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Organizational Change And Stress Management

How have advances in information technology changed the way organizations are structured and designed today?
Examine your own work life: consider the jobs you have held and organizations with which you have been associated. Based on your experiences, what type of organizational structure appears to suit you best? Why? Relate your own attitudes, behaviors, and values to the organizational structures described in this chapter.
As technology advances further in the years to come, how do you think the nature of leadership in work organizations is likely to change organizations’ culture?

Organizational Behavior

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Organizational Behavior

15 Stephen P. Robbins —San Diego State University

Timothy A. Judge —University of Notre Dame

E D I T I O N

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Robbins, Stephen P. Organizational behavior / Stephen P. Robbins, Timothy A. Judge. — 15th ed. p. cm. Includes indexes. ISBN-13: 978-0-13-283487-2 ISBN-10: 0-13-283487-1 1. Organizational behavior. I. Judge, Tim. II. Title.

HD58.7.R62 2012 658.3—dc23 2011038674

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN 10: 0-13-283487-1 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-283487-2

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Brief Contents

The Individual

2 Diversity in Organizations 39 3 Attitudes and Job Satisfaction 69 4 Emotions and Moods 97 5 Personality and Values 131 6 Perception and Individual Decision Making 165 7 Motivation Concepts 201 8 Motivation: From Concepts to Applications 239

The Group

9 Foundations of Group Behavior 271 10 Understanding Work Teams 307 11 Communication 335 12 Leadership 367 13 Power and Politics 411 14 Conflict and Negotiation 445 15 Foundations of Organization Structure 479

Preface xxii

v

Introduction

1 What Is Organizational Behavior? 3

vi BRIEF CONTENTS

Appendix A Research in Organizational Behavior 616

Comprehensive Cases 623

Indexes 637 Glindex 663

4 The Organization System 16 Organizational Culture 511 17 Human Resource Policies and Practices 543 18 Organizational Change and Stress Management 577

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Contents

Preface xxii

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Introduction

1 What Is Organizational Behavior? 3 The Importance of Interpersonal Skills 4

What Managers Do 5 Management Functions 6 • Management Roles 6 • Management Skills 8 • Effective versus Successful Managerial Activities 8 • A Review of the Manager’s Job 9

Enter Organizational Behavior 10

Complementing Intuition with Systematic Study 11

Disciplines That Contribute to the OB Field 13 Psychology 14 • Social Psychology 14 • Sociology 14 • Anthropology 14

There Are Few Absolutes in OB 14

Challenges and Opportunities for OB 15 Responding to Economic Pressures 15 • Responding to Globalization 16 • Managing Workforce Diversity 18 • Improving Customer Service 18 • Improving People Skills 19 • Stimulating Innovation and Change 20 • Coping with “Temporariness” 20 • Working in Networked Organizations 20 • Helping Employees Balance Work–Life Conflicts 21 • Creating a Positive Work Environment 22 • Improving Ethical Behavior 22

Coming Attractions: Developing an OB Model 23 An Overview 23 • Inputs 24 • Processes 25 • Outcomes 25

Summary and Implications for Managers 30

Self-Assessment Library How Much Do I Know About Organizational Behavior? 4 Myth or Science? “Most Acts of Workplace Bullying Are Men Attacking Women” 12 An Ethical Choice Can You Learn from Failure? 24 glOBalization! Does National Culture Affect Organizational Practices? 30 Point/Counterpoint Lost in Translation? 31

Questions for Review 32 Experiential Exercise Workforce Diversity 32 Ethical Dilemma Jekyll and Hyde 33 Case Incident 1 “Lessons for ‘Undercover’ Bosses” 34 Case Incident 2 Era of the Disposable Worker? 35

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2 The Individual 2 Diversity in Organizations 39

Diversity 40 Demographic Characteristics of the U.S. Workforce 41 • Levels of Diversity 42 • Discrimination 42

Biographical Characteristics 44 Age 44 • Sex 46 • Race and Ethnicity 48 • Disability 48 • Other Biographical Characteristics: Tenure, Religion, Sexual Orientation, and Gender Identity 50

Ability 52 Intellectual Abilities 52 • Physical Abilities 55 • The Role of Disabilities 56

Implementing Diversity Management Strategies 56 Attracting, Selecting, Developing, and Retaining Diverse Employees 56 • Diversity in Groups 58 • Effective Diversity Programs 58

Summary and Implications for Managers 60

Self-Assessment Library What’s My Attitude Toward Older People? 40 Myth or Science? “Dual-Career Couples Divorce Less” 47 An Ethical Choice Religious Tattoos 51 glOBalization! Images of Diversity from Around the Globe 54 Point/Counterpoint Men Have More Mathematical Ability Than Women 61

Questions for Review 62 Experiential Exercise Feeling Excluded 62 Ethical Dilemma Board Quotas 62 Case Incident 1 The Flynn Effect 63 Case Incident 2 Increasing Age Diversity in the Workplace 64

3 Attitudes and Job Satisfaction 69 Attitudes 70 What Are the Main Components of Attitudes? 70 • Does Behavior Always Follow from Attitudes? 71 • What Are the Major Job Attitudes? 73

Job Satisfaction 78 Measuring Job Satisfaction 79 • How Satisfied Are People in Their Jobs? 80 • What Causes Job Satisfaction? 81 • The Impact of Satisfied and Dissatisfied Employees on the Workplace 82

Summary and Implications for Managers 88

Self-Assessment Library How Satisfied Am I with My Job? 70

An Ethical Choice Do Employers Owe Workers More Satisfying Jobs? 74 glOBalization! Culture and Work–Life Balance 76 Self-Assessment Library Am I Engaged? 78 Myth or Science? “Favorable Job Attitudes Make Organizations More Profitable” 83 Point/Counterpoint Employer–Employee Loyalty Is an Outdated Concept 87

Questions for Review 88 Experiential Exercise What Factors Are Most Important to Your Job Satisfaction? 89 Ethical Dilemma Bounty Hunters 89 Case Incident 1 Long Hours, Hundreds of E-Mails, and No Sleep: Does This Sound Like a Satisfying Job? 90 Case Incident 2 Crafting a Better Job 91

4 Emotions and Moods 97 What Are Emotions and Moods? 98 The Basic Emotions 100 • The Basic Moods: Positive and Negative Affect 100 • The Function of Emotions 102 • Sources of Emotions and Moods 103

Emotional Labor 108

Affective Events Theory 110

Emotional Intelligence 112 The Case for EI 113 • The Case Against EI 114 • Emotion Regulation 115

OB Applications of Emotions and Moods 115 Selection 116 • Decision Making 116 • Creativity 116 • Motivation 117 • Leadership 117 • Negotiation 117 • Customer Service 118 • Job Attitudes 119 • Deviant Workplace Behaviors 119 • Safety and Injury at Work 119 • How Managers Can Influence Moods 120

Summary and Implications for Managers 121

Self-Assessment Library How Are You Feeling Right Now? 98 Self-Assessment Library What’s My Affect Intensity? 104 Myth or Science? We Are Better Judges of When Others Are Happy Than When They Are Sad 107

glOBalization! Should You Expect “Service with a Smile” All Around the World? 108 Self-Assessment Library What’s My Emotional Intelligence Score? 115 An Ethical Choice Schadenfreude 120 Point/Counterpoint Sometimes Blowing Your Top Is a Good Thing 122

Questions for Review 121 Experiential Exercise Who Can Catch a Liar? 123 Ethical Dilemma Happiness Coaches for Employees 123 Case Incident 1 Is It Okay to Cry at Work? 124 Case Incident 2 Can You Read Emotions from Faces? 124

5 Personality and Values 131 Personality 133 What Is Personality? 133 • The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator 135 • The Big Five Personality Model 136 • Other Personality Traits Relevant to OB 139

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Values 144 The Importance of Values 144 • Terminal versus Instrumental Values 144 • Generational Values 145

Linking an Individual’s Personality and Values to the Workplace 148 Person–Job Fit 148 • Person–Organization Fit 150

International Values 150

Summary and Implications for Managers 154

Self-Assessment Library Am I a Narcissist? 132 Myth or Science? Personality Predicts the Performance of Entrepreneurs 142 glOBalization! The Right Personality for a Global Workplace 143 An Ethical Choice Should You Try to Change Someone’s Personality? 147 Point/Counterpoint Millennials Are More Narcissistic 155

Questions for Review 156 Experiential Exercise What Organizational Culture Do You Prefer? 156 Ethical Dilemma Freedom or Lack of Commitment? 156 Case Incident 1 Is There a Price for Being Too Nice? 157 Case Incident 2 Leadership from an Introvert’s Perspective 158

6 Perception and Individual Decision Making 165 What Is Perception? 166 Factors That Influence Perception 167

Person Perception: Making Judgments About Others 168 Attribution Theory 168 • Common Shortcuts in Judging Others 170 • Specific Applications of Shortcuts in Organizations 173

The Link Between Perception and Individual Decision Making 174

Decision Making in Organizations 175 The Rational Model, Bounded Rationality, and Intuition 175 • Common Biases and Errors in Decision Making 177

Influences on Decision Making: Individual Differences and Organizational Constraints 184 Individual Differences 184 • Organizational Constraints 186

What About Ethics in Decision Making? 187 Three Ethical Decision Criteria 187 • Improving Creativity in Decision Making 188

Summary and Implications for Managers 190

Self-Assessment Library What Are My Gender Role Perceptions? 166 glOBalization! Chinese Time, North American Time 171 Myth or Science? Creative Decision Making Is a Right-Brain Activity 181 Self-Assessment Library Am I A Deliberate Decision Maker? 183 An Ethical Choice Whose Ethical Standards to Follow? 185 Self-Assessment Library How Creative Am I? 190 Point/Counterpoint Checklists Lead to Better Decisions 191

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Questions for Review 192 Experiential Exercise Biases in Decision Making 193 Ethical Dilemma Do Unethical Decisions Come from Bad Character? 193 Case Incident 1 Computerized Decision Making 194 Case Incident 2 Predictions That Didn’t Quite Pan Out 195

7 Motivation Concepts 201 Defining Motivation 202

Early Theories of Motivation 203 Hierarchy of Needs Theory 203 • Theory X and Theory Y 205 • Two-Factor Theory 205 • McClelland’s Theory of Needs 207

Contemporary Theories of Motivation 208 Self-Determination Theory 208 • Job Engagement 211 • Goal-Setting Theory 212 • Self-Efficacy Theory 215 • Reinforcement Theory 218 • Equity Theory/Organizational Justice 219 • Expectancy Theory 224

Integrating Contemporary Theories of Motivation 226

Summary and Implications for Managers 228

Self-Assessment Library How Confident Am I in My Abilities to Succeed? 202 Myth or Science? “The Support of Others Improves Our Chances of Accomplishing Our Goals” 204

An Ethical Choice Motivated to Behave Unethically 209 glOBalization! Autonomy Needs Around the Globe 210 Self-Assessment Library What Are My Course Performance Goals? 214 Point/Counterpoint Fear Is a Powerful Motivator 229

Questions for Review 230 Experiential Exercise Goal-Setting Task 230 Ethical Dilemma The Big Easy? 230 Case Incident 1 It’s Not Fair! 231 Case Incident 2 Bullying Bosses 231

8 Motivation: From Concepts to Applications 239 Motivating by Job Design: The Job Characteristics Model 240 The Job Characteristics Model 240 • How Can Jobs Be Redesigned? 242 • Alternative Work Arrangements 245 • The Social and Physical Context of Work 249

Employee Involvement 250 Examples of Employee Involvement Programs 251 • Linking Employee Involvement Programs and Motivation Theories 252

Using Rewards to Motivate Employees 252 What to Pay: Establishing a Pay Structure 252 • How to Pay: Rewarding Individual Employees Through Variable-Pay Programs 253 • Flexible

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Benefits: Developing a Benefits Package 257 • Intrinsic Rewards: Employee Recognition Programs 259

Summary and Implications for Managers 261

Self-Assessment Library What’s My Job’s Motivating Potential? 240 Myth or Science? “CEO Pay Can’t Be Measured” 243 An Ethical Choice Identifying Conflicts of Interest 258 glOBalization! Motivated by Individual Goals or Relational Goals? 260 Point/Counterpoint “If Money Doesn’t Make You Happy, You Aren’t Spending It Right” 262

Questions for Review 263 Experiential Exercise Assessing Employee Motivation and Satisfaction Using the Job Characteristics Model 263 Ethical Dilemma Spitting Mad 264 Case Incident 1 Multitasking: A Good Use of Your Time? 264 Case Incident 2 Bonuses Can Backfire 265

3 The Group 9 Foundations of Group Behavior 271

Defining and Classifying Groups 272 Why Do People Form Groups? 272

Stages of Group Development 274 The Five-Stage Model 275 • An Alternative Model for Temporary Groups with Deadlines 276

Group Properties: Roles, Norms, Status, Size, Cohesiveness, and Diversity 277 Group Property 1: Roles 277 • Group Property 2: Norms 280 • Group Property 3: Status 285 • Group Property 4: Size 286 • Group Property 5: Cohesiveness 288 • Group Property 6: Diversity 288

Group Decision Making 290 Groups versus the Individual 290 • Groupthink and Groupshift 292 • Group Decision-Making Techniques 295

Summary and Implications for Managers 296

Self-Assessment Library Do I Have a Negative Attitude Toward Working in Groups? 272 Self-Assessment Library Do I Trust Others? 280 glOBalization! Forming International Teams in a Virtual World 291 Myth or Science? “Asians Have Less Ingroup Bias Than Americans” 292 An Ethical Choice Should You Use Group Peer Pressure? 294 Point/Counterpoint Affinity Groups Fuel Business Success 298

Questions for Review 297 Experiential Exercise Wilderness Survival 299 Ethical Dilemma Is Social Loafing Shirking? 300 Case Incident 1 Negative Aspects of Collaboration? 300 Case Incident 2 Herd Behavior and the Housing Bubble (and Collapse) 301

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10 Understanding Work Teams 307 Why Have Teams Become So Popular? 308

Differences Between Groups and Teams 309

Types of Teams 310 Problem-Solving Teams 310 • Self-Managed Work Teams 310 • Cross-Functional Teams 311 • Virtual Teams 312

Creating Effective Teams 312 Context: What Factors Determine Whether Teams Are Successful 313 • Team Composition 315 • Team Processes 319

Turning Individuals into Team Players 322 Selecting: Hiring Team Players 323 • Training: Creating Team Players 324 • Rewarding: Providing Incentives to Be a Good Team Player 324

Beware! Teams Aren’t Always the Answer 324

Summary and Implications for Managers 325

Self-Assessment Library How Good Am I at Building and Leading a Team? 308 glOBalization! Group Cohesiveness across Cultures 314 An Ethical Choice Using Global Virtual Teams as an Environmental Choice 315 Myth or Science? “Teams Work Best Under Angry Leaders” 320 Self-Assessment Library What Is My Team Efficacy? 322 Point/Counterpoint We Can Learn Much About Work Teams from Studying Sports Teams 326

Questions for Review 327 Experiential Exercise Fixed versus Variable Flight Crews 327 Ethical Dilemma Unethical Teams 327 Case Incident 1 Why Don’t Teams Work Like They’re Supposed to? 328 Case Incident 2 Multicultural Multinational Teams at IBM 329

11 Communication 335 Functions of Communication 336

The Communication Process 338

Direction of Communication 338 Downward Communication 339 • Upward Communication 339 • Lateral Communication 339

Interpersonal Communication 340 Oral Communication 340 • Written Communication 341 • Nonverbal Communication 341

Organizational Communication 342 Formal Small-Group Networks 343 • The Grapevine 343 • Electronic Communications 345 • Managing Information 349

Choice of Communication Channel 350

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Persuasive Communications 351 Automatic and Controlled Processing 351 • Interest Level 352 • Prior Knowledge 352 • Personality 352 • Message Characteristics 352

Barriers to Effective Communication 353 Filtering 353 • Selective Perception 353 • Information Overload 353 • Emotions 353 • Language 354 • Silence 354 • Communication Apprehension 355 • Lying 355

Global Implications 356 Cultural Barriers 356 • Cultural Context 357 • A Cultural Guide 358

Summary and Implications for Managers 360

Self-Assessment Library Am I a Gossip? 336 An Ethical Choice The Ethics of Gossip at Work 345 Myth or Science? “We Know What Makes Good Liars Good” 356 glOBalization! How Direct Should You Be? 358 Point/Counterpoint Social Networking Is Good Business 359 Self-Assessment Library How Good Are My Listening Skills? 360

Questions for Review 360 Experiential Exercise An Absence of Nonverbal Communication 361 Ethical Dilemma Pitfalls of E-Mail 361 Case Incident 1 Using Social Media to Your Advantage 362 Case Incident 2 Should Companies That Fire Shoot First? 362

12 Leadership 367 What Is Leadership? 368

Trait Theories 369

Behavioral Theories 370 Summary of Trait Theories and Behavioral Theories 372

Contingency Theories 372 The Fiedler Model 373 • Other Contingency Theories 375

Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) Theory 377

Charismatic Leadership and Transformational Leadership 379 Charismatic Leadership 379 • Transformational Leadership 382

Authentic Leadership: Ethics and Trust 386 What Is Authentic Leadership? 386 • Ethics and Leadership 386 • Servant Leadership 387 • Trust and Leadership 387 • How Is Trust Developed? 389 • Trust as a Process 390 • What Are the Consequences of Trust? 390

Leading for the Future: Mentoring 391 Mentoring 391

Challenges to the Leadership Construct 393 Leadership as an Attribution 393 • Substitutes for and Neutralizers of Leadership 394 • Online Leadership 395

Finding and Creating Effective Leaders 396 Selecting Leaders 396 • Training Leaders 396

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Summary and Implications for Managers 397

Self-Assessment Library What’s My Leadership Style? 368 Self-Assessment Library What’s My LPC Score? 373 glOBalization! Cross-Cultural Leadership Styles 378 Self-Assessment Library How Charismatic Am I? 382 Self-Assessment Library Am I an Ethical Leader? 386 An Ethical Choice Do Leaders Have a Responsibility to Protect Followers? 388

Myth or Science? “Power Helps Leaders Perform Better” 392 Point/Counterpoint Heroes Are Made, Not Born 398

Questions for Review 399 Experiential Exercise What Is a Leader? 399 Ethical Dilemma Undercover Leaders 399 Case Incident 1 Leadership Mettle Forged in Battle 400 Case Incident 2 Leadership Factories 400

13 Power and Politics 411 A Definition of Power 412

Contrasting Leadership and Power 413

Bases of Power 414 Formal Power 414 • Personal Power 415 • Which Bases of Power Are Most Effective? 416 • Power and Perceived Justice 416

Dependence: The Key to Power 416 The General Dependence Postulate 416 • What Creates Dependence? 417

Power Tactics 418

Sexual Harassment: Unequal Power in the Workplace 421

Politics: Power in Action 424 Definition of Organizational Politics 424 • The Reality of Politics 424

Causes and Consequences of Political Behavior 426 Factors Contributing to Political Behavior 426 • How Do People Respond to Organizational Politics? 429 • Impression Management 430

The Ethics of Behaving Politically 434

Summary and Implications for Managers 435

Self-Assessment Library Is My Workplace Political? 412 glOBalization! Power Distance and Innovation 420 An Ethical Choice Should All Sexual Behavior Be Prohibited at Work? 423 Myth or Science? “Corporate Political Activity Pays” 428 Self-Assessment Library How Good Am I at Playing Politics? 430 Point/Counterpoint Power Corrupts People 436

Questions for Review 437 Experiential Exercise Understanding Power Dynamics 437 Ethical Dilemma Corporate Spying 438 Case Incident 1 Delegate Power, or Keep It Close? 438 Case Incident 2 The Persuasion Imperative 439

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14 Conflict and Negotiation 445 A Definition of Conflict 446

Transitions in Conflict Thought 447 The Traditional View of Conflict 447 • The Interactionist View of Conflict 447 • Resolution-Focused View of Conflict 449

The Conflict Process 449 Stage I: Potential Opposition or Incompatibility 450 • Stage II: Cognition and Personalization 451 • Stage III: Intentions 452 • Stage IV: Behavior 454 • Stage V: Outcomes 455

Negotiation 458 Bargaining Strategies 458 • The Negotiation Process 463 • Individual Differences in Negotiation Effectiveness 464 • Third-Party Negotiations 467

Summary and Implications for Managers 469

Self-Assessment Library What’s My Preferred Conflict-Handling Style? 446 Myth or Science? “Communicating Well Is More Important in Cross-Cultural Negotiations” 462

glOBalization! Anger and Conflict Across Cultures 467 Self-Assessment Library What’s My Negotiating Style? 467 An Ethical Choice Using Empathy to Negotiate More Ethically 468 Point/Counterpoint Player–Owner Disputes Are Unnecessary 471

Questions for Review 472 Experiential Exercise A Negotiation Role-Play 472 Ethical Dilemma The Lowball Applicant 473 Case Incident 1 Choosing Your Battles 473 Case Incident 2 Mediation: Master Solution to Employment Disputes? 474

15 Foundations of Organization Structure 479 What Is Organizational Structure? 480 Work Specialization 480 • Departmentalization 482 • Chain of Command 483 • Span of Control 484 • Centralization and Decentralization 485 • Formalization 486