21st century skills critical thinking and problem solving gcu

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21st Century Skills: Critical Thinking and Problem Solving

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The previous two classes you took at Grand Canyon University, UNV- 103 and UNV-104, were designed to equip you with some of the skills you will need to succeed in college. So far, you have learned how to manage your time, take effective notes, build study skills, and search for and evaluate resources.

In this class, PHI-105, we will continue the process of building your information literacy by developing your critical thinking and problem- solving skills. At the college level, you must be able to support your opinions. If you are confronted with problems or challenges, you must be able to solve them creatively and constructively. This book is designed to help you develop these skills.

The book also features a number of shorter articles on famous individuals from different walks of life who have excelled at solving problems or at approaching them in innovative ways. From George Orwell to Jane Goodall, from Frederick Douglass to Abraham Lincoln, these individuals demonstrate what is possible when the human mind is freed to think critically and solve problems.

ABOUT THIS

BOOK

INTRODUCTION. ABOUT THIS BOOKCHAPTERS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7CHAPTERS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

PAGE vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER ONE

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER ONE. Critical Thinking, Memory, and Forgetting by Marti Abitheira

TOPICS The Amazing Brain .................................................................................................................... 1

Whole-Brain Thinking .............................................................................................................. 2

Memory ........................................................................................................................................ 2 Short-Term Memory _______________________________________________________________3 Long-Term Memory ________________________________________________________________4

Forgetting .................................................................................................................................... 4

Why We Forget ........................................................................................................................... 5 Retrieval Failure _____________________________________________________________________5 Interference _________________________________________________________________________5 Failure to Store ______________________________________________________________________6 Motivated Forgetting ________________________________________________________________6

What Defines Critical Thinking? ............................................................................................ 6

Obstacles to Critical Thinking ................................................................................................ 8 Assumption vs. Fact _________________________________________________________________8 Thinking Superficially ________________________________________________________________8 Jumping to Conclusions ______________________________________________________________8 All-or-None Thinking ________________________________________________________________8

Benefits of Critical Thinking ................................................................................................... 9

Exercises/Food for Thought .................................................................................................... 10

Questions ..................................................................................................................................... 10

CRITICAL THINKING SIDEBARS. By Declan Joyce Problem Solvers: Eratosthenes ............................................................................................... 4

Critical Thinkers: Jane Goodall ............................................................................................... 8

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TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER ONE, TWO

TABLE OF CONTENTS. CONTINUED REFERENCES

References ....................................................................................................................................11

CHAPTER TWO. Perception, by R. Jacob Aroz

TOPICS Introduction .................................................................................................................................12

Perception ....................................................................................................................................13

The Five Senses ...........................................................................................................................13

The Deception of the Senses/Misperception ........................................................................16

Prewriting Strategies .................................................................................................................17

Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................19

Food for Thought Exercise ........................................................................................................20 Three Perspectives Brainstorm ______________________________________________________ 20

CRITICAL THINKING SIDEBARS. By Declan Joyce Altered Perception: Sergei Eisenstein ................................................................................... 14

Problem Solver: John Harrison ............................................................................................... 20

REFERENCES References ....................................................................................................................................22

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TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER THREE

TABLE OF CONTENTS. CONTINUED

CHAPTER THREE. Emotion and Emotional Intelligence by Kristen DiCarlo

TOPICS

Introduction .................................................................................................................................23

Opening Questions .....................................................................................................................23

Emotional Intelligence and Making Decisions .....................................................................24 Emotional Bias ______________________________________________________________________ 24 Enculturation _______________________________________________________________________ 25 Denial and Rationalization _________________________________________________________ 26

Cognitive Distortions .................................................................................................................26 Always Being Right _________________________________________________________________ 26 Global Labeling _____________________________________________________________________ 27 Emotional Reasoning _______________________________________________________________ 27 Shoulds _____________________________________________________________________________ 27 Blaming ____________________________________________________________________________ 27 Personalization _____________________________________________________________________ 28 Catastrophizing _____________________________________________________________________ 28 Overgeneralization _________________________________________________________________ 28 Polarized Thinking __________________________________________________________________ 28 Filtering ____________________________________________________________________________ 28

Developing a Thesis Statement ...............................................................................................29

Exercises .......................................................................................................................................3 1

Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................3 1

CRITICAL THINKING SIDEBARS. By Declan Joyce Critical Thinkers: Nellie Bly ..................................................................................................... 25

Altered Perception: Orson Welles............................................................................................29

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TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER THREE, FOUR

TABLE OF CONTENTS. CONTINUED REFERENCES

References ....................................................................................................................................32

CHAPTER FOUR. Fallacies, by Elizabeth Larson, Thomas Dyer, and John Steele

TOPICS Introduction .................................................................................................................................33

Deductive Fallacies ..................................................................................................................... 34

Inductive Fallacies ...................................................................................................................... 35

Reasoning Fallacies ....................................................................................................................36

Analogical Order .........................................................................................................................36

Analogical Reasoning ................................................................................................................. 36 The Classic Radiation Problem ______________________________________________________ 37

Argument by Analogy ................................................................................................................ 37 Premise 1 ___________________________________________________________________________ 38 Premise 2 ___________________________________________________________________________ 38 Conclusion __________________________________________________________________________ 38

• Relevance ................................................................................. 39 • Truth ......................................................................................... 39 • Number of Instances ................................................................ 39 • Differences ............................................................................... 39

A Famous Analogy ......................................................................................................................40

Persuasive Essay Outline ..........................................................................................................4 1

Summary ......................................................................................................................................42

Focus Questions ..........................................................................................................................43

The Scientific Method ................................................................................................................44

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TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER FOUR, FIVE

TABLE OF CONTENTS. CONTINUED Scientific Method in Everyday Life .........................................................................................45

Argument 1 _________________________________________________________________________ 46 Argument 2 _________________________________________________________________________ 46 Argument 3 _________________________________________________________________________ 46

Key Points to Remember ...........................................................................................................46

CRITICAL THINKING SIDEBARS. By Declan Joyce Problem Solvers: Carl Jones .................................................................................................... 37

Great Persuaders: Frederick Douglass .................................................................................. 42

REFERENCES References ....................................................................................................................................47

CHAPTER FIVE. Thinking and Language, by Elizabeth Larson

TOPICS Opening Questions .....................................................................................................................48

Relationship Between Thinking and Language ....................................................................49

The Innateness of Language .....................................................................................................49

The Acquisition of Language .................................................................................................... 50

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis/Linguistic Relativity .....................................................................50 Does the Language We Speak Impact Our Perception? _____________________________ 53

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TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER FIVE

TABLE OF CONTENTS. CONTINUED Figurative Language ................................................................................................................... 54

Similes ______________________________________________________________________________ 54 Metaphors __________________________________________________________________________ 54 Idioms ______________________________________________________________________________ 54

Symbolism ....................................................................................................................................54

Language in a Cultural Context ............................................................................................... 55

Inductive vs. Deductive Reasoning ......................................................................................... 55 Deductive Reasoning _______________________________________________________________ 56

• Major Premise ......................................................................... 56 • Minor Premise ......................................................................... 56 • Conclusion ............................................................................... 56

Inductive Reasoning................................................................................................................... 57 Generalizations _____________________________________________________________________ 58 Cause and Effect ____________________________________________________________________ 58 Analogies ___________________________________________________________________________ 58

First Draft .....................................................................................................................................59

One Final Thought ......................................................................................................................60

Summary ......................................................................................................................................6 1

CRITICAL THINKING SIDEBARS. By Declan Joyce Critical Thinkers: George Orwell .............................................................................................51

Altered Perception: The AIDA Model......................................................................................58

REFERENCES References ....................................................................................................................................62

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TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER SIX, SEVEN

TABLE OF CONTENTS. CONTINUED

CHAPTER SIX. Communication and Persuasion, by Thomas Dyer

TOPICS Introduction .................................................................................................................................63

The Art of Persuasion ................................................................................................................ 64

Ethics in Persuasion ................................................................................................................... 65

Manipulation ...............................................................................................................................65

Avoiding Bias ...............................................................................................................................66

Informative, Explanatory, and Persuasive Writing .............................................................67

Assessing a Persuasive Argument ........................................................................................... 68

Summary ......................................................................................................................................72

CRITICAL THINKING SIDEBARS. By Declan Joyce Great Persuaders: Abraham Lincoln .......................................................................................69

Altered Perception: Political Advertising ..............................................................................7 1

REFERENCES References ....................................................................................................................................72

CHAPTER SEVEN. Creative Thinking, by John Steele

TOPICS Introduction .................................................................................................................................73

Writing Process Recap ............................................................................................................... 75

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TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER SEVEN, APPENDIX A

TABLE OF CONTENTS. CONTINUED Thesis 1 ____________________________________________________________________________ 75 Thesis 2 ____________________________________________________________________________ 75 Thesis 3 ____________________________________________________________________________ 75

Persuasive Writing Final Draft Checklist ..............................................................................78

A Final Word ................................................................................................................................80

Key Points to Remember ........................................................................................................... 81

CRITICAL THINKING SIDEBARS. By Declan Joyce Critical Thinkers: Jean-Francois Champollion .....................................................................76

Problem Solvers: Humphry Davy ............................................................................................ 80

REFERENCES References ....................................................................................................................................82

APPENDIX A. Supplemental Notes and Information SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION

Image Credits ..............................................................................................................................A

Notes One .....................................................................................................................................B

Notes Two ....................................................................................................................................C

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TABLE OF CONTENTS. APPENDIX B

APPENDIX B. Biographies

AUTHORS Marti Abitheira ...........................................................................................................................D

R. Jacob Aroz ...............................................................................................................................D

Kristen DiCarlo ............................................................................................................................D

Elizabeth Larson .........................................................................................................................E

Thomas Dyer ................................................................................................................................E

John Steele ...................................................................................................................................E

Declan Joyce ................................................................................................................................F

TABLE OF CONTENTS. CONTINUED

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CH1. CRITICAL THINKING, MEMORY, AND FORGETTING

CHAPTER ONE. Critical Thinking, Memory, and Forgetting By Marti Abitheira

The Amazing Brain The adult human brain weighs only 3

pounds yet has the capacity of a thousand supercomputers. It has enough room to store every phone number in the United States and continue to perform day-to-day tasks easily and effectively. Through this amazing organ runs an endless stream of ideas, memories, and mental pictures. We can recall the three- dimensional layouts of homes and buildings, memorize thousands of lines of poetry, or “hear” the music of a complete symphony. The brain, with its mysterious ability to think

and reason, allows us to make sense of the world in which we live. Thoughts accumulate, allowing knowledge and wisdom to grow; we learn to evaluate assumptions, examine evidence, and assess conclusions. Thought motivates actions and interactions. Children undergo this intellectual development naturally, driven by their innate curiosity to know more about the world around them.

From a young age, children are capable of certain foundational thinking concepts. Their thought processes are initially self-centered,

but over time they begin to consider how their behavior affects others. They begin to examine thinking, to focus on purpose and judgments, and to apply basic intellectual standards to their thoughts, including accuracy and relevance. At 12 months, children typically realize that objects continue to exist when out of sight. This concept, which is called “object permanence,” works alongside the child’s expanding memory to make the world more predictable. At times, however, children will still misinterpret reality. A 1-year-old child

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CH1. CRITICAL THINKING, MEMORY, AND FORGETTING

may begin to cry when a toy unexpectedly rolls a few inches toward them. The world is still a mysterious place to them, and children have a fragile understanding of the difference between animate and inanimate objects.

Once language is learned and understood, deeper thoughts can be developed and put into words. Growing communication skills increase interactions and produce knowledge, which in turns promotes the deeper skill of critical thinking. Thinking and language grow and develop together. Thought processes are expressed with increasing subtlety in words, tone, gestures, and facial expressions. Increasing interaction with others promotes new ideas and thoughts that in turn foster knowledge.

Whole-Brain Thinking Whole-brain thinking involves understand-

ing that the brain is designed to be whole and to integrate seamlessly the various special- ized functions of its hemispheres. We do not function with half a brain, as the terms “left- brained” and “right-brained” imply. In fact, the brain’s very design allows us to think in terms of and as opposed to or. Therein lies our ability to think critically, create, and com- municate, without limits. However, it is also true that our individual brains tend to favor certain types of thinking and learning over others. The brain is designed to be whole, but the tendency exists in each of us to favor one side of the brain or the other depending on the task at hand. Neuroanamotist Jill Bolte Taylor describes this in her book My Stroke of Insight (2008):

Although each of our cerebral hemispheres processes information in uniquely different ways, the two work intimately together when it comes to every action we take. The more we

understand about how the hemispheres work together … the more successful we will be in understanding the natural gifts

of our brain (p. 39).

Memory Our brain’s memory, not unlike the

memory in a computer, allows for the storage of information for later use. In terms of memory, the major difference between the human brain and computers is in how information is stored. Computers have only two types: permanent storage and permanent deletion. The human brain, on the other hand, has three distinct types of storage (not including permanent deletion). The first process is encoding, the process used to transform information into a form that will allow it to be stored. For a computer, this means converting data into 1s and 0s. For the

brain, it means transforming the data into a meaningful form such as an association with an existing memory, image, or sound.

Second is actual storage, which simply means retaining the information. A computer must write the 1s and 0s onto the hard drive. In the brain, it takes the form of a reason or incentive for the memory to be stored. Think, for example, how little time it takes us to learn to be careful around a hot stove.

The final process is retrieval, which brings the memory out of storage and reverses the process of encoding—in other words, it returns the information to a form similar to

ENCODING ACTUAL STORAGE

RETRIEVAL

Storage Processes

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CH1. CRITICAL THINKING, MEMORY, AND FORGETTING

how it was originally stored. The computer mimics this process, changing the data from 1s and 0s to a readable document or image.

Short-term memory comes into play when information is moved into consciousness. This is information that is currently active, such as reading this page, talking to a friend, or writing an essay. Short-term memory has a limited capacity normally lasting roughly 30 seconds. The brain can remember approximately five to nine pieces of information in short-term memory at any given time. However, if short-term memory lasts only 30 seconds, how does anyone ever get any work done? Do people essentially lose focus or concentration twice every minute? The answer is no, because of a second type of short-term memory known as working memory. Working memory is the process that takes place when an individual continually focuses on material for longer than short- term memory permits. When short-term memory is full and more

information enters, displacement occurs. New information pushes out portions of the old information. Short-term memory skills can be improved with practice, such as vi- sualization techniques card sharks use to store a sequence of dozens of cards at a time.

Short-Term Memory

There are typically six reasons why information is stored in short-term memory:

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Primacy effect: Information that occurs first is remembered better than information occurring later. The first word, item, or number on a list is generally more readily remembered.

Recency effect: Often the final piece of information is remembered more easily because not as much time has passed.

Distinctiveness: If an element of the memory stands out, it is often remembered more easily. Any distinctive information is easier to remember than that which is familiar, usual, or mundane.

Frequency effect: Repetition aids memory. For example, think of having to remember specific dates in history. The more repetition, the stronger the memory.

Associations: When a memory is associated with previously memorized information, it is easier to remember.

Reconstruction: This refers to a process whereby the blanks in one’s memory are involuntarily filled in. When one tries to get a complete picture of an event or image in his or her mind, the brain may fill in missing parts without him or her realizing it.

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Long-Term Memory Long-term memory is similar to a

computer’s hard drive. Unlike short-term memory, long-term memory is relatively permanent and virtually unlimited in capacity. Information that passes from short- term to long-term memory typically has some significance attached to it. Life would be dull without memories of the day you graduated high school, scored the winning goal, or had your first kiss. On the other hand, how easy

it is to forget details that have no relevance, like the color of the car parked in front of the local grocery store or what outfit you wore last Tuesday. Other information is stored in long-term memory because it is attached to something significant. Remembering it was a warm day when you graduated from high school is one example. The actual temperature is of little importance, but the warmth of the day is attached to the memory.

PROBLEM SOLVERS: Eratosthenes By Declan Joyce

This series of sidebars examines individuals who used ingenuity and critical thinking to solve difficult problems.

The next time you feel frustrated with your smartphone’s map software, spare a thought for Erastosthenes (c. 276 B.C.–c. 195 B.C.). He had to find his way around the world using a piece of wood.

One of the most famous men of his day, Eratosthenes was a mathematician, astronomer, geographer, poet, and chief librarian of the Great Library of Alexandria in Ptolemaic Egypt. At one point, he read a curious fact about the

Forgetting Memory cannot be discussed without men-

tioning forgetting. Forgetting is a natural phenomenon. If every detail of every minute of every hour of every day were remembered, no matter how good, bad, or insignificant, sifting through all of that data would make remembering significant information, such as where you left your keys, a difficult, time- consuming task. There are many reasons people forget and often these reasons over- lap. Some information never makes it to long- term memory. Other information gets there but is lost before it can become a permanent part of long-term memory. Another reason is decay, in which information unused for an extended period of time decays or fades away. The brain may be designed to erase data that is no longer pertinent.

Failing to remember does not mean the information is lost forever. Sometimes the

information is there but for various reasons cannot be accessed. This could be due to dis- traction or an error of association. For ex- ample, misremembering information like the date and time may cause that information to be disconnected or stored in another part of the brain. Another possibility is repression, which means that one subconsciously pushes a memory out of reach so as not to remem- ber the associated feelings. Another reason is amnesia, which can be either psychological or physiological.

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ancient Egyptian city of Swenet (modern- day Aswan). Specifically, he learned that every year at noon on the summer solstice, the sun would be directly overhead in Swenet and all shadows would disappear for a few minutes until the sun moved on. Like most educated men at the time, Erastosthenes knew that the earth was round, and the story gave him an idea.

He reasoned as follows: If he were to measure the angle cast by the sun’s rays in Alexandria at the same moment they were directly overhead in Swenet, he would know what proportion of the entire circumference of the earth was represented by the distance between the two cities. Using a gnomon, a piece of wood equivalent to the arm on a sundial, he found that the sun in Alexandria cast its rays at precisely 7 degrees 12 minutes (or about one-fiftieth of the entire earth’s circumference of 360 degrees) while it was directly overhead in Swenet.

Next, he needed the distance from Alexandria to Swenet, which was fortunately available because the route between the cities had already been

Eratosthenes continued:Why We Forget

Many factors contribute to forgetting. Researcher Elizabeth Loftus, a cogni-

tive psychologist and expert on human memory, proposed four explanations:

Retrieval Failure The inability to retrieve a

memory is one of the most com- mon causes of forgetting. One possible explanation for retriev- al failure is decay. A memory trace is created every time a new concept is formed. Decay sug-

gests that, over time, these memory trac- es begin to disconnect from one another and disappear. Information that is not retrieved and rehearsed may be eventu- ally lost.

Interference Interference suggests that

some memories compete and interfere with others. When information is similar to other information previ- ously stored in memory,

interference may occur. There are two basic types of interference: Proactive in- terference occurs when an old memory makes it more difficult or impossible to remember a new one, whereas retroac- tive interference occurs when new learn- ing interferes with your ability to re- member previously learned information.

surveyed. In addition, it was regularly traveled by trade caravans and Eratosthenes spoke with some of the traders to confirm his information. Multiplying the distance between the cities by 50 gave him the circumference of the earth.

Well, almost. Erastosthenes was off by about 10 percent, but this is not the fault of his methods, but because he did not have access to three crucial pieces of information: first, that the two cities are not on the same north- south meridian (they are actually off by about 3 degrees); second, that the surveyors and traders underestimated the distance between the two cities; and third, that the earth is not a perfect sphere (it bulges slightly at the equator). Armed with this information and using the same methods, Eratosthenes would have arrived at a figure of 40,074 km, or less than one-sixth of 1 percent (about 60 km) off the exact figure. It’s an impressive problem to solve, especially when his main instrument of measurement was a piece of wood.

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Failure to Store

Motivated Forgetting

Sometimes, losing infor- mation has less to do with forgetting and more to do with the fact that it nev- er made it into long-term memory. Encoding failures

sometimes prevent information from en- tering long-term memory.

Sometimes, an active effort is made to forget memories, especially those associated with traumatic or disturbing events or ex- periences. The two basic forms of motivated forget-

ting are suppression, a conscious form of forgetting, and repression, an uncon- scious form of forgetting.

One of the difficulties with repressed memories is that it is difficult, if not im- possible, to scientifically study whether a memory has been repressed. Mental ac- tivities such as rehearsal and remember- ing are important methods of strength- ening a memory, and memories of painful or traumatic events are less likely to be discussed or rehearsed and thus are for- gotten.

What Defines Critical Thinking?

Hopefully by now you are sufficiently im- pressed with the abilities of your amazing brain to be confident of its ability to learn to think critically. The term “critical thinking” can be intimidating. One imagines critical thinkers to be limited to the great minds of

our time, gathered in profound dialogues on thermo-molecular biology or quantum phys- ics, using terms and discussing concepts that range far beyond even our most heightened comprehension. In reality, critical thinking is a skill used constantly and that can improve

with practice and effort. Comparison shop- ping at the grocery store is a basic form of critical thinking. Critical thinking and cre- ative thinking are two aspects of understand- ing that are essential to the process of learn- ing and assessing what has been learned, and

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CH1. CRITICAL THINKING, MEMORY, AND FORGETTING

understanding their effects is a long-standing goal of many academic disciplines.

Of the two, creative thinking may be the more familiar term. This is the process of brainstorming or initiating ideas as a way of finding solutions to conflicts or issues. Criti- cal thinking is the process of actively seek- ing to understand, analyze, and evaluate the importance or significance of information. Creative thinking and critical thinking com- plement one another and, if used effectively, result in effective thinking. Effective think- ing resolves real-life issues and situations by generating viable options (creative thinking) and contemplating the effects of those op- tions (critical thinking).

Most students begin college with an abil-

ity to use creative-thinking skills. They have developed the ability to express their opin- ions and viewpoints on a variety of topics. Unfortunately, many believe that the act of expressing these opinions and views is suf- ficient. To their amazement, they realize that at this level of education, professors expect a concerted demonstration of higher-order thinking skills. Critical thinking operates on a higher level, processing information, con- sidering alternative points of view or reason- able objections, and arriving at a decision or conclusion. It is the ability to apply academic thinking in a variety of approaches. Critical thinking examines information in order to evaluate a task, issue, or situation from an al- ternative perspective, then gathers evidence or knowledge to permit the accomplishment of the task or the resolution of the issue. It is the process of analyzing and applying the information you gather from experience, re-flection and communication. In its most rudimentary form, critical thinking can be defined as “thinking about thinking.”

CRITICAL THINKING In its most rudimentary form, critical thinking can be defined as “thinking about thinking.”

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CH1. CRITICAL THINKING, MEMORY, AND FORGETTING

Obstacles to Critical Thinking Critical thinking avoids bias, misrepresentation, or decisions based on incomplete or superficial information. It does the

heavy lifting of the brain, avoiding stock or clichéd assessments and solutions. It is never lazy but endlessly curious. Far from be- ing threatened by challenges to current belief, it examines them

willingly as potential windows into deeper understanding.

CRITICAL THINKERS: Jane Goodall By Declan Joyce

Here are some common obstacles to critical thinking:

This series of sidebars examines individuals who have bucked conventional wisdom and done things their own way.

The English, as everyone knows, place a high value on doing things the proper way. When it comes to her career, however, the Englishwoman Jane Goodall (b. 1934) seems not to have gotten the memo.

Goodall has been fascinated by chimpanzees ever since receiving a stuffed toy chimp from her father as a child, and as an adult decided to pursue a career studying them. As anyone would have told her at the time, the

1 Assumption vs. Fact

Critical thinking requires the use of solid facts and evidence in the analysis of information. An argument or conclusion loses its credibility when personal biases or assumptions are used as support for a decision or argument. Errors in judgment are more likely to occur when assumptions are used in place of verifiable fact. Examination of these assumptions requires critical questioning and reflective analysis. Critical questions must be specific to events, situations, or issues.

2 Thinking Superficially

Superficial thinking means considering only the obvious or superficial facts of an issue. Thinking in depth requires identifying related information, considering the context of the issue, and understanding the relationships of all factors. Discussing, writing, diagramming, and reading are methods for delving into an issue in greater depth.

4 All-or-None Thinking

All-or-none thinking occurs when it is believed that because something happens a certain way one time, all future events will occur in the same manner. All-or-none thinking believes that there is one universal way to think and relate information. Effective critical thinking requires flexibility and recognition that there is usually more than one way to do or think about a topic, issue, or situation.

3 Jumping to Conclusions

Another error that can significantly interfere with effective critical thinking is arriving at a conclusion before all relevant data is received. If all the important facts are not available, it is difficult, if not impossible, to draw a logical conclusion. One element that can contribute to the tendency to jump to conclusions is an emotional reaction to information or circumstances. It is normal to have emotional responses to certain issues. However, emotional reactions must be tempered with objective and rational consideration of the facts in order to think effectively and reach reasonable conclusions.

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proper way to do this was to go to college, obtain a PhD in primatology or a similar field, and then conduct research by studying captive apes in a lab. However, Goodall took another route. While visiting a friend in Kenya in 1957, she telephoned Louis Leakey, the British paleontologist famous for his work on evolutionary biology in Kenya’s Olduvai Gorge. Her purpose was merely to get together for a talk on animals, but Leakey, who was also interested in research among living primates, recognized the young lady’s enthusiasm and intelligence and provided funding for her to observe chimpanzees in Kenya’s Gombe Stream National Park. Which she did.

For decades.

With no formal training in science, Goodall simply began observing the chimps in the wild. She lived alone in Gombe for months at a time, spending every day watching and taking notes. At first, her research was hindered by her inability to get closer than 500 yards or so before the chimpanzees became restless. Over time, however, they began to trust her and allow her to move closer. One day in 1960, she witnessed something that upended

Jane Goodall continued:

Jane Goodall

Benefits of Critical Thinking Critical thinking has many benefits. It identifies the elements that are sound

and faulty in reasoning, sorts out sensible deductions, then defines and separates them from biases and opinions. Critical thinking:

Strengthens the ability to analyze and evaluate topics of interest.

Promotes understanding of social diversity and worldviews.

Improves research, writing, and oral communication skills.

Helps construct and deconstruct arguments that rationally defend one’s opinions.

Fosters independent learning and strong group participation.

Overcomes barriers such as defenses, denial, or any self-serving biases.

Increases academic knowledge.

Encourages intellectual curiosity.

Critical thinking is a skill that can benefit students in every aspect of their lives, well beyond their academic pursuits. It is essential to every student as they examine and explore the content and theories contained in the courses needed to complete their degree.

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the field of primatology. A male chimp, bent over a termite mound, was taking twigs from a nearby tree, stripping them of their leaves, and dipping them into the mound. Moments later, the chimp would remove the stick and eat the termite defenders that clung to it. The chimp, in other words, was using a tool, something that only man was supposed to be able to do. She telephoned Leakey with the news. His reaction,

Jane Goodall continued:

Exercises/Food for Thought

A

B

C

Attempt to draw both sides of a penny from memory, and then compare your results to an actual penny. How well did you do?

When you forget where you have placed an object (such as your keys), what mental steps do you take to find that object?

Think of one of your most deeply held beliefs, then think of ways to challenge it.

Q U E ST I O N S 1. What are the three main functions of memory? 2. What are the six reasons why information is stored in short-term memory? 3. What are some of the major reasons people forget? 4. Why is information sometimes unable to be retrieved from memory? 5. What are the two elements of motivated forgetting? 6. What defines critical thinking? 7. Why are critical-thinking skills essential to the college student?

he later wrote, was, “We must now redefine man, redefine tool, or accept chimpanzees as human!”

Recognizing the value of Goodall’s research, in 1962 Leakey raised funds to send her to Cambridge University, where she became only the eighth woman in the school’s history to be admitted to a PhD program without first having obtained an undergraduate degree. In 1965, she received her doctorate in ethology, the scientific study of animal behavior. Back in Gombe, she resumed her studies of the chimpanzee population. Over the next three decades, she made a range of new discoveries that challenged much of the perceived wisdom about chimpanzees.

One basic assumption that Goodall proved wrong was that they were vegetarians. On multiple occasions, she witnessed groups of them pursuing, catching, and eating colobus monkeys. Even more interesting, she found that the apes actively cooperated while hunting, with individual apes functioning as decoys or moving ahead to cut off the colobus monkeys’ escape routes. The animal that caught the monkey did not keep it, but shared it among all members of the group. Again, chimpanzees were doing things that were supposed to be uniquely human, namely planning ahead and cooperating in pursuit of a goal.

Other behavior was also startlingly human. Chimps live together in large social groups, and Goodall, who had come to recognize dozens of them individually and even given some of them names (another no-no, in the minds of the academic community), observed that chimps formed friendships and alliances and showed generosity, forgiveness, support, and even sadness. On the darker side, they could be extremely violent. Before the Gombe study, chimps were believed to be invariably peaceful creatures, but Goodall witnessed fatal violence between group members, including

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Jane Goodall continued:

REFERENCES Bolte Taylor, J. (2008). My stroke of insight. New York, NY: Viking Press.

mothers who killed and sometimes even ate the babies of rival females. Also, over a period of several years, she witnessed what can only be described as “gang warfare” between two competing groups of chimps, that only ended when one group had been systematically hunted down and wiped out. This was a long way from the popular image of the friendly chimp in a baseball hat and t-shirt that dominated public perception prior to the Gombe study.

Goodall, who is now recognized as one of the world’s leading primatologists, continued her studies at Gombe for more than four decades. In recent years, as she approaches her 80th birthday, she remains active, traveling more than 300 days a year and devoting herself

to wildlife conservation and education. Through it all, she has remained impeccably gracious and modest. A good example of this occurred when the Far Side cartoonist Gary Larson published a cartoon showing two chimps grooming one another on a tree branch. One of them, discovering a blonde hair on the other (Goodall is blonde), says, “Conducting a little more ‘research’ with that Jane Goodall tramp?” Goodall was in Gombe at the time but her representatives at home strongly objected, calling the cartoon “an atrocity.” Goodall, however, thought it was hilarious, didn’t understand what all the fuss was about, and invited Larson to visit her in Gombe.

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CHAPTER TWO.

Perception By R. Jacob Aroz

Perception is the means by which people understand the environment around them. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines perception as “the way you think about or understand someone or something” (“Perception,” 2013, para. 1). However, is perception always reality? Are there instances when what is perceived is not accurate? As you read this chapter, keep in mind the following questions:

Throughout this course, you will write a persuasive essay on a particular topic. Under- standing how reality is influenced through perception can help you clarify what it is you wish to argue, and how to go about present- ing your case. By the end of this chapter, you should have an understanding of what per- ception is, how it is formulated through the senses, and the factors that can influence or change perception.

WHAT IS PERCEPTION?

HOW DO THE FIVE SENSES HELP IN FORMULATING PERCEPTION?

HOW CAN THE SENSES BE DECEIVED/NEGATIVELY INFLUENCED?

Introduction

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Perception The way that you interact with and un-

derstand the environment around you is in- formed, in large part, by perception. Percep- tions are formed through the interplay of the senses. As Gepshtein (2010) noted, the senses act as “statistical measures” that enable you to understand the environment around you. These statistical measures are used to con- struct reality. Another explanation says that perception is used to allow an organism the opportunity to think and act in environmen- tally appropriate ways (Cohen, 2004).

The critical-thinking process requires you to gather information, analyze it, evaluate possible actions or solutions to a problem, and make an appropriate decision. Perception provides the information that is gathered for analysis and evaluation. Through the critical thought process, perceptions are continually tested and then validated or cast out as inaccurate. It is important to understand that perception does not necessarily reflect the way that things really are. You can probably recall instances when your perceptions were not accurate. For example, you may have had the experience of driving on a hot day and seeing what look like pools of water on the road ahead when in fact there were none. A magician may make a distracting sound to draw your gaze elsewhere. Unscrupulous salesmen and con artists sometimes wear strong cologne to distract the senses of a “mark.”

The Five Senses The senses influence almost every decision

that you make throughout your daily routine. When you walk into an environment, you im- mediately use the senses to gather informa- tion about it. The information gathered using these senses can be identified as “percep- tions,” or judgments about the environment.

Sight is the sense we use the most. It takes up the most cortical space within the brain. The Hausa people of West Africa classify two senses: vision, and everything else. Reflect on the various tasks you perform during the day. Whether you are a student or working professional (or both), much of your time is spent using your sense of sight, whether to work on a paper, conduct research, write an

e-mail, or draft a proposal. Consumers also rely on sight to make purchasing decisions. Perceptions are formed and decisions made based on the way the products look despite the fact that their appearance may have little to do with how that product functions or benefits an individual.

The advertising industry is rife with examples of how the sense of sight, or vision, has an impact on the way that something is perceived and decisions are made. As Cant and Hefer (2013) explain, visual perception is something that advertisers take into

account when trying to sell a product. In- store and window displays are designed to attract customers. In many instances, the design of a product has a large influence on its desirability among consumers (Noble & Kumar, 2010). While the respective merits of PCs versus Macs could be debated all day long, the resurgence of Apple products in the late 90s and early 2000s was due, in large part, to their attractive, innovative appearance.

SIGHT

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ALTERED PERCEPTION: Sergei Eisenstein By Declan Joyce

In this sidebar series, we look at the ways in which different kinds of media have been used to manipulate an audience and change their perception of events.

Today’s multibillion-dollar global movie industry would have been unrecognizable to the patrons of the first nickelodeons, the 5-cent movie theaters that flourished in the United States from approximately 1905–1915. These mostly rudimentary structures offered “canned theater,” that is, short stage plays filmed using a single stationary camera in which actors used extravagant theatrical gestures to compensate for the lack of dialogue.

However, with human imagination being what it is, before long filmmakers began to think of new ways to use the invention. How, they wondered, might what is being filmed be different if the camera were moving? Or if there were more than one? What if a scene were shot from below? From above? From behind? Would this change the way in which the events in the movie are perceived? Over the past century, directors have found countless ways to use the camera to achieve emotional or dramatic effects, but the basic vocabulary of the cinema is usually accredited to two directors of the Silent Era: the American D.W. Griffith and the Russian Sergei Eisenstein.

Food is usually presented to appeal to the eye despite the fact that one experiences food using the sense of taste. In a study on how food marketing has impacted obesity levels, Chandon and Wansink (2012) write that food marketers often use different color combinations within food to enhance taste expectations among consumers in an effort to get them to purchase the product. Fast food ads feature glistening burgers and crisp, yellow fries with fresh steam wafting into the air. The reality, of course, is that most fast

food is anything but fresh. As is discussed later in this chapter, this propensity to use the sense of sight to formulate perceptions about various aspects of an environment can lead to a false understanding of reality.

Our sense of sound also informs perceptions about the environment. You often perceive your distance in relation to other objects by the volume of the sound it makes. The louder the volume of an object, the smaller the perceived distance. The sense of sound can also be used to help you interpret social roles, or norms. Burke and Grosvenor (2011) write that sound can be used to conceptualize, or understand, one’s role in society and relationship with others. An example of this is the sounds emanating from local schools. You hear the school bell ring and the raised

voices of exasperated teachers and begin to conceptualize the environment (Burke & Grosvenor). The sound of a police or fire department siren warns you to be alert and, if you are driving, to move your car to the side of the road.

Taste is most commonly associated with food and drink. Through taste you gauge information like flavor, temperature, and texture. It also helps you avoid things that are too hot, too cold, or potentially danger- ous. Taste usually combines with smell and

Fast food ads feature glistening burgers and crisp, yellow fries.

The louder the volume of an object, the smaller the perceived distance.

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Sergei Eisenstein continued:

Ukraine, Odessa Potemkin Steps

In particular, Eisenstein’s 1925 film Potemkin is credited with exploring the potential of film editing and montage (that is, cutting between different camera shots). Potemkin, which was made less than a decade after the Russian Revolution, is essentially a propaganda film that dramatizes a mutiny by sailors against Tsarist troops of the old regime. Eisenstein, like other Soviet filmmakers of the time, used his films to experiment with editing techniques and their emotional effect on audiences. This can be clearly seen in the most famous scene in the film, the “Odessa Steps” sequence, in which unarmed civilians flee murderous Tsarist troops who cut them down indiscriminately. Eisenstein uses multiple camera angles and composes his shots for maximum emotional effect: The troops are faceless and sinister, filmed from behind or from the waist down; the pain on the faces of the victims, meanwhile, is filmed in lingering close-up. Instead of using a single camera, Eisenstein composes dozens of shots, cutting rapidly between marching soldiers, fleeing citizens, a murdered young mother, a horrified old woman, a shocked student and, most famously, a baby in a carriage, rolling helplessly down the steps before being viciously slashed by a soldier. (The rolling baby carriage has been referenced in several other movies, including Brian DePalma’s The Untouchables and Woody Allen’s Bananas.)

Though the filmmaking may seem a little rudimentary by today’s standards, the overall effect, especially to an audience unaccustomed to work of such sophistication, was to completely

vision to form our overall perceptions of a meal. The color and smell of food influence your expectations of how a food ultimately will taste and influence your choice of what to eat (Chandon & Wansink, 2012). The sense of taste gives you the opportunity to test the perceptions formulated through the sight, smell, and in some cases the texture or touch of the food.

The fourth sense is touch. Touch helps you to absorb information in various ways. Through the sense of touch, you gauge the temperature and density of an object. Touch enables you to determine if stimuli are too hot or too cold and take action to avoid harm. As with the other senses, touch is something used to make decisions on possible purchases and is taken into account by advertisers try- ing to get people to buy products. Research shows that consumers often experience frus- tration when they are unable to touch certain products, and ultimately perceive them less favorably (Marlow & Jansson-Boyd, 2011). In this instance, although the touch of the prod-

uct may not impact its functionality, con- sumers will perceive it negatively if they are unable to perceive it through tactile stimula- tion. Touch is also used in our relationships with loved ones, to express reassurance, de- sire, love, or closeness.

The final sense is smell. Smell enables you to determine various odors present within an environment. According to Mitro, Gordon, Olsson, and Lundstrom (2012), smell is also used to identify potential mates or to per- ceive danger. Consider, for example, how you might react when you walk into a room that has a strong smell of gas or kerosene. When you step onto a bus or other form of public transportation, your sense of smell is alive to the dozens of odors that are present. Or con- sider how you might react to someone with bad breath. He or she may be a sweet person, but in this instance your sense of smell will be the driving factor in the emotions, memo- ries, and ultimately your perception of him or her (Smeets et al., 2009).

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change the perception of the event. So effective was Eisenstein’s filmmaking, in fact, that it is often forgotten that the events in Potemkin, though loosely based on actual events, are largely fictional and that the massacre of civilians never happened. In Eisenstein’s hands, the event was turned into a powerful indictment of the old regime and, by implication, a vindication of those that overthrew it.

You can view the Odessa Steps sequence here.

Exercise: Think of the different kinds of media you encounter on a daily basis. In what ways do they attempt to influence your perceptions? Do any of them succeed?

Sergei Eisenstein continued: The Deception of the Senses

MISPERCEPTION Perception can also be influenced by previous experience,

emotion, cultural bias, and personal opinion.

Sensory perceptions are thus put through other filters that can enhance but also distort one’s understanding of reality. Food can have an unappealing appearance yet taste good; someone can have a mean appearance yet be pleasant. This sensory deception highlights the importance, and benefit, of the critical- thought process. Critical thought enables you to use the senses to gather information and form perceptions about stimuli within an environment and then test those perceptions to determine reality accurately. Although the senses are physical recordings and responses to certain stimuli, Gordon (2012) explains that they are also “experienced as part objective response to stimuli within a particular context, and part of a more interpretive-associated experience” (p. 909). The interpretive nature of one’s senses can lead to various perceptions being misleading, or deceptive, in understanding, and properly identifying reality.

The norms, morals, and ethical ideals of your culture also influence the way you perceive. People who have grown up on the East Coast of the United States can easily perceive the difference in people from the Midwest. This cultural influence often creates differences in our interactions with people from other places. Or consider the Western view of a slim body type as the cultural ideal. Weisbuch and Ambady (2009) explained that this view is due, in large part, to the prevalence of slim female bodies and their treatment by others in various forms of Western media. However, in other cultures, heavyset body types and curvy figures are seen as much more desirable.

Personal experience also has a tremendous influence on the way you perceive your environment. The senses are used to create memories, and that information is used when similar situations or stimuli are encountered. People will perceive the way food tastes, for example, based on previous experience. While these experiences can be beneficial

and are an integral part of the critical- thinking process, they can lead to biases. A previous interaction with an individual from a certain geographic location can lead to a perception that does not reflect the reality of these individuals overall. A previous feeling of anger can cause you to approach a situation with an unwarranted feeling of invulnerability (Fischhoff, Gonzalez, Lerner, & Small, 2012).

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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ps-v-kZzfec
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PREWRITING STRATEGIES

PREWRITING STRATEGIES As mentioned at the beginning of this

chapter, being aware of how your perceptions and experiences influence you is a good way to approach the writing of a paper. There are also various prewriting strategies that you can use to focus and organize your thoughts on your topic of choice. As Lima (2010) explains, the prewriting process provides students with the opportunity to understand their existing knowledge of the topic and to continue to develop that knowledge. The prewriting process allows you to identify your topic and your audience, brainstorm, research, develop a thesis statement, and craft an outline.

One of the most critical steps of the pre- writing process is brainstorming. Brain-

storming, which was created by Alex Osborn in the 1930s, is a technique that allows you to develop a large number of ideas on a topic in a short amount of time (Huey Fen, 2010). Developing ideas pertaining to your topic is important, as it will shape the direction of your essay and the research you need to do. While you may have plenty of ideas on a top- ic, brainstorming gives you the opportunity to set them down on paper and identify the main ideas or points around which you will be building your essay. When brainstorming, there are several techniques that you can use to develop ideas pertaining to your topic: list- ing, free-writing, journalistic questions, three perspectives breaking down the topic, and mapping/webbing.

LISTING: Listing, as the name suggests, involves creating a list of ideas on your topic. Once you

have listed several ideas, review them to try to identify main points. Again, this will provide you with a direction to go in for your research and provide insight on how you may wish to structure your essay.

FREE-WRITING: Free-writing is especially useful when you have a lot of ideas on a topic. Free-writing

allows your mind to wander on a topic without censorship or having to conform to a set of rules. Just write what comes in to your head. Once you have finished recording the thoughts that have come to you, read through them to try to identify main ideas.

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JOURNALISTIC QUESTIONS: The third method of brainstorming is journalistic questions. This involves using the

journalist’s set of basic questions on a story or topic: who, what, when, where, why, and how. These questions can help you develop ideas on your topic in a thorough manner and provide you with avenues of research.

BREAKING DOWN THE TOPIC: Breaking down the topic is useful for when you are unsure of what to write about. This

method allows you to break down the topic into a main topic and several subtopics or points. Using this method can help you identify specific points pertaining to your main topic that you can conduct research on and structure your essay around.

PREWRITING STRATEGIES CONTINUED

THREE PERSPECTIVES: Finding three perspectives on your topic is another method. The three perspectives

that you should use are description, history, and relationships. First, describe the topic in detail and break it down into specific parts. You can also take the opportunity to describe what is interesting about the topic and why you decided to pick it. Next, consider your topic’s history (i.e., the events that may have shaped it and changed it over time). Finally, explore the various relationships that exist within and outside of your topic and how your topic relates to other topics. For example, if you choose the subject of abortion for your essay, ask yourself how the public discourse on the subject is related to politics, religion, or place of origin.

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MAPPING/WEBBING: The final method of brainstorming is

mapping, or webbing. Mapping/webbing allows you to develop ideas on your topic in a visual manner. Using mapping/ webbing, you can demonstrate spatially and physically the relationship between your topic and various other ideas, or subtopics. Using a map or web is a great way for visual learners to understand the topic in more detail (Leopold, 2012). Write your main topic or thesis at the center of a page and then fill in your web or map with supporting ideas. Use lines or arrows or any other method you like to illustrate how topics relate to one another or the order in which they might appear in your final essay. This is an excellent way to develop