A consensus of procedures in the career counseling models

Career Counseling

Read the attached case of Janine. Then address the following two prompts in a 2 two page, double spaced paper APA style with at least 1 reference.

1. Choose one of the five models described in Chapter 3 and apply it to Janine.

2. Describe the interplay of career and personal concerns as it relates to Janine.

THE CASE OF JANINE “BELOW is chapter #3 and all 5 models ”

THE CASE OF JANINE

Janine is a 22-year-old, biracial female who is self-identified as “queer.” She appears for her initial

appointment dressed casually, wearing a torn leather jacket, jeans and sneakers with four piercings –

ears and nose. Her hair is blond with orange streaks and somewhat disheveled. She is the youngest of

three from an intact Midwestern suburban family. She appears to be somewhat nervous and ill at ease.

She indicates that she is not currently employed, but is interested in coming to the community college

to take courses that will assist her in developing career-related skills. She is somewhat unclear about

her direction, but indicates a strong interest in art and graphic design.

A discussion of her high school experiences reveals that high school was an extremely difficult experience with the exception of art classes. She reports that she “had a lot of trouble paying attention and doing the work” which resulted in an extremely low GPA.

Janine left home in another state at 19 to escape a situation she felt was abusive and has very limited

contact with her parents. She currently is sharing living space with several friends. Further discussion

reveals two prior hospitalizations following suicide attempts. Janine was diagnosed with bipolar

disorder during her second hospitalization and is currently taking medication that has stabilized

her moods. She has participated in a computer-training program through the state rehabilitation program, but has failed to keep several positions obtained through a temporary service due to the slower pace of her work. She reports an immediate need to find work, as well as pursue an educational program that will allow her to obtain her objective of living independently.

Later, Janine revealed that her awareness of potential career directions is extremely limited. Although

expressing the desire to work in the art field, she has almost no realistic knowledge of what

types of careers might build on artistic interests and skill and is equally uninformed about the necessary

education or training required. When asked to imagine herself at work and then to describe what

she sees, she is only able to articulate “working in an office where the people are nice.” Based on her

prior, limited work experience, she knows that she does not want to work in food service settings and

expresses considerable doubt as to her ability to be successful at a “regular job.”

Although she feels strongly that additional education is important, she reports a high level of anxiety

about returning to school and is discouraged about the length of time that earning a degree will

take, since she feels she can attend only part time. She has been referred to a special program at the

community college that will support at-risk students with tutoring and other accommodations if required and has been scheduled for continuing contact with the counseling department to explore both

career and personal issues.

Chapter #3

Chapter Introduction

Chapter Highlights

· Trait-and-factor and person-environment-fit model

· Developmental model

· Learning theory model

· Cognitive information-processing approach model

· Multicultural career counseling model for ethnic women

· Model summary of counseling goals, intake interview techniques, use of assessment, diagnosis, and counseling process

In this chapter we shift from the theoretical foundations of career development theories to the practical application of theoretical concepts. Five career counseling models are introduced, discussed, and illustrated with case studies. Four of the career counseling models in this chapter have been developed over time to reflect what has been learned from career development theories discussed in the previous chapter. The background for the fifth career counseling model that addresses the special needs of multicultural groups is covered in chapter 9. It is most important to recognize that the career counseling models that follow are not career development theories but do represent an attempt to apply theoretical concepts in the form of interventions and counseling procedures. The step-by-step procedures illustrated in the five career counseling models provide the reader with a sequential overview of effective interventions.

It is most important to recognize that the career development research introduced in the preceding chapter has successfully produced guidelines for career counseling practice. The career counseling models discussed here present suggestions for building a repertoire of practical applications that can serve as a foundation for career counseling models of the future. First, I briefly discuss some basic issues and concepts that have emerged from model development. Next, five career counseling models are outlined and described. The major parameters of the five models are briefly discussed in the final section.

Five Career Counseling Models

Five career counseling models represent a broad spectrum of career counseling strategies that are directed toward a common goal of assisting clients make a career decision. Each of the following models is introduced with some brief comments about its origins: trait-and-factor and person-environment-fit ( PEF ); developmental; learning theory; cognitive information-processing ( CIP ) approach; and multicultural career counseling model for ethnic women. Model I, trait-and-factor and PEF, includes two different career development theories. Model II, the developmental model, was primarily drawn from Super’s (1957, 1980) work. Model III, the learning theory model, was structured from Mitchell and Krumboltz (1996), and Model IV, the CIP approach, from Peterson, Sampson, and Reardon (1991). The background information for Model V, a multicultural career counseling model, is contained in several chapters that follow. All the models are flexible enough to include occupational classification systems such as Holland’s classification system, assessment instruments discussed in chapter 6, and a variety of occupational information resources, including written materials, computer-generated materials, and multimedia aids.

The point here is that the career counseling models described in the following pages can use the very popular Holland typology approach and materials, some of which were described in chapter 2. All the models discussed endorse an individualized approach to career counseling. Individual needs, therefore, dictate the kind and type of assessment instruments used and the materials and procedures used in the counseling process.

Because occupational information is an important part of intervention strategies in the five counseling models described in this section, some suggestions for its effective use are summarized. The following recommendations for the effective acquisition of occupational information have been compiled from several sources.

1. When exploring occupations, counselors should urge clients to record both negative and positive reactions to each occupation. Both disconfirming and confirming reactions can suggest personal constructs that need further evaluation.

2. Counselors should have clients complete a list of occupations that are most congruent with their interests and abilities and those occupations that are rated as acceptable. Clients should begin with a broad-based exploration and follow it with a more focused, complete study. This process is considered most effective in confirming congruency.

3. Sources of occupational information can be information from parents or friends and job sites. Counselors should indeed prepare clients to focus their research efforts on more in-depth study of occupations from which more accurate information can be obtained.

4. Career exploration involves both behavioral and cognitive processes; however, a framework for processing information, such as a form that requires clients to record relevant information, allows clients to derive the most benefits. Counselors can most effectively present sources of information when clients indicate readiness and express an interest in the information (Reardon et al., 2000; Spokane, 1991).

Model I Trait-and-Factor and Person-Environment-Fit (PEF) Converge

During the last decade we have seen a gradual convergence of trait-and-factor methods and procedures with person-environment-fit constructs—also referred to as person-environment-correspondence in its early development. In general terms, some trait-and-factor methods have been adapted to determine person-environment-fit, but significant changes have also occurred:

· (1)

Both cognitive and affective processes are now involved;

· (2)

clinical information and qualitative data are included in the appraisal process; and

· (3)

the counselor’s role has shifted from a directive approach to one in which counselor and client negotiate and collaborate (Swanson & Fouad, 2010).

The following summary statements include some major counseling guidelines that can serve as a connection between theory and practice.

· Job satisfaction is a significant variable in determining productivity and career tenure.

· Measured abilities, interests, and values can facilitate the individual’s match to a work environment.

· Ideally, achievement needs can be satisfied in one’s work environment.

· Client problems are often the result of lack of fit between an individual and her or his work environment.

· Counselors are to focus on the individuality of their clients; individuals differ in their abilities, needs, values, and interests.

The following model includes seven stages (Dawis 1996; Swanson & Fouad, 2010; Walsh, 1990) which will be briefly described.

Stage 1. Intake Interview

1. Establish client–counselor collaboration relationship

2. Gather background information

3. Assess emotional status and cognitive clarity

4. Observe personality style

Stage 2. Identify Developmental Variables

1. Perception of self and environment

2. Environmental variables

3. Contextual interactions

4. Gender variables

5. Minority group status

Stage 3. Assessment

1. Ability patterns

2. Values

3. Reinforcer requirements

4. Interests

5. Information-processing skills

Stage 4. Identify and Solve Problems

1. Affective status

2. Self-knowledge needs

3. Level of information-processing skills

Stage 5. Generate PEF (Person-Environment-Fit) Analysis

1. Cognitive schema

2. Criteria on which to base choice

3. Optimal prediction system

Stage 6. Confirm, Explore, and Decide

1. Counselor and client confirm PEF analysis

2. Client explores potential work environments

3. Client makes a decision

Stage 7. Follow-Up

1. Evaluate progress

2. Recycle if necessary

The major goal of PEF is the enhancement of self-knowledge. It is most important to recognize that clients who have developed an adequate self-identity are better equipped to self-assess potential satisfaction and congruence with work environments. Therefore, the focus on self-knowledge emphasized in the PEF process is a major contribution to the career choice process and effective optimal career selection (Dawis, 1996). It can indeed be a tedious and most comprehensive step-by-step process. Within this model of career counseling, counselor and client form a partnership that endures numerous challenges and doubts on the pathway to an optimal career choice.

Stage 1, the Intake Interview, begins with the client and counselor forming a compatible working relationship. Counselors do not assume an authority-expert role; rather, they build a relationship in which they will share responsibility and negotiate options in a collaborative manner.

Background information includes a biographical history that can be obtained from a questionnaire and through discussion. Information about the client’s environmental influences is a high priority. During the interview, the counselor evaluates the emotional status of the client and the client’s cognitive clarity. Personality style and personality characteristics are also observed. The information obtained in the intake interview is used throughout the counseling process. For example, background variables are used to evaluate personality structure and style. Any problems that surfaced are further evaluated in the stages that follow.

Stage 2, Identify Developmental Variables, includes the information obtained in the intake interview that is reviewed to account for important elements that are involved in PEF counseling, such as perception. Perception in this context refers to perception of self, such as one’s identity, self-concept or self-image, and, in addition, perception of one’s environment or work environment including its requirements, reinforcers, and demands. What is suggested here is that counselors are to assist clients in observing the environment in which they work and the contextual interactions within it in order to evaluate and determine opportunities, relevant experiences, and limitations. Of particular interest are restrictions of developmental opportunities from environmental variables for women and minority groups.

Assessment, stage 3, involves a comprehensive evaluation of the client’s cognitive abilities, values, and interests. These measured traits are used with other variables to determine a client’s reinforcement needs found in occupational environments. Thus, the major purpose of this information is to match client needs with occupations or groups of occupations that are predicted to result in satisfaction (self-fulfillment) and satisfactoriness (achievement).

Information-processing skills are important for clients to appropriately process information presented to them in PEF counseling. Those clients who need assistance for processing information are assigned intervention strategies designed to improve these skills before PEF counseling continues. More details about information-processing skills can be found in stage 4.

In stage 4, Identify and Solve Problems, information gathered in the first three stages is used to identify any affective concerns, self-knowledge needs, and the client’s level of information processing. Clients who are identified as having serious emotional problems or dysfunctional thinking are referred for psychotherapy or for a complete psychological evaluation. Clients who have unrealistic or faulty beliefs about self-perceptions or perceptions of work environments or both are provided with tailored intervention strategies designed to assist them.

A most important point made here is that counselors are to evaluate each client’s ability to process information for optimal career decision making. Rounds and Tracey (1990) suggest that there are three types of knowledge bases: working (active, conscious thought), declarative (knowledge of facts), and procedural (processing the relationship between different pieces of knowledge). Beginners using a trial-and-error procedure tend to use declarative knowledge, whereas experts use procedural knowledge, that is, experts are able to process the relationship of different knowledge and information in decision making. This process in turn involves four steps of information processing: encoding (sorting out the information’s meaning), goal setting, plan development and pattern matching, and finally action. Each step is briefly described in Box 3.1