1534 jacques cartier 1984 canadian dollar value

Historical Dictionary of Canada

Second Edition

Barry M. Gough

The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham • Toronto • Plymouth, UK

2011

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Published by Scarecrow Press, Inc. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 http://www.scarecrowpress.com

Estover Road, Plymouth PL6 7PY, United Kingdom

Copyright © 2011 by Barry M. Gough

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Gough, Barry M. Historical dictionary of Canada / Barry M. Gough. — 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-0-8108-5496-3 (cloth : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-0-8108-7504-3 (ebook) 1. Canada—History—Dictionaries. I. Title. F1026.G69 2011 971.003--dc22 2010022542

™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992.

Printed in the United States of America

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To the memory of Robin W. Winks, American scholar extraordinaire of Canada.

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v

Editor’s Foreword Jon Woronoff vii

Preface ix

Acronyms and Abbreviations xv

Maps

1 Canada xix

2 Eastern North America, 1763 xx

3 Native Tribes of Eastern North America xxi

4 San Juan Boundary Dispute xxii

5 The Alaska Boundary xxiii

6 Nunavut xxiv

Chronology xxv

Introduction 1

The Dictionary 49

Appendix: Governors General, Prime Ministers, and Colonial Governors of Canada 445

Bibliography 449

About the Author 497

Contents

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vii

It is easy to get the wrong impression about Canada. A new country. Perhaps compared to some in Asia and Europe. But it was first “discov- ered” more than 1,000 years ago, and then again about 500 years ago, and was gradually colonized and settled by outsiders for four centuries. However, before that, there were the native peoples, some of whom remain. Empty. True, the present population is small for such a big place, but many are concentrated in large, modern cities and most are urbanized. A rather simple, homogeneous entity. Hardly, for the popu- lation, despite any melting-pot effect, is rather heterogeneous and the provinces maintain considerable autonomy, some actually demanding more and one still hankering for independence. A geographical append- age of its powerful southern neighbor, the United States. Despite very close economic and other links, Canadians usually go their own way and have created a strikingly different society.

Canada is a very complex, and intriguing, nation that certainly deserves to be better known by foreigners and probably Canadians as well. That is the purpose of this second edition of the Historical Dictionary of Canada. It presents the country, traces its history, takes a good look at the current situation, and offers some insight into the future. It does so through concise and informative entries on significant persons, places, events, institutions, and ethnic groupings. Other entries deal with important political, economic, social, and cultural aspects. The broader context is provided by an insightful introduction, and the centuries-long history is traced in the chronology. Admittedly, this book can only go so far. But it is a particularly good starting point be- cause of a comprehensive and intelligently structured bibliography that can easily direct readers toward whatever subject might interest them.

To write such a book, it is obviously necessary to know Canada well. That first requirement is amply met by the author, Barry M. Gough,

Editor’s Foreword

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viii • EDITOR’S FOREWORD

who has spent many decades studying Canadian history and politics and visiting different parts of the country. It is even more important to develop a knack for explaining Canada to others, which Dr. Gough has done during a long stint as professor of history and Canadian stud- ies at Wilfrid Laurier University in Waterloo, Ontario, and as a guest professor at various other universities. In addition to lecturing, he has written half a dozen books on Canada’s history as well as numerous shorter works. Before retirement, he also held important posts in the academic world, including president of the Organization for the His- tory of Canada. This has given him more than enough opportunities to explain Canada to foreigners, and also to Canadians, which might actually be harder. In this edition, Dr. Gough takes on an even broader and more varied range of subjects of interest to both publics and acquits himself very well.

Jon Woronoff Series Editor

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ix

The history of Canada is much more than that of the nation state: it is a complicated set of intersecting or sometimes parallel stories. For that reason, any attempt to grasp the essentials of the country’s national his- tory as well as its component parts, peoples, races, and ethnicities needs be approached with caution and even trepidation. This second edition of Historical Dictionary of Canada reinforces the above in spades, for contrary to the hopes and expectations of many Canadians and “Canada watchers” that the country would become more unified, the plurality or varieties of national human experience continue.

As a subject of study, Canada presents undiminished opportunities for the historian of whatever inclination or desire—except, perhaps, tropical affairs. The same prospect faces the student of history: a country as vast, diverse, and ever changing as this offers near limit- less possibilities for examination and reflection. Far from being dull or irrelevant, Canada’s history remains most promising for the study of racial accord, native affairs, federalism, regional diversity, economic challenges, patronage, religions, cultures (indigenous and transplanted), multiculturalism, immigration policies, social welfare experimentation, and nation building. In large measure, it must be said that Canada’s is not a recent history and that each generation seems to prepare its own guides to national history and historical literature. Almost without fail I have attempted to keep this a modern study, with emphasis on the era since 1867 and particularly since 1914.

That Canada’s history is so little known beyond Canada’s boundar- ies cannot be blamed on the rest of the world alone. Although it is true that Canadians have failed to broadcast the nuances of their remark- able (if complex) history, it is also true that not until the mid-1970s and the T.H.B. Symons report To Know Ourselves: The Report of the Commission on Canadian Studies (1975) did Canadian history become

Preface

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x • PREFACE

acknowledged as a fundamental requirement for a Canadian university undergraduate history degree. Most practicing historians of my age took few Canadian history courses, for they were nonexistent. We now look with envy at the rich, varied backgrounds that our younger colleagues bring with such passion to classrooms and seminars. These new-age time bandits are opening to public view hitherto closed documents and are broadening our vistas as they reveal the complexities of the past. They are aided by the wizardry of Web searches.

The fact of the matter is that our current age has had to frame a national history on the foundations of a very few scholars’ pioneer- ing endeavors. I acknowledge the work of some of the past masters of the Canadian history profession: Donald Grant Creighton, Harold Adams Innis, Gustav Lanctot, John Bartlett Brebner, W. L. Morton, C. P. Stacey, Michel Brunet, W. S. McNutt, Morris Zaslow, A.R.M. Lower, and Margaret Ormsby. They established a national history based on a wide-ranging consensus that attempted to explain the national experience. It would take another generation after them, and those who immediately followed them, to pull down accepted remnants of the national historical edifice and in place build a new history characterized by region and class, and when that had virtually run its course, by gender, race, and ethnicity. Contemporary histo- rians of Canada continue to face the same problem: how to balance specific subjects with the vital necessity of recounting and explaining the national experience. The remarkable shift of the historiography away from the national theme has brought many new studies into the enlarging appreciation of readers of Canadian history. Now, greater understanding is available about ethnicity, family history, women, children, multiculturalism, class, labor, and culture. Not a few authors who have constructed “national” histories of Canada have found that their overabiding attention to the subthemes has obliged them, in subsequent editions of their work (and in answer to their critics), to address the national themes, the national story.

In following these trends, preoccupations, and fashions, I can only say how grateful I am to the Canadian Historical Review for its ongo- ing bibliography of historical works and its extensive book review sec- tion. These alone allow students of Canadian history a comprehensive place to begin the effective study of a subject that many feel has been hijacked by special interest groups.

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PREFACE • xi

In large measure, the study of Canada abroad is still in its infancy. On the world’s stage, Canadian history seems to be a best kept secret. Having lectured on Canada and its history in remote fields, such as Aus- tralia, Great Britain, New Zealand, South Africa, and the United States, I have inadvertently acquired sympathy for those inquisitive enough to want to know more about my country’s history and its peculiarities (which to some seem absurdities). For this reason, I have sought to provide helpful descriptions for the outsider when these are called for. This book, which rests heavily on the previous work of others whose books are listed in the bibliography, is intended as a compendium of fundamentals and as a guide to a rich historical literature of a modern nation with a recent history of five centuries.

Many helped in bringing this project through various stages. I have relied on the advice of many in the shaping of this work, its parameters, and items and topics for inclusion. It is not possible to give thanks to each and every scholar, librarian, archivist, and institutional aide. Bruce Hodgins assisted with historiography, the late Peter Russell with sport, Terry Copp with Normandy, and Paul Summerville with banking and the Bank of Canada. Additional thanks go to Mike Baker, Katie Pick- les, Maria Tippett, and Walter Sendzik. I also thank John McCallum of Wilfrid Laurier University’s library for assistance in making the bib- liographical search less arduous and at the same time more complete. Electronic means have been employed to good effect in the preparation of the bibliography. Cameron Croxall assisted with articles on Inuit subjects. Elsie Grogan provided word processing help. I have relied heavily on Gerry Hallowell’s Oxford Companion to Canadian History, James Marsh’s Encyclopaedia of Canada, W. S. Wallace’s Macmillan Dictionary of Canadian Biography, and Mel Hurtig’s The Canadian Encyclopaedia, as well as other guides listed in the bibliography. Above all, the multivolume The Dictionary of Canadian Biography, available online, is a perennial source of accurate information, authoritative bib- liographic entries, and prudent scholarly guidance, bringing as it does into print the remarkable lives of prominent Canadians.

Once again, the wise counsel and patience of the series editor, Jon Woronoff, is greatly appreciated. I have again the pleasure of thanking the late Robin W. Winks for suggesting that I undertake this book. If those who consult this work find their long-sought-after answers, and if their appreciation of the essentials of Canadian history is enhanced,

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xii • PREFACE

I shall be grateful. Not least, if Canadians confused by their own per- plexing national crisis shall have found some solace in the fact that their present state of affairs has been preceded by numerous variants of similar conundrums, I shall be eternally delighted. Notice of errors would be appreciated. I alone am responsible for errors of omission and commission.

In regards to nomenclature, the reader should note that, on editorial advice, I have chosen to use Great Britain rather than United Kingdom. When used collectively, western provinces specifically refers to Mani- toba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta, though British Columbia is some- times but not always part of the collective. Atlantic Canada includes Newfoundland and Labrador, but the Maritimes includes only Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island. Northwest Territo- ries has gone though numerous changes over time; in this book, I have employed the then current spelling.

Of all the terms in Canada, none is more confusing than Indian, which is not a correct term but still exists in Canadian administrative, legal, and constitutional language (Indian Act, for instance). I have used the term aboriginal peoples whenever possible. It includes three desig- nations in keeping with the Charter of Rights and Freedoms (1982)— Indian, Métis, and Inuit. (Once again, it will be noted, the term Indian is used—and in the Canadian constitution.) First Nations has also been employed, principally as an umbrella term for those who are members of the Assembly of First Nations, the powerful aboriginal lobby group. Readers will also find the use of Native, or native, an earlier replace- ment for Indian until such time as aboriginal peoples replaced it. For some university presses and scholarly journals in Canada, aboriginal is now accepted usage, but this adoption is not widespread, and aborigine is essentially an Australian term for indigenous populations there but will not do in Canada. One also sees in the historical literature of Canada the term indigenes. These points are brought up here to stress how unsteady are the terms in use.

The name Canada has gone through many uses, from the Iroquoian Kanata—meaning “a few houses up the river”—to the vast nation that now inhabits northern North America. At one time or another New France or Quebec was synonymous with Canada. And British North America after 1763 was the prototype of what was to follow in the Do- minion of Canada, or more commonly, Canada.

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PREFACE • xiii

This second edition provides the opportunity to include new entries while at the same time strengthening, updating, or modifying others. The political landscape has changed remarkably in Canada since publi- cation of the first edition a decade ago; in consequence, the introduction has been expanded, and many new entries are included to embrace as subjects the new and prominent political participants on the national scene. Areas of increasing attention here are the economy, including energy, manufacturing, banking, currency, trade, and welfare. There are more entries on social topics, including health care, unions, and Ameri- can Vietnam War resisters. There are also more entries on historians of Canada, and enhanced entries on Canadian historical literature. Cana- da’s military activities as a member of NATO’s forces in Afghanistan merit a number of additions, notably one on the Afghanistan mission. There are new entries on radio and television, transportation, and space. Architecture, art, film, music, and theater are new entries, too. Numer- ous new biographical entries are included. The bibliography has been expanded, strengthened, and updated. A section on Arctic sovereignty and security has been added, as well as a guide to recommended read- ing. The bibliography now includes selected websites to guide users to documents, facts and opinions, and historical works, and to provide gateway access to official repositories as well as historical organiza- tions and institutes.

Barry M. Gough

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xv

ALTA Alberta APEC Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation BC British Columbia BCATP British Commonwealth Air Training Plan BNA British North America CBC Canadian Broadcasting Corporation CCF Cooperative Commonwealth Federation CEF Canadian Expeditionary Force CFB Canadian Forces Base CGS Canadian Government Ship CIIA Canadian Institute of International Affairs CNRail Canadian National Railway CPC Conservative Party of Canada CPR Canadian Pacific Railway CPRail Canadian Pacific Railway CRTC Canadian Radio-Television and Telecommunications

Commission CSA Canadian Space Agency CSIS Canadian Security Intelligence Service DEW Distant Early Warning DIAND Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development EU European Union FIRA Foreign Investment Review Agency FLQ Front de Libération du Québec G8 Group of Eight GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GDP Gross Domestic Product HBC Hudson’s Bay Company HMCS Her Majesty’s Canadian Ship

Acronyms and Abbreviations

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xvi • ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

IJC International Joint Commission IODE Imperial Order of the Daughters of the Empire ISAF International Security Assistance Force JCPC Judicial Committee of the Privy Council MB Manitoba MP Member of Parliament NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement NASA National Aeronautical and Space Administration NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization NB New Brunswick NDP New Democratic Party NFB National Film Board NL Newfoundland and Labrador NFLD Newfoundland NORAD North American Air Defense Command NRC National Research Council NS Nova Scotia NT Nunavut NWC North West Company NWT Northwest Territories OAS Organization of American States OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Develop-

ment ONT Ontario PC Progressive Conservative Party PEI Prince Edward Island PJBD Permanent Joint Board on Defense PQ Parti Québécois QUE Québec RCAF Royal Canadian Air Force RCMP Royal Canadian Mounted Police RCN Royal Canadian Navy RE Royal Engineers RMC Royal Military College of Canada RN Royal Navy SASK Saskatchewan UFA United Farmers of Alberta UK United Kingdom

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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS • xvii

UN United Nations UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Or-

ganization U.S. United States of America YK Yukon

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C an

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Eastern North America, 1763

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San Juan Boundary Dispute

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The Alaska Boundary

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Nunavut

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xxv

c. 875 Celt-Irish monks from Iceland possibly settle Cape Breton and are absorbed into the Mi’kmaq population.

1004–1005 Leif Ericson winters in Vinland (L’Anse aux Meadows, NFLD).

1005–1008 The brother of Leif (Thorwald Ericson) spends two win- ters in Vinland.

c. 1420 Basque whalers begin to hunt in the Labrador Sea.

1494 Treaty of Tordesillas awards Spain imperial control of Western Hemisphere other than Brazil (Portugal).

1497 24 June: John Cabot (Giovanni Caboto) lands on Cape Breton and claims land for King Henry VII of England.

1504 First establishment at St. John’s, Newfoundland. Norman fish- ing village established on Avalon Peninsula.

1534 7 July: First recorded exchange between Europeans and native peoples. Jacques Cartier trades for furs with the Mi’kmaq. 24 July: Cartier lands at Penouille Point, St. Lawrence River, erects a cross, and claims land for the King François I of France.

1558 First settlers arrive aboard brig Hawke in Trinity, Newfound- land.

1583 5 August: Sir Humphrey Gilbert takes possession of Newfound- land for Queen Elizabeth I of England.

1598 French colony called La Roche founded on Sable Island.

1603 Samuel de Champlain’s first voyage to Canada.

Chronology

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xxvi • CHRONOLOGY

1605 1 August: French colony of Port Royal established along Bay of Fundy.

1608 3 July: Champlain founds settlement at Québec.

1609 First contact between the French in New France and the (Wen- dat) Huron peoples. 30 July: Champlain assists Huron and allies in defeating Iroquois on the shores of Lake Champlain.

1610 14–19 June: Champlain and Huron and Algonquin allies defeat an Iroquois party at Richelieu River.

1610–11 Henry Hudson in the ship Discovery winters in James Bay. Champlain sends trading explorer Étienne Brûlé to winter among Hu- ron.

1613 July: Port Royal, Bay of Fundy, attacked and burned by Samuel Argall, on orders from Governor Dale of Virginia; first English expedi- tion against Acadia.

1619 August: Ill-fated expedition of Jens Munck, sailing for King of Denmark, reaches Churchill River, Hudson Bay, and winters; finds no Northwest Passage.

1621 James I of England grants Acadia to Sir William Alexander.

1622 July: First Scots colonists arrive in Nova Scotia.

1625 June: First Jesuit missionaries arrive in New France to bring Christianity to native peoples.

1627 Compagnie des Cent-Associés founded under French crown protection to colonize New France under corporate monopoly.

1629 19 July: English captain, David Kirke, captures Québec;

1632 29 March: Québec with Port Royal returned to France by Treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye.

1639 Smallpox epidemic sweeps through St. Lawrence Valley; Al- gonquin and Huron nations suffer substantial losses.

1642 Fort Richelieu built to protect southern approach to Montréal.

1644 March: Settlers near Montréal defeated by Iroquois.

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CHRONOLOGY • xxvii

1653 Iroquois make peace with French, ending destruction of Huronia and devastation of Huron peoples by war.

1660 May: Battle of the Long Sault, Ottawa River (near Hawkes- bury), between 16 French led by Adam Dollard des Ormeaux and 44 native allies and some 800 Iroquois; all French fighters in this battle are killed.

1663 Sovereign Council of New France created, and with it the first constituted civil and military government of the colony under specifi- cally royal auspices and regulation.

1665 30 June: France’s Carignan-Salières Regiment, 1,100 strong, arrives to defend New France; posts constructed.

1670 2 May: Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) chartered by King Charles II of England, subsequent to successful voyage of the Nonsuch and establishment of Charles Fort.

1673 Construction begins of French fort at Fort Frontenac (Kingston, Ontario).

1686 Expedition of de Troyes and Sieur d’Iberville marches from St. Lawrence River to Hudson Bay and seizes three HBC posts. 19 No- vember: England and France agree on neutrality pact to settle dispute over Hudson Bay.

1690 William Phips of Massachusetts leads force to Port Royal, which surrenders 21 May, and proceeds to Québec, but Governor Louis de Buade Frontenac puts up stout defense. D’Iberville, with three war- ships, enters Hudson Bay, raids Fort New Severn.

1692 22 October: Madeline de Verchères leads defense of family fort against Iroquois.

1696 4 July: Frontenac quits Montréal with 2,150 men to punish Iro- quois for attacks on settlements.

1700 8 September: Iroquois, Abenakis, and Ottawas agree to peace terms with governor of New France, Louis de Callières.

1701 Detroit established by Cadillac; Iroquois enter into great treaty of friendship with French.

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xxviii • CHRONOLOGY

1702–13 Queen Anne’s War (part of War of the Spanish Succession) sparks many raids and massacres. In 1710, English conquer Port Royal, rename it Annapolis Royal. In 1711, Adm. Hovenden Walker’s Royal Navy expedition fails to reach Québec.

1713 11 April: Treaty of Utrecht signed by England, France, and Spain. The treaty recognizes British sovereignty over Hudson Bay, Acadia, and Newfoundland. France retains New France, Île St. Jean (PEI), and the right to fish and use parts of the Newfoundland shore. Spain relinquishes claims to Newfoundland.

1735 French fortress Louisbourg (begun 1719) completed on Île- Royale, Cape Breton, and is considered strongest fort in America.

1749 9 July: Col. Edward Cornwallis establishes Halifax, a British settlement and imperial arsenal at Chebucto, Nova Scotia.

1756 Britain declares war on France, beginning Seven Years War (French and Indian War). 5 August: French commander Louis-Joseph de Montcalm forces surrender of British garrison at Oswego; British lose command of Lake Ontario.

1757 21 January: French defeat Maj. Robert Rogers and his Rangers near Ticonderoga in Battle on Snowshoes. July/August: French take Lake George and later Fort William Henry.

1758 26 July: British forces seize Fortress Louisbourg from French. 13 September: British capture city of Québec after battle on the Plains of Abraham.

1760 8 September: Articles of Capitulation of Montréal establish interim terms later sanctioned by Québec Act of 1774. 9 September: French surrender city of Montréal, ending French conquest of New France.

1763 10 February: British, French, and Spanish sign Treaty of Paris. The treaty places Canada under British sovereignty, outlines boundary of Canada that includes Great Lakes basin and stretches west to north- eastern bank of Mississippi River; new British colony is called Québec. 7 October: Royal Proclamation creates Province of Québec and recog- nizes certain rights of native peoples.

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CHRONOLOGY • xxix

1774 Québec Act passed by British Parliament.

1775 5 September: American forces led by Brig. Gen. Richard Mont- gomery and Maj. Gen. Philip Schuyler from Crown Point invade Saint Jean. 31 December: American forces led by Col. Benedict Arnold at- tempt to capture town of Québec but are unsuccessful.

1776 Loyalists from American revolutionary war settle in Nova Sco- tia, Prince Edward Island, and Québec.

1778 Fur trader Peter Pond crosses Methye Portage and opens Atha- basca to Montréal-based trade.

1783 Treaty of Versailles, Article I, recognizes sovereign United States of America and defines first Canadian-American border.

1784 First Loyalists settle in Ontario; New Brunswick created as a province.

1785 Beaver Club founded in Montréal, with membership limited fur traders who have spent at least one year in the interior.

1788 John Meares, British trader, arrives at Nootka Sound, among the first of many sea otter traders.

1789 Nootka Sound Incident, when Spanish commandant seizes Brit- ish shipping, forcing diplomatic protests and threat of war; Spain backs down.

1791 10 June: Constitutional (or Canada) Act given royal assent in London for the division of Québec and creation of provinces of Upper Canada and Lower Canada.