the latest technologies. However, the high-costs of wastewater treatment systems seems to be the reason for this issue to occur. In addition to this, there is still a lack of integrity and credibility of data entered in the system that will provide the databases for the experts and scientists (World Health Organization, 2005).

Lack of experts to support the plan of Exploring Factors Influencing Delays on Wastewater Projects in Oman

 There is a lack of experts to support the wastewater treatment plan in Oman since there are no educational programs in any colleges or university that related to wastewater treatment. There is still a lack of educational programs available in the country for sanitary engineers, analytical chemists, or microbiologists as well. Until now, the wastewater treatment plan in Oman still considered being a lack of engineers, laboratory analyst, plant operators, planners, and also decision-makers. The country also needs planners and design engineers who will collaborate with the farmers to make well-prepared design along with the management instructions for the wastewater treatment plan (Zimmo & Imseih, 2010).

Environmental impacts of Exploring Factors Influencing Delays on Wastewater Projects in Oman

 There is some evidence of environmental impacts from wastewater treatment plan in Oman. For example, such as the amount of pollution that impact on public health and also harm the environment as well. Some of the people that live in the area of wastewater treatment plan has been complaining about the impact that the treatment has made to the environment as well (World Health Organization, 2005).

Haya water treatment plants  of Exploring Factors Influencing Delays on Wastewater Projects in Oman

Haya water treatment plants now produce about 158 thousand cubic meter ​of Treated Water per day, and this will increase to 220 million liters per day when the project is completed by 2020. It is expected that 80% of Muscat residents will be connected to the sewage networks by that time. This in turn will contribute to increasing the greenery in Muscat Wilayats in addition to increasing agricultural productivity in the coast of Al Batinah.

The company Haya Water is financially very strong. As the products they are going to serve to the people are of the best quality. The quality matters a lot to the customers as they are going to purchase it with money. The financial condition of this website is very much efficient and précised as well as they are going to manage the price-quantity from the user that they are going to work on the prices very much efficiently and easily as well as the finance department of the company deals and manages the best deals by offering some discounts to the customers in terms of making customers more attractive towards their website. The finance department is very much important to consider keenly in terms of maintaining the actual needs of the finance department of the company.

Haya water are planning to do investment in a way in which they are going to makes their future investment more secure and hence they are going to increase their working efficiency very much improved and unique. The thing is that the more you try your new ways the better you consider yourself a successful career ahead. Haya waters are very much purified and they use appropriate hygienic techniques in order to increase the working nature of the haya waters in terms of increasing its revenue and sales amount. They are planning to invest OMR in their water plants. OMR techniques are used to purify water.

There are the few factors that are becoming the cause of the delays in the water treatment projects in Oman. These factors are;

·         Financial Status

·         Personnel

·         Work request control

·         Level of service Water quality

·         Community Management

·         Materials and equipment

·         Client opinions and satisfaction

All of these are considered as the independent variables. The water treatment plant (WTMP)  are the dependent variables.

Theoretical Frame work of Exploring Factors Influencing Delays on Wastewater Projects in Oman

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