1000 point grading scale snhu

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To the Student . . . from the Author xix To the Instructor . . . from the Author xx About the Author xxxi

1 The Sociological Perspective 1 The Sociological Perspective 3

Seeing the Broader Social Context 3 The Global Context—and the Local 4

Sociology and the Other Sciences 5 The Natural Sciences 5 The Social Sciences 5

Anthropology  6  •  Economics  6  •  politicAl  sciEncE  6  •  psychology   6  •  sociology  6

The Goals of Science 7 The Risks of Being a Sociologist 8

Origins of Sociology 8 Tradition versus Science 8 Auguste Comte and Positivism 9 Herbert Spencer and Social Darwinism 9 Karl Marx and Class Conflict 10 Emile Durkheim and Social Integration 11

Applying DurkhEim  12

Max Weber and the Protestant Ethic 13 rEligion AnD thE origin of cApitAlism  13

Values in Sociological Research 13

Verstehen and Social Facts 14 Weber and Verstehen 14 Durkheim and Social Facts 15 How Social Facts and Verstehen Fit Together 15

Sociology in North America 16 Sexism at the Time: Women in Early Sociology 16 Racism at the Time: W. E. B. Du Bois 18 Jane Addams: Sociologist and Social Reformer 20

Talcott Parsons and C. Wright Mills: Theory versus Reform 20

The Continuing Tension: Basic, Applied, and Public Sociology 21 BAsic sociology  21 •  AppliED sociology  21  •  puBlic  sociology  21  •  sociAl rEform is risky  22

Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology 23 Symbolic Interactionism 24

symBols in EvEryDAy lifE  24  •  Applying symBolic  intErActionism  24  • 

Functional Analysis 26 roBErt mErton AnD functionAlism  26  •  Applying  functionAl AnAlysis  26

Conflict Theory 28 kArl mArx AnD conflict thEory  28  •  conflict thEory  toDAy  28  •  fEminists AnD conflict thEory  28  •  Applying conflict thEory  29

Putting the Theoretical Perspectives Together 29 Levels of Analysis: Macro and Micro 29

Trends Shaping the Future of Sociology 30 Sociology’s Tension: Research versus Reform 30

thrEE stAgEs in sociology  30  •  DivErsity of  oriEntAtions  30

Globalization 31 ApplicAtion of gloBAlizAtion to this tExt  31

summary and review  31 thinking critically about chapter 1 33

2 Culture 34 What Is Culture? 36

Culture and Taken-for-Granted Orientations to Life 36 Practicing Cultural Relativism 38

AttAck on culturAl rElAtivism  42

Components of Symbolic Culture 42 Gestures 42

misunDErstAnDing AnD offEnsE 42  •  univErsAl  gEsturEs? 43

Language 43 lAnguAgE Allows humAn ExpEriEncE to BE  cumulAtivE 44  •  lAnguAgE proviDEs A sociAl  or shArED pAst 44  •  lAnguAgE proviDEs A sociAl  or shArED futurE 44  •  lAnguAgE Allows shArED  pErspEctivEs 44  •  lAnguAgE Allows shArED,  goAl-DirEctED BEhAvior 45

Language and Perception: The Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis 46 Values, Norms, and Sanctions 46 Folkways, Mores, and Taboos 48

Many Cultural Worlds 49 Subcultures 49 Countercultures 52

Values in U.S. Society 52 An Overview of U.S. Values 52 Value Clusters 53 Value Contradictions 53 An Emerging Value Cluster 54 When Values Clash 55 Values as Distorting Lenses 55 “Ideal” versus “Real” Culture 55

Cultural Universals 56

Sociobiology and Human Behavior 57

Technology in the Global Village 58 The New Technology 58 Cultural Lag and Cultural Change 58 Technology and Cultural Leveling 60 summary and review 61 thinking critically about chapter 2 62

Contents

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vi  contents

3 Socialization 63 Society Makes Us Human 65

Feral Children 65 Isolated Children 66 Institutionalized Children 67

thE orphAnAgE ExpErimEnt in thE unitED stAtEs 67  •  thE orphAnAgE ExpErimEnt in romAniA 68  •  timing  AnD humAn DEvElopmEnt 68

Deprived Animals 69

Socialization into the Self and Mind 70 Cooley and the Looking-Glass Self 70 Mead and Role Taking 70 Piaget and the Development of Reasoning 72 Global Aspects of the Self and Reasoning 73

Learning Personality, Morality, and Emotions 73 Freud and the Development of Personality 73

sociologicAl EvAluAtion 74

Kohlberg and the Development of Morality 74 kohlBErg’s thEory 74  •  criticisms of  kohlBErg 75  •  rEsEArch with BABiEs 75  •  thE  culturAl rElAtivity of morAlity 75

Socialization into Emotions 75 gloBAl Emotions 75  •  ExprEssing Emotions:  “gEnDEr rulEs” 75  •  thE ExtEnt of “fEEling  rulEs” 76  •  whAt wE fEEl  76  •  rEsEArch nEEDED 76

Society within Us: The Self and Emotions as Social Control 77

Socialization into Gender 77 Learning the Gender Map 77 Gender Messages in the Family 77

pArEnts 77  •  toys AnD plAy 78 •  sAmE-sEx pArEnts 80

Gender Messages from Peers 80 Gender Messages in the Mass Media 80

tElEvision, moviEs, AnD cArtoons 81 •  viDEo gAmEs 81  •  ADvErtising 81

Agents of Socialization 83 The Family 83

sociAl clAss AnD typE of work 83 •  sociAl clAss AnD plAy 83

The Neighborhood 84 Religion 84 Day Care 84 The School 85 Peer Groups 85 The Workplace 88

Resocialization 88 Total Institutions 88

Socialization through the Life Course 90 Childhood (from birth to about age 12) 90 Adolescence (ages 13–17) 91 Transitional Adulthood (ages 18–29) 91

“Bring your pArEnts to work DAy.” 92

The Middle Years (ages 30–65) 92 thE EArly miDDlE yEArs (AgEs 30–49) 92 •  thE lAtEr miDDlE yEArs (AgEs 50–65) 92

The Older Years (about age 65 on) 92 thE trAnsitionAl olDEr yEArs (AgEs 65–74) 92  •  thE lAtEr olDEr yEArs (AgE 75 or so on) 93

Applying the Sociological Perspective to the Life Course 93

Are We Prisoners of Socialization? 93 summary and review 94 thinking critically about chapter 3 95

4 Social Structure and Social Interaction 96 Levels of Sociological Analysis 98

Macrosociology and Microsociology 98

The Macrosociological Perspective: Social Structure 99 The Sociological Significance of Social Structure 99 Culture 101 Social Class 101 Social Status 101

stAtus sEts 101  •  AscriBED AnD AchiEvED  stAtusEs 101  •  stAtus symBols 102  •  mAstEr  stAtusEs 102  •  stAtus inconsistEncy 102

Roles 103 Groups 103 Social Institutions 104 Comparing Functionalist and Conflict Perspectives 105

thE functionAlist pErspEctivE 105  •  thE conflict  pErspEctivE 106 

Changes in Social Structure 106 What Holds Society Together? 106

mEchAnicAl AnD orgAnic soliDArity 106 •  Gemeinschaft AnD Gesellschaft 107 •  how rElEvAnt ArE thEsE concEpts toDAy? 107

The Microsociological Perspective: Social Interaction in Everyday Life 109

Symbolic Interaction 109 stErEotypEs in EvEryDAy lifE 109  •  pErsonAl  spAcE 113  •  EyE contAct 114  •   smiling 114 •  BoDy lAnguAgE 114  •  AppliED BoDy lAnguAgE 114

Dramaturgy: The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life 114 stAgEs 115  •  rolE pErformAncE, conflict, AnD  strAin  115  •  sign-vEhiclEs 115  •  tEAmwork 116 •  BEcoming thE rolEs wE plAy 118  •  Applying  imprEssion mAnAgEmEnt 118

Ethnomethodology: Uncovering Background Assumptions 119 The Social Construction of Reality 120   •  gynEcologicAl ExAminAtions 120

The Need for both Macrosociology and Microsociology 122 summary and review 125 thinking critically about chapter 4 126

5 How Sociologists Do Research 127 What Is a Valid Sociological Topic? 129

Common Sense and the Need for Sociological Research 129

A Research Model 129 1. Selecting a Topic 130 2. Defining the Problem 130

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contents vii

3. Reviewing the Literature 130 4. Formulating a Hypothesis 130 5. Choosing a Research Method 130 6. Collecting the Data 130 7. Analyzing the Results 131 8. Sharing the Results 131

Research Methods (Designs) 131 Surveys 133

sElEcting A sAmplE 133  •  Asking nEutrAl  QuEstions 134  •  QuEstionnAirEs AnD  intErviEws 134  •  EstABlishing rApport 136

Participant Observation (Fieldwork) 136 Case Studies 137 Secondary Analysis 137 Analysis of Documents 137 Experiments 139 Unobtrusive Measures 141 Deciding Which Method to Use 141 Controversy in Sociological Research 141

Gender in Sociological Research 143

Ethics in Sociological Research 143 Protecting the Subjects: The Brajuha Research 144 Misleading the Subjects: The Humphreys Research 144