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History Essay

Which country is to blame for WWI? Informed by Palmer, Ch. 17, take sides on the debate in the British newspapers (see required readings).

(1)No longer than half a page, single spaced, using standard margins and a font size of 12 (300-400 words max). Do not quote directly.

(2) Write in essay format. This means full sentences, correct grammar structure, and correct spelling of words.

A HISTORY OF EUROPE IN THE MODERN WORLD

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E L E V E N T H E D I T I O N

A HISTORY OF EUROPE IN THE MODERN WORLD

R.R. Palmer Joel Colton Lloyd Kramer

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A HISTORY OF EUROPE IN THE MODERN WORLD, ELEVENTH EDITION

Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2007, 2002, and 1995. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.

Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

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ISBN 978-0-07-338554-9 MHID 0-07-338554-9

Senior Vice President, Products & Markets: Kurt L. Strand Vice President, General Manager: Michael Ryan Vice President, Content Production & Technology Services: Kimberly Meriwether David Executive Director of Development: Lisa Pinto Managing Director: Gina Boedeker Editorial Coordinator: Adina Lonn Managing Development Editor: Penina Braffman Marketing Specialist: Alexandra Schultz Director, Content Production: Terri Schiesl Senior Project Manager: Lisa Brufl odt Buyer: Nicole Baumgartner Cover Image: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division [LC-DIG-ppmsca-00339] Compositor: Laserwords Private Limited Typeface: 10/12 Times LT Std Printer: R. R. Donnelley

All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Palmer, R. R. (Robert Roswell), 1909-2002.

[History of the modern world] A history of Europe in the modern world / R.R. Palmer, Joel Colton, Lloyd Kramer. — Eleventh edition. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-07-338554-9 (acid-free paper) — ISBN 978-0-07-759960-7 (acid-free paper) — ISBN 978-0-07-759958-4 (acid-free paper) 1. History, Modern. 2. Europe—History—1492- I. Colton, Joel, 1918-2011. II. Kramer, Lloyd S. III. Title. D209.P26 2014 090.08—dc23 2013018526

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.

www.mhhe.com

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v

R.R. PALMER was born in Chicago. After graduating from the University of Chicago he received his Ph.D. from Cornell University in 1934. From 1936 to 1963 he taught at Princeton University, taking leave during World War II to work on historical projects in Washington, D.C. In 1963 he moved to Washington University in St. Louis to serve as dean of arts and sciences but in 1969 resumed his career in teaching and research, this time at Yale. After his retirement he lived in Princeton, where he was affi liated with the Institute for Advanced Study, and then in a retirement community in Newtown Pennsylvania. Of the numerous books he wrote, translated, and edited, three of the most important have been his Catholics and Unbelievers in Eighteenth-Century France (1939); Twelve Who Ruled: The Year of the Terror in the French Revolution (1941, 1989); and his two-volume Age of the Democratic Revolution (1959, 1964), the fi rst volume of which won the Bancroft Prize. He served as president of the American Historical Association in 1970, received honorary degrees from universities in the United States and abroad, and was awarded the Antonio Feltrinelli International Prize for History in Rome in 1990. He was a long-time fellow of the American Philosophical Society and of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He died in 2002, widely recognized as one of the preeminent historians of his generation.

JOEL COLTON was born in New York City. A graduate of the City College of New York, he served as a military intelligence offi cer in Europe in World War II, and received his Ph.D. from Columbia University in 1950. He served on the faculty of Duke University for more than four decades, chairing the History Department from 1967 to1974 and chairing the university’s academic council from 1971 to 1973. On leave from Duke, he served from 1974 to 1981 with the Rockefeller Foundation in New York as director of its research and fellowship program in the humanities. In 1986 Duke voted him a Distinguished Teaching Award. He received Guggenheim, Rockefeller Foundation, and National Endowment for the Humanities fellowships. He served on the editorial boards of the Journal of Modern History, French Historical Studies and Historical Abstracts, and was co-president of the International Commission on the History of Social Movements and Social Structures. In 1979 he was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. His writings include Compulsory Labor Arbitration in France, 1936–1939 (1951); Léon Blum: Humanist in Politics (1966, 1987), for which he received a Mayfl ower Award; Twentieth Century (1968,1980) in The Time-Life Great Ages of Man Series; and numerous contributions to journals, encyclopedias, and collaborative volumes. He died in 2011, having served as the distinguished co-author of A History of the Modern World for every revision after the fi rst edition.

LLOYD KRAMER was born in Maryville, Tennessee, and graduated from Maryville College. He received his Ph.D. from Cornell University in 1983. Before entering Cornell, he was a teacher in Hong Kong and he traveled widely in Asia. After completing his graduate studies, he taught at Stanford University and Northwestern University. Since 1986 he has been a member of the faculty at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, where he is currently a professor of History. He has served two terms as chair of his Department and received two awards for distinguished undergradu- ate teaching. His writings include Threshold of a New World: Intellectuals and the Exile Experience in Paris, 1830–1848 (1988); Lafayette in Two Worlds: Public Cultures and Personal Identities in an Age of Revolutions (1996), which won the Gilbert Chinard Prize from the Society for French His- torical Studies and the Annibel Jenkins Biography Prize from the American Society for Eighteenth- Century Studies; and Nationalism in Europe and America: Politics, Cultures, and Identities since 1775 (2011). He has also co-edited several books, including a collection of essays on historical edu- cation in America and A Companion to Western Historical Thought (2002). He has been a member of the School of Historical Studies at the Institute for Advanced Study and a Fellow at the National Humanities Center; and he served as president of the Society for French Historical Studies.

A b o u t t h e A u t h o r s

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vi

List of Chapter Illustrations xiv

List of Chronologies, Historical Interpretations and Debates, Maps, Charts,

and Tables xxii

Preface xxv

Geography and History 1

Chapter 1 The Rise of Europe 9 Chapter 2 The Upheaval in Western Christendom, 1300–1560 49 Chapter 3 The Atlantic World, Commerce, and Wars of Religion,

1560–1648 99

Chapter 4 The Growing Power of Western Europe, 1640–1715 147 Chapter 5 The Transformation of Eastern Europe, 1648–1740 195 Chapter 6 The Scientifi c View of the World 233 Chapter 7 The Global Struggle for Wealth and Empire 267 Chapter 8 The Age of Enlightenment 309 Chapter 9 The French Revolution 363 Chapter 10 Napoleonic Europe 411 Chapter 11 Industries, Ideas, and the Struggle for Reform, 1815–1848 449 Chapter 12 Revolutions and the Reimposition of Order, 1848–1870 501 Chapter 13 The Consolidation of Large Nation-States, 1859–1871 535 Chapter 14 European Civilization, 1871–1914: Economy and Politics 569 Chapter 15 European Civilization, 1871–1914: Society and Culture 611 Chapter 16 Europe’s World Supremacy, 1871–1914 643 Chapter 17 The First World War 689 Chapter 18 The Russian Revolution and the Emergence of the

Soviet Union 735

Chapter 19 Democracy, Anti-Imperialism, and the Economic Crisis after the First World War 779

Chapter 20 Democracy and Dictatorship in the 1930s 811 Chapter 21 The Second World War 843 Chapter 22 The Cold War and Reconstruction after the Second

World War 883

Chapter 23 Decolonization and the Breakup of the European Empires 925 Chapter 24 Coexistence, Confrontation, and the New European Economy 959

B r i e f C o n t e n t s

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viiBrief Contents

Chapter 25 The International Revolt against Soviet Communism 987 Chapter 26 Europe and the Changing Modern World 1019 Appendix Rulers and Regimes A1

Index I1 Suggestions for Further Reading Online at www.mhhe.com/palmerhistory11e

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viii

List of Chapter Illustrations xiv

List of Chronologies, Historical Interpretations and Debates, Maps, Charts,

and Tables xxii

Preface xxv

Geography and History 1

Chapter 1 THE RISE OF EUROPE 9 1. Ancient Times: Greece, Rome, and Christianity 11 2. The Early Middle Ages: The Formation of Europe 19 3. The High Middle Ages: Secular Civilization 29 4. The High Middle Ages: The Church 38

Chapter 2 THE UPHEAVAL IN WESTERN CHRISTENDOM, 1300–1560 49 5. Disasters of the Fourteenth Century 50 6. The Renaissance in Italy 56 7. The Renaissance Outside Italy 70 8. The New Monarchies 74 9. The Protestant Reformation 77 10. Catholicism Reformed and Reorganized 93

Chapter 3 THE ATLANTIC WORLD, COMMERCE, AND WARS OF RELIGION, 1560–1648 99 11. The Opening of the Atlantic 100 12. The Commercial Revolution 108 13. Changing Social Structures 117 14. The Wars of Catholic Spain: The Netherlands and England 124 15. The Disintegration and Reconstruction of France 133 16. The Thirty Years’ War, 1618–1648: The Disintegration

of Germany 138

Chapter 4 THE GROWING POWER OF WESTERN EUROPE, 1640–1715 147 17. The Grand Monarque and the Balance of Power 148 18. The Dutch Republic 151

C o n t e n t s

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Contents ix

19. Britain: The Civil War 158 20. Britain: The Triumph of Parliament 165 21. The France of Louis XIV, 1643–1715: The Triumph

of Absolutism 173

22. The Wars of Louis XIV: The Peace of Utrecht, 1713 186

Chapter 5 THE TRANSFORMATION OF EASTERN EUROPE, 1648–1740 195 23. Three Aging Empires 196 24. The Formation of an Austrian Monarchy 206 25. The Formation of Prussia 210 26. The Transformation of Russia 218

Chapter 6 THE SCIENTIFIC VIEW OF THE WORLD 233 27. The Emergence of a Scientifi c Culture: Bacon and Descartes 234 28. The Road to Newton: The Law of Universal Gravitation 240 29. New Knowledge of Human Beings and Society 251 30. Political Theory: The School of Natural Law 260

Chapter 7 THE GLOBAL STRUGGLE FOR WEALTH AND EMPIRE 267 31. Elite and Popular Cultures 268 32. The Global Economy of the Eighteenth Century 275 33. Western Europe after the Peace of Utrecht, 1713–1740 285 34. The Great War of the Mid-Eighteenth Century: The Peace

of Paris, 1763 294

Chapter 8 THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT 309 35. The Philosophes—and Others 310 36. Enlightened Despotism: France, Austria, Prussia 324 37. Enlightened Despotism: Russia 333 38. The Partitions of Poland 339 39. New Stirrings: The British Reform Movement 343 40. The American Revolution 352

Chapter 9 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 363 41. Social and Cultural Backgrounds 364 42. The Revolution and the Reorganization of France 369

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Contentsx

43. The Revolution and Europe: The War and the “Second” Revolution, 1792 385

44. The Emergency Republic, 1792–1795: The Terror 389 45. The Constitutional Republic: The Directory, 1795–1799 400 46. The Authoritarian Republic: The Consulate, 1799–1804 405

Chapter 10 NAPOLEONIC EUROPE 411 47. The Formation of the French Imperial System 412 48. The Grand Empire: Spread of the Revolution 420 49. The Continental System: Britain and Europe 425 50. The National Movements and New Nationalist Cultures 431 51. The Overthrow of Napoleon: The Congress of Vienna 437

Chapter 11 INDUSTRIES, IDEAS, AND THE STRUGGLE FOR REFORM, 1815–1848 449 52. The Industrial Revolution in Britain 451 53. The Advent of the “ISMS” 460 54. The Leaking Dam and the Flood: Domestic 475 55. The Leaking Dam and the Flood: International 479 56. The Breakthrough of Liberalism in the West:

Revolutions of 1830–1832 487

57. Triumph of the West European Bourgeoisie 495

Chapter 12 REVOLUTIONS AND THE REIMPOSITION OF ORDER, 1848–1870 501 58. Paris: The Specter of Social Revolution in the West 502 59. Vienna: The Nationalist Revolutions in Central Europe

and Italy 508

60. Frankfurt and Berlin: The Question of a Liberal Germany 515 61. The New European “ISMS”: Realism, Positivism,

Marxism 520

62. Bonapartism: The Second French Empire, 1852–1870 530

Chapter 13 THE CONSOLIDATION OF LARGE NATION-STATES, 1859–1871 535 63. Backgrounds: The Idea of the Nation-State 536 64. Cavour and the Italian War of 1859: The Unifi cation

of Italy 539

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Contents xi

65. The Founding of a German Empire and the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary 544

66. Tsarist Russia: Social Change and the Limits of Political Reform 555

67. Nation-Building in the Wider Atlantic World: The United States and Canada 563

Chapter 14 EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION, 1871–1914: ECONOMY AND POLITICS 569 68. The Modern “Civilized World” 570 69. Basic Demography: The Increase of Europe’s Population 573 70. The World Economy of the Nineteenth Century 583 71. The Advance of Democracy: Third French Republic, United

Kingdom, German Empire 593

Chapter 15 EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION, 1871–1914: SOCIETY AND CULTURE 611 72. The Advance of Democracy: Socialism, Labor Unions, and

Feminism 612

73. Science, Philosophy, the Arts, and Religion 620 74. The Waning of Classical Liberalism 636

Chapter 16 EUROPE’S WORLD SUPREMACY, 1871–1914 643 75. Imperialism: Its Nature and Causes 645 76. The Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire 653 77. The Partition of Africa 662 78. Imperialism in Asia: The Dutch, the British, and the Russians 671 79. Imperialism in Asia: China and Europe 678 80. The Russo-Japanese War and Its Consequences 685

Chapter 17 THE FIRST WORLD WAR 689 81. The International Anarchy 689 82. The Armed Stalemate 699 83. The Collapse of Russia and the Intervention

of the United States 709

84. The Collapse of the Austrian and German Empires 714 85. The Economic, Social, and Cultural Impact of the War 716 86. The Peace of Paris, 1919 724

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Contentsxii

Chapter 18 THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION AND THE EMERGENCE OF THE SOVIET UNION 735 87. Backgrounds 737 88. The Revolution of 1905 744 89. The Revolution of 1917 749 90. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics 758 91. Stalin: The Five-Year Plans and the Purges 765 92. The International Impact of Communism, 1919–1939 774

Chapter 19 DEMOCRACY, ANTI-IMPERIALISM, AND THE ECONOMIC CRISIS AFTER THE FIRST WORLD WAR 779 93. The Advance of Democracy after 1919 779 94. The German Republic and the Spirit of Locarno 784 95. Anti-Imperialist Movements in Asia 790 96. The Great Depression: Collapse of the World Economy 802

Chapter 20 DEMOCRACY AND DICTATORSHIP IN THE 1930S 811 97. Trials and Adjustments of Democracy in Britain and France 812 98. Italian Fascism 821 99. Totalitarianism: Germany’s Third Reich 827

Chapter 21 THE SECOND WORLD WAR 843 100. The Weakness of the Democracies: Again to War 844 101. The Years of Axis Triumph 853 102. The Western-Soviet Victory 861 103. The Foundations of the Peace 876

Chapter 22 THE COLD WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR 883 104. The Cold War: The Opening Decade, 1945–1955 884 105. Western Europe: Economic Reconstruction 897 106. Western Europe: Political Reconstruction 901 107. Europe and the Global Economy 912 108. Communist Societies in the U.S.S.R.

and Eastern Europe 918

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Contents xiii

Chapter 23 DECOLONIZATION AND THE BREAKUP OF THE EUROPEAN EMPIRES 925 109. The Emergence of Independent Nations in South Asia and

Southeast Asia 927

110. The African Revolution 936 111. Europe and the Modern Middle East 947

Chapter 24 COEXISTENCE, CONFRONTATION, AND THE NEW EUROPEAN ECONOMY 959 112. Confrontation and Détente, 1955–1975 960 113. Collapse and Recovery of the European and Global Economy:

The 1970s and 1980s 970

114. The Cold War Rekindled and Defused 981

Chapter 25 THE INTERNATIONAL REVOLT AGAINST SOVIET COMMUNISM 987 115. The Crisis in the Soviet Union 988 116. The Collapse of Communism in Central and Eastern

Europe 992

117. The Collapse of the Soviet Union 1000 118. After Communism 1005

Chapter 26 EUROPE AND THE CHANGING MODERN WORLD 1019 119. Western Europe after the Cold War 1020 120. Nation-States and Economies in the Age of Globalization 1024 121. Intellectual and Social Transitions in Modern Cultures 1036 122. Europe and International Confl icts in the Early Twenty-First

Century 1058

123. Social and Environmental Challenges in the Twenty-First Century 1067

Appendix RULERS AND REGIMES A1

Index I1

Suggestions for Further Reading Online at www.mhhe.com/palmerhistory11e

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xiv

The Parthenon 12

Ruins of the Roman Forum 14

Roman Emperor Caesar Augustus 15

St. Augustine 18

Hagia Sophia 22

Medieval Spanish Monastery 27

Medieval Peasant 31

Symbol of Florentine Wool Guild 35

The Meeting of St. Anthony and St. Paul by Sassetta 43

Thomas Aquinas by Fra Bartelemo 44

European Crusaders at Antioch 47

Religious Procession of Medieval Flagellants 54

Renaissance Italian Bankers 57

Renaissance Italian Wool Merchants 58

Procession of the Three Kings to Bethlehem by Benozzo Gozzoli 59

Lorenzo de’ Medici Examining a Model of His Villa 60

Portrait of a Condottiere by Giovanni Bellini 62

Detail from Zacharias in the Temple by Domenico Ghirlandaio 64

Portrait of a Family by Lavinia Fontana 66

Florentine Council Debating on War with Pisa by Giorgio Vasari 68

Niccoló Machiavelli 69

Erasmus of Rotterdam by Hans Holbein, the Younger 73

Interrogation of the Jews 78

Martin Luther and His Wife Catherine by Lucas Cranach, the Elder 81

Siege of Munster, Germany, in 1534 83

John Calvin 87

Queen Elizabeth I 90

Pierre de Moucheron and Family 92

St. Ignatius Loyola by Peter Paul Rubens 96

Detail from An Episode in the Conquest of America by Jan Mostaert 103

European Meeting with an African Council in Guinea 106

Slaves Processing Diamonds in Brazil 106

The Aztec Language in the Latin Alphabet 109

The Silver Mines at Potosí 110

Jakob Fugger by Albrecht Dürer 111

Study of Two Black Heads by Rembrandt van Rijn 112

The Four Estates of Society: Work by Jean Bourdichon 114

L i s t o f C h a p t e r I l l u s t r a t i o n s

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List of Chapter Illustrations xv

The Dutch East India Company Headquarters 117

Old Woman Cooking Eggs by Diego Valázquez 120

Monk Teaching Students at the University of Salamanca 122

King Philip II of Spain by Titian 126

The Spanish Armada 130

St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre by François Dubois 136

“The Hanging Tree” [from] The Great Miseries of War by Jacques Callot 141

Masters of the Cloth Guild by Rembrandt Van Rijn 152

Portrait of the Artist with Isabelle Brandt by Peter Paul Rubens 153

Girl Reading a Letter at an Open Window by Jan Vermeer 154

The Geographer by Jan Vermeer 156

William Shakespeare 159

The Execution of King Charles I 164

Woman Speaking at a Quaker Meeting 165

Molière Performing in “The School for Wives” by François Delpech 175

Inspiration of the Epic Poet by Nicolas Poussin 177

Louis XIV by Hyacinthe Rigaud 180

The Building of Versailles by Adam François van der Mueleh 182

View of the Château of Versailles by Pierre Denis Martin 182

Persecution of the Huguenots 186

The Battle of Blenheim 190

Peasant Family in a Room by Louis Le Nain 191

Count Stanislas Potocki by Jacques-Louis David 201

Suleiman the Magnifi cent 204

Turkish Siege of Vienna in 1683 208

Frederick William, the Great Elector 213

Prussian Army Uniforms 219

Stephen Razin as Painted by Surikov 223

Peter the Great 225

The Construction of St. Petersburg 228

Execution for Witchcraft in the Seventeenth Century 236

René Descartes by Frans Hals 239

A Scholar Holding a Thesis on Botany by Willem Moreelse 241

The Copernican Conception of the Solar System 243

Galileo and His Telescope 244

Founding of the Academy of Sciences and the Observatory in 1666 by Henri Testelin 249

Isaac Newton 250

Ambassadors from Siam at Versailles 253

Seventeenth-Century Library 256

Baruch Spinoza by Samuel Van Hoogstraten 260

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List of Chapter Illustrationsxvi

John Locke by John Greenhill 265

Gin Lane by William Hogarth 271

Café Frascati by Philibert-Louis Debucourt 271

A Carnival on the Feast Day of Saint George by Pieter Bruegel, the Younger 274

Women at Work in an Irish Cottage 276

Enslaved Workers on a Plantation in Barbados 282

The Duet by Arthur Devis 284

John Law, Wind Monopolist 289

M. Bachelier, Director of the Lyons Farms by Jean-Baptiste Oudry 292

Frederick the Great of Prussia as a Young Man 296

Maria Theresa and Her Family by Martin van Meytens 298

Schönbrunn Palace 300

The Battle of Quebec 304

A British Army Offi cer’s Wife in India 306

Reading at the Salon of Mme. de Geoffrin by Anicet-Charles-Gabriel Lemonnier 315

Voltaire by Maurice-Quentin de La Tour 316

Jean-Jacques Rousseau by Allan Ramsay 321

The Parlement of Paris 330

Catherine the Great by Alexander Roslin 336

Emelian Pugachev in an Iron Cage 337

The Hon. Mrs. Graham by Thomas Gainsborough 347

Edmund Burke 349

Mrs. Isaac Smith by John Singleton Copley 354

Thomas Paine’s Common Sense 357

Declaration of Independence by John Trumbull 360

Eighteenth-Century French Peasants Working in Fields 365

Meeting of the French Estates General 372

The Tennis Court Oath by Jacques-Louis David 374

The Capture of the Bastille 376

Olympe de Gouges 377

A Woman of the Revolution by Jacques-Louis David 378

Frenchmen Creating a New Constitution 380

French Paper Money, the “Assignats” 382

The Festival of the Federation, 1790 384

Parisians Pulling Down a Statue of Louis XIV 392

The Battle of Fleurus 397

The Execution of Robespierre 398

Napoleon Crossing the Alps by Jacques-Louis David 407

Toussaint L’Ouverture 413

Napoleon and Alexander I Meeting on the Niemen River 417

The Third of May 1808 by Francisco de Goya 419

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List of Chapter Illustrations xvii

Germaine de Staël by François Gérard 426

The Arch of Triumph in Paris 429

The Madeleine Church in Paris 430

Blowing Up the Corsican Bottle Conjurer 433

The French Army’s Retreat from Russia 440

The Congress of Vienna 443

English Cotton Mill 453

Early Train in Nineteenth-Century England 456

The British Houses of Parliament 464

Mary Wollstonecraft 467

Saint-Simonian Feminist by Malreuve 469

Caricature of George Sand by Alcide Lorentz 471

Coronation of Charles X in Reims 477

German Students at a Festival in 1817 479

The “Peterloo Massacre” by Cruikshank 480

Simón Bolívar 485

Liberty Leading the People by Eugène Delacroix 490

Big Investments by Honoré Daumier 497

The London Police 500

Parisian Crowd in the Revolution of 1848 504

Crowds in the Streets of Vienna in 1848 510

Joseph Mazzini 515

The Frankfurt Assembly in 1848 519

A Burial at Ornans by Gustave Courbet 524

Workers in Manchester during the 1840s 525

Karl Marx 528

Construction Workers and the Rebuilding of Paris 533

Florence Nightingale at a Military Hospital in Crimea 539

Giuseppe Garibaldi 544

Otto von Bismarck 547

Battle of Sedan in 1870 551

Proclamation of the German Empire at Versailles by Anton von Werner 553

The Arrival of the Bride by Miklos Barabas 555

Russian Peasants in the Late Nineteenth Century 561

Emancipated Ex-Slaves in the American South during the Civil War 564

Train in the Snow by Claude Monet 572

The Gleaners by Jean-François Millet 577

Victorian-Era English Family 578

Immigrant Family Arriving in New York 582

Steel Factory in Late Nineteenth-Century Britain 585

Classic Landscape by Charles Sheeler 587

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List of Chapter Illustrationsxviii

Workers Transporting Tea in India 592

The Bon Marché Department Store in Paris 595

Supporters of the Paris Commune in 1871 597

Captain Alfred Dreyfus in the 1890s 598

Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte by Georges Seurat 603

British Coal Miners in the Early Twentieth Century 604

Cartoon Portrayal of Kaiser William II’s Removal of Bismarck by John Tenniel 608

Illustration of British Miners Voting to Strike 614

Emmeline Pankhurst 619

Women Demanding Equal Voting Rights in Britain 619

Charles Darwin 621

Sigmund Freud 625

Albert Einstein 626

Ia Orana Maria by Paul Gauguin 628

Cathedral at Rouen by Claude Monet 629

Young Girl Boating by Berthe Morisot 630

The Boating Party by Mary Cassatt 631

Self-Portrait with Beret by Paul Cezanne 632

Les Demoiselles d’Avignon by Pablo Picasso 633

Theodor Herzl 636

John Stuart Mill 637

Coal Miners in France 641

Railroad Locomotive Arriving in Central India 647

British Missionary and Africans Making Bread 649

British Offi cials with Indian Servants in India 652

Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II 657

British Ship in the Suez Canal 660

Workers in the Congo Harvesting Rubber for Export 665

Workers Building a Gold Mine in Southern Africa 668

British Soldiers in South Africa during the Boer War 671

The Sepoy Rebellion in India 674

Jawaharlal Nehru 675

The Boxer Uprising in China 684

Japanese Troops at Battle of Mukden in Russo-Japanese War of 1905 686

Kaiser William II in Morocco in 1905 694

Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria with Catholic Leaders in Sarajevo 697

German Soldiers at the Berlin Railway Station in 1914 701

French Departure Trench on the Western Front 702

Soldiers on the Battlefi eld at Passchendaele in 1917 703

British Front in Flanders in 1917 704

T. E. Lawrence with Prince Faisal at Versailles 707

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List of Chapter Illustrations xix

American Soldiers in France in 1917 714

German Women Working in an Armaments Factory during the First World War 718

Austrian and French Wartime Propaganda Posters 720

Wilfred Owen 721

Leaders of the Allied Powers at the Versailles Peace Conference 729

Russian Peasants Harvesting Hay 740

Lenin Addressing a Crowd 743

Protest March in St. Petersburg in 1905 746

Tsar Nicholas II and His Family 750

Rasputin 750

Demonstration in St. Petersburg in 1917 752

Leon Trotsky 756

Red Army Artillery Battalion 757

Soviet Political Poster 759

Farmers in the Soviet Union Using New Tractors 768

Soviet Automobile Factory with Portrait of Stalin 772

Soviet Propaganda Poster of Stalin by Konstantin Ivanov 773

Lenin at Meeting of Third International in 1920 776

Poster Urging American Women to Use Their New Right to Vote 781

Outdoor Cafe and Park in Vienna 783

Crowd Burning Spartacist Publications in Berlin 786

German Merchants Calculating Daily Sales 789

Greek Muslim Refugees in Turkey in 1923 794

Mustapha Kemal Atatürk Dancing at His Daughter’s Wedding 796

Mohandas Gandhi and Other Indian Nationalists at a Protest March 799

Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai on the “Long March” 802

Crowd at a London Cinema 804

British “Hunger March” in 1935 807

Autour d’Elle by Marc Chagall 809

British Marchers in General Strike of 1926 in London 813

British Army Troops in Dublin 817

French Workers at a Subway Construction Site 818

French Premier Léon Blum Addressing Supporters of the Popular Front 819

Fascists in “March on Rome” in October 1922 823

Benito Mussolini Speaking at an Italian Fascist Rally 824

Italian Woman at a Fascist Rally 826

Hitler with Supporters at the Time of the “Beer Hall Putsch ” 828

Nazi Military Parade in Nuremburg 830

Damage to Jewish Shops after Kristallnacht in Berlin 832

Nazi Image of the “New People” 838

Saluting Adolf Hitler at a Nazi Rally in Nuremberg 839

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List of Chapter Illustrationsxx

Hitler Entering Vienna in 1938 after the Anschluss 846

Anti-Fascist Rally in Spain 848

Guernica by Pablo Picasso 849

Sudetens Welcoming Arrival of German Troops in 1938 851

German Troops Entering a Polish Village in 1939 854

German Soldiers Marching through the Arc de Triomphe in Paris 857

Russian Casualties on Eastern Front in Early 1942 860

British Women in the Auxiliary Territorial Service 863

Urban Desolation during the Battle of Stalingrad 865

Survivors Liberated from the Concentration Camp at Buchenwald 871

A Nazi Concentration Camp in 1945 874

Hiroshima, Devastation after the Atomic Bomb 875

Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin at Yalta 879

The Survivor by George Grosz 880

Filipino Representative Pedro Lopez Addressing the United Nations 886

Churchill Giving a Speech Describing the New Iron Curtain across Eastern Europe 888

The Berlin Airlift 891

Children Near a Tank during the Korean War 896

Women at Work in a British Television Factory 900

French Kindergarten in 1950 904

Students and Police Clash in Paris in May 1968 907

Charles de Gaulle and Konrad Adenauer 910

High-Speed Train in Japan 913

The London Stock Exchange 917

Nikita Khrushchev with President Eisenhower and Vice President Nixon 920

Protesters in Budapest Burn Pictures of Joseph Stalin in 1956 924

Presentation of Flag on India Independence Day 927

Refugees Fleeing from West Pakistan in 1947 930

British High Commissioner MacGillivray leaving Kuala Lumpur in 1957 932

Independence Day Parade in Kuala Lumpur 932

Indonesian President Sukarno at Bandung in 1955 934

French Soldiers after the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954 935

French Soldiers in the Streets of Oran, Algeria 940

Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana 941

Refugees from Uganda Arriving in London in 1972 943

David Ben-Gurion, the First Prime Minister of Israel 949

Palestinians in a Refugee Camp in 1956 950

British Soldiers in Suez in 1956 952

Iranian Women Wielding Guns after the Iranian Revolution 956

Construction of the Berlin Wall 964

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List of Chapter Illustrations xxi

Protest against the Vietnam War in Britain 966

Citizens of Prague Destroy a Soviet Tank 968

Protest by French Newspaper Workers 971

Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher 973

French Workers Protesting Conditions at an Auto Factory 976

Helmut Kohl in Strasbourg 978

French Voter at the Time of the Referendum on Maastricht Treaty 980

German Protest against New Missile Deployments 985

Mikhail Gorbachev Meets with Potato Farmers Near Moscow 991

Supporters of the Solidarity Movement in Warsaw 995

Alexander Dubcek, Vaclav Havel, and Marta Kubisova 997

Destruction of the Berlin Wall in November 1989 998

Boris Yeltsin Waves to Supporters outside the Parliament Building in Moscow 1004

People Forced to Flee Violence in Chechen City of Grozny 1009

Muslims Mourning the Victims of “Ethnic Cleansing” in Sarajevo Cemetery 1014

People in Belgrade Demand the Resignation of President Slobodan Milosevic 1017

Multicultural School in Contemporary London 1022

Ségolène Royal and Angela Merkel 1026

Dutch Soccer Team at Euro Cup Competition in 2008 1032

President of European Commission Addressing European Parliament in Brussels 1033

Students at University Computer Center Working in “Virtual Library” 1035

French and Russian Astronauts 1041

Jean-Paul Sartre 1042

Fabulous Race-Track of Death by Matta 1045

Family Life by Jean Dubuffet 1046

Mother and Child by Henry Moore 1047

Pope John Paul II in Poland 1050

Mosque in Duisburg, Germany 1053

Mick Jagger and Keith Richards of the Rolling Stones in Los Angeles 1054

Simone de Beauvoir 1056

Supporters of Same-Sex Marriage in Spain 1057

Wheel Man by Ernest Trova 1061

Barack Obama in Prague 1063

World Trade Center Towers after Crash of Second Aircraft 1064

German Soldiers in Afghanistan 1068

British Troops in Iraq 1069

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Chronologies Notable Events, 500 B.C.E.–1300 C.E. 39

Notable Events, 1309–1555 84

Notable Events, 1492–1648 131

Notable Events, 1642–1713 172

Notable Events, 1640–1740 221

Notable Events, 1543–1697 258

Notable Events, 1619–1763 301

Notable Events, 1733–1795 350

Notable Events, 1789–1804 403

Notable Events, 1799–1815 436

Notable Events, 1780–1869 494

Notable Events, 1848–1857 521

Notable Events, 1854–1871 563

Notable Events, 1850–1914 605

Notable Events, 1859–1920 639

Notable Events, 1850–1906 682

Notable Events, 1879–1920 725

Notable Events, 1894–1937 770

Notable Events, 1911–1935 803

Notable Events, 1922–1938 837

Notable Events, 1935–1945 876

Notable Events, 1945–1962 919

Notable Events, 1946–1979 948

Notable Events, 1957–1995 979

Notable Events, 1980–2012 1011

Notable Events, 1949–2011 1060

Historical Interpretations and Debates Europe and the Americas 107

The Meaning of the English Revolution 169

Continuity and Discontinuity in the Scientifi c Revolution 246

Social Institutions and Culture in the Age of Enlightenment 322

The Political and Social Signifi cance of the French Revolution 399

Women and the Industrial Revolution 459

The Roots of Modern Nationalism 540

The Rationales and Paradoxes of Modern European Imperialism 654

L i s t o f C h r o n o l o g i e s , H i s t o r i c a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a n d D e b a t e s , M a p s , C h a r t s , a n d T a b l e s

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List of Chronologies, Historical Interpretations and Debates, Maps, Charts, and Tables xxiii

Cultural Responses to the First World War 722

Women in Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany 834

The Nature and Legacy of the Cold War 982

Maps, Charts, and Tables Europe: Physical 4–5

The Mediterranean World about 400, 800, and 1250 C.E. 25

Crusading Activity, 1100–1259 45

Estimated Population of Europe, 1200–1550 51

Europe, 1526 79

State Religions in Europe about 1560 89

European Discoveries, 1450–1600 101

The Low Countries, 1648 129

Europe, 1648 144–145

The Expansion of France, 1661–1713 149

England in the Seventeenth Century 170

France from the Last Years of Louis XIV to the Revolution of 1789 184

The Atlantic World after the Peace of Utrecht, 1713 192

Central and Eastern Europe, 1660–1795 199

Aging Empires and New Powers 200

The Growth of the Austrian Monarchy, 1521–1772 209

The Growth of Prussia, 1415–1918 214–215

The Growth of Russia in the West 230–231

The Growth of Geographical Knowledge 255

The World in 1763 307

Europe, 1740 327

Poland since the Eighteenth Century 342

The French Republic and Its Satellites, 1798–1799 404

Napoleonic Europe, 1810 423

Napoleonic Germany 425

Europe, 1815 446

Britain before and after the Industrial Revolution 457

The Industrial Revolution in Britain (as Shown by Sources of Income) 462

Languages of Europe 473

European Revolutions, 1848 512

Nation-Building, 1859–1867 543

The German Question, 1815–1871 549

Europe, 1871 558–559

Estimated Population of the World by Continental Areas 574

Emigration from Europe, 1850–1940 579

Immigration into Various Countries, 1850–1940 580

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List of Chronologies, Historical Interpretations and Debates, Maps, Charts, and Tablesxxiv

Migration from Europe, 1850–1940 581

Export of European Capital to 1914 590

The Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, 1699–1914 661

Precolonial Africa: Sites and Peoples 667

Africa, 1914 670

Imperialism in Asia, 1840–1914 676–677

“The British Lake,” 1918 679

Northeast China and Adjoining Regions in the Era of Imperialism 683

Anglo-German Industrial Competition, 1898 and 1913 693

The Balkans, 1878 and 1914 698

The First World War 700

Europe, 1923 730–731

The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, 1922–1991 762–763

Europe, 1942 864

The Second World War 868–869

The Holocaust 870

Deportation and Settlement, 1939–1950 892–893

Germany and Its Borders, 1919–1990 909

The Indian Subcontinent, 2000 931

Contemporary Africa 938

The Modern Arab World 946

Israel and Adjoining Regions after the Era of the British Mandate 954–955

The World about 1970 962–963

Vietnam and Its Neighbors after the Era of French Colonialism, Showing Boundaries in 1970 967

Russian Federation in 2000 1008

Nationalities in Central and Eastern Europe at the End of the Twentieth Century 1013

The Global Population Explosion 1070

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xxv

Dramatic events in the contemporary world—wars, revolutions, political upheavals, ter- rorist attacks, catastrophic natural disasters, economic crises, and the endless stream of daily news—often obscure the long-developing historical processes that have created the societies in which we live and the current problems with which we have to cope. The mass media pay little attention to the broader historical patterns and contexts that shape the deeper meaning of swiftly moving public events and private lives. This new edition of this book, which has been retitled A History of Europe in the Modern World, may therefore be seen as the newest version of an ongoing search for historical perspectives on the complex, often bewildering, events of our own era. The book’s new title, which adds the words “Europe in” to the concise phrase that has entitled every previous edition, acknowledges the fact that even a long book cannot adequately describe historical events in the entire “modern world.” At the same time, however, this slight change in a familiar title refl ects other revisions in a new edition that focuses more specifi cally on the history of Europe, while also emphasizing that modern European history has always evolved through interac- tions and exchanges with the wider world.

It is impossible to understand European history without placing it “in the modern world, ” just as it is impossible to understand the modern world without knowing the his- tory of Europe. This book thus carries the guiding assumption that events and ideas in modern European societies have often infl uenced people in every part of the world, but that Europeans have also been constantly infl uenced by their encounters with other peoples and cultures. More generally, the themes of this book build on the presupposition that con- temporary events and confl icts are deeply connected to the diverse cultures, institutions, social systems, economic exchanges, power struggles, empires, and ideas of earlier eras in human history. Nobody can truly understand present times, in short, without studying the past; and in modern times the history of Europe has often entered (for better or for worse) into the history of almost the whole world.