A nod to nodding off psat answers

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Preface Business Communication for Success (BCS) provides a comprehensive, integrated approach to the

study and application of written and oral business communication to serve both student and

professor.

This series features chapters with the following elements:

• Learning Objectives

• Introductory Exercises

• Clear expectations, relevant background, and important theories

• Practical, real-world examples

• Key Takeaways or quick internal summaries

• Key terms that are easily identified

• In-chapter assignments

• Postchapter assessments linked to objectives and skills acquisition

Each chapter is self-contained, allowing for mix-and-match flexibility and custom or course-specific

design. Each chapter focuses on clear objectives and skill demonstrations that can be easily linked to

your syllabus and state or federal requirements. Supported by internal and external assessments,

each chapter features time-saving and learning-enhancement support for instructors and students.

BCS is designed to help students identify important information, reinforce for retention, and

demonstrate mastery with a clear outcome product.

The text has three content categories:

1. Foundations

2. Process and products

3. Contexts

The first three chapters form the core foundation for the study of oral and written business

communication. The next sequence of chapters focus on the process of writing, then oral

performance with an emphasis on results. The final sequence focuses on contexts where business

communication occurs, from interpersonal to intercultural, from groups to leadership.

In each of the process and product chapter sequences, the chapters follow a natural flow, from

prewriting to revision, from preparation for a presentation to performance. Each sequence comes

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together in a concluding chapter that focuses on action—where we apply the skills and techniques of

written or oral communication in business, from writing a letter to presenting a sales speech. These

performances not only serve to reinforce real-world applications but also may serve as course

assessments. All chapters are compartmentalized into sections so you can choose what you want to

use and eliminate the rest.

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Chapter 1 Effective Business Communication

Communication leads to community, that is, to understanding, intimacy and mutual

valuing.

Rollo May

I know that you believe that you understood what you think I said, but I am not sure

you realize that what you heard is not what I meant.

Robert J. McCloskey, former State Department spokesman

Getting Started

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES

1. Write five words that express what you want to do and where you want to be a year

from now. Take those five words and write a paragraph that clearly articulates your

responses to both “what” and “where.”

2. Think of five words that express what you want to do and where you want to be five

years from now. Share your five words with your classmates and listen to their

responses. What patterns do you observe in the responses? Write a paragraph that

addresses at least one observation.

Communication is an activity, skill, and art that incorporates lessons learned across a

wide spectrum of human knowledge. Perhaps the most time-honored form of

communication is storytelling. We’ve told each other stories for ages to help make sense

of our world, anticipate the future, and certainly to entertain ourselves. The art of

storytelling draws on your understanding of yourself, your message, and how you

communicate it to an audience that is simultaneously communicating back to you. Your

anticipation, reaction, and adaptation to the process will determine how successfully

you are able to communicate. You were not born knowing how to write or even how to

talk—but in the process of growing up, you have undoubtedly learned how to tell, and

how not tell, a story out loud and in writing.

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You didn’t learn to text in a day and didn’t learn all the codes—from LOL (laugh out

loud) to BRB (be right back)—right away. In the same way, learning to communicate

well requires you to read and study how others have expressed themselves, then adapt

what you have learned to your present task—whether it is texting a brief message to a

friend, presenting your qualifications in a job interview, or writing a business report.

You come to this text with skills and an understanding that will provide a valuable

foundation as we explore the communication process.

Effective communication takes preparation, practice, and persistence. There are many

ways to learn communication skills; the school of experience, or “hard knocks,” is one of

them. But in the business environment, a “knock” (or lesson learned) may come at the

expense of your credibility through a blown presentation to a client. The classroom

environment, with a compilation of information and resources such as a text, can offer

you a trial run where you get to try out new ideas and skills before you have to use them

to communicate effectively to make a sale or form a new partnership. Listening to

yourself, or perhaps the comments of others, may help you reflect on new ways to

present, or perceive, thoughts, ideas and concepts. The net result is your growth;

ultimately your ability to communicate in business will improve, opening more doors

than you might anticipate.

As you learn the material in this text, each part will contribute to the whole. The degree

to which you attend to each part will ultimately help give you the skills, confidence, and

preparation to use communication in furthering your career.

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1.1 Why Is It Important to Communicate Well? LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Recognize the importance of communication in gaining a better understanding of

yourself and others.

2. Explain how communication skills help you solve problems, learn new things, and build

your career.

Communication is key to your success—in relationships, in the workplace, as a citizen of

your country, and across your lifetime. Your ability to communicate comes from

experience, and experience can be an effective teacher, but this text and the related

business communication course will offer you a wealth of experiences gathered from

professional speakers across their lifetimes. You can learn from the lessons they’ve

learned and be a more effective communicator right out of the gate.

Business communication can be thought of as a problem solving activity in which

individuals may address the following questions:

• What is the situation?

• What are some possible communication strategies?

• What is the best course of action?

• What is the best way to design the chosen message?

• What is the best way to deliver the message?

In this book, we will examine this problem solving process and help you learn to apply it

in the kinds of situations you are likely to encounter over the course of your career.

Communication Influences Your Thinking about Yourself and Others We all share a fundamental drive to communicate. Communication can be defined as

the process of understanding and sharing meaning. [1] You share meaning in what you

say and how you say it, both in oral and written forms. If you could not communicate,

what would life be like? A series of never-ending frustrations? Not being able to ask for

what you need or even to understand the needs of others?

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Being unable to communicate might even mean losing a part of yourself, for you

communicate your self-concept—your sense of self and awareness of who you are—in

many ways. Do you like to write? Do you find it easy to make a phone call to a stranger

or to speak to a room full of people? Perhaps someone told you that you don’t speak

clearly or your grammar needs improvement. Does that make you more or less likely to

want to communicate? For some, it may be a positive challenge, while for others it may

be discouraging. But in all cases, your ability to communicate is central to your self-

concept.

Take a look at your clothes. What are the brands you are wearing? What do you think

they say about you? Do you feel that certain styles of shoes, jewelry, tattoos, music, or

even automobiles express who you are? Part of your self-concept may be that you

express yourself through texting, or through writing longer documents like essays and

research papers, or through the way you speak.

On the other side of the coin, your communications skills help you to understand

others—not just their words, but also their tone of voice, their nonverbal gestures, or the

format of their written documents provide you with clues about who they are and what

their values and priorities may be. Active listening and reading are also part of being a

successful communicator.

Communication Influences How You Learn When you were an infant, you learned to talk over a period of many months. When you

got older, you didn’t learn to ride a bike, drive a car, or even text a message on your cell

phone in one brief moment. You need to begin the process of improving your speaking

and writing with the frame of mind that it will require effort, persistence, and self-

correction.

You learn to speak in public by first having conversations, then by answering questions

and expressing your opinions in class, and finally by preparing and delivering a “stand-

up” speech. Similarly, you learn to write by first learning to read, then by writing and

learning to think critically. Your speaking and writing are reflections of your thoughts,

experience, and education. Part of that combination is your level of experience listening

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to other speakers, reading documents and styles of writing, and studying formats similar

to what you aim to produce.

As you study business communication, you may receive suggestions for improvement

and clarification from speakers and writers more experienced than yourself. Take their

suggestions as challenges to improve; don’t give up when your first speech or first draft

does not communicate the message you intend. Stick with it until you get it right. Your

success in communicating is a skill that applies to almost every field of work, and it

makes a difference in your relationships with others.

Remember, luck is simply a combination of preparation and timing. You want to be

prepared to communicate well when given the opportunity. Each time you do a good

job, your success will bring more success.

Communication Represents You and Your Employer You want to make a good first impression on your friends and family, instructors, and

employer. They all want you to convey a positive image, as it reflects on them. In your

career, you will represent your business or company in spoken and written form. Your

professionalism and attention to detail will reflect positively on you and set you up for

success.

In both oral and written situations, you will benefit from having the ability to

communicate clearly. These are skills you will use for the rest of your life. Positive

improvements in these skills will have a positive impact on your relationships, your

prospects for employment, and your ability to make a difference in the world.

Communication Skills Are Desired by Business and Industry Oral and written communication proficiencies are consistently ranked in the top ten

desirable skills by employer surveys year after year. In fact, high-powered business

executives sometimes hire consultants to coach them in sharpening their

communication skills. According to the National Association of Colleges and

Employers, [2] the following are the top five personal qualities or skills potential

employers seek:

1. Communication skills (verbal and written)

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2. Strong work ethic

3. Teamwork skills (works well with others, group communication)

4. Initiative

5. Analytical skills

Knowing this, you can see that one way for you to be successful and increase your

promotion potential is to increase your abilities to speak and write effectively.

In September 2004, the National Commission on Writing for America’s Families,

Schools, and Colleges published a study on 120 human resource directors

titled Writing: A Ticket to Work…Or a Ticket Out, A Survey of Business Leaders. [3] The

study found that “writing is both a ‘marker’ of high-skill, high-wage, professional work

and a ‘gatekeeper’ with clear equity implications,” said Bob Kerrey, president of New

School University in New York and chair of the commission. “People unable to express

themselves clearly in writing limit their opportunities for professional, salaried

employment.” [4]

On the other end of the spectrum, it is estimated that over forty million Americans are

illiterate, or unable to functionally read or write. If you are reading this book, you may

not be part of an at-risk group in need of basic skill development, but you still may need

additional training and practice as you raise your skill level.

An individual with excellent communication skills is an asset to every organization. No

matter what career you plan to pursue, learning to express yourself professionally in

speech and in writing will help you get there. KEY TAKEAWAY

Communication forms a part of your self-concept, and it helps you understand yourself

and others, solve problems and learn new things, and build your career.

EXERCISES

1. Imagine that you have been hired to make “cold calls” to ask people whether they are

familiar with a new restaurant that has just opened in your neighborhood. Write a script

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for the phone call. Ask a classmate to copresent as you deliver the script orally in class,

as if you were making a phone call to the classmate. Discuss your experience with the

rest of the class.

2. Imagine you have been assigned the task of creating a job description. Identify a job,

locate at least two sample job descriptions, and create one. Please present the job

description to the class and note to what degree communication skills play a role in the

tasks or duties you have included.

[1] Pearson, J., & Nelson, P. (2000). An introduction to human communication: understanding

and sharing (p. 6). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.

[2] National Association of Colleges and Employers. (2009). Frequently asked questions.

Retrieved from http://www.naceweb.org/Press/Frequently_Asked_Questions.aspx?referal=

[3] National Commission on Writing for America’s Families, Schools, and Colleges. (2004,

September). Writing: A Ticket to Work…Or a Ticket Out, A Survey of Business Leaders. Retrieved

fromhttp://www.writingcommission.org/pr/writing_for_employ.html

[4] The College Board. (2004, September). Writing skills necessary for employment, says big

business: Writing can be a ticket to professional jobs, says blue-ribbon group. Retrieved

fromhttp://www.writingcommission.org/pr/writing_for_employ.html

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1.2 What Is Communication? LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Define communication and describe communication as a process.

2. Identify and describe the eight essential components of communication.

3. Identify and describe two models of communication.

Many theories have been proposed to describe, predict, and understand the behaviors

and phenomena of which communication consists. When it comes to communicating in

business, we are often less interested in theory than in making sure our communications

generate the desired results. But in order to achieve results, it can be valuable to

understand what communication is and how it works.

Defining Communication The root of the word “communication” in Latin is communicare, which means to share,

or to make common. [1] Communication is defined as the process of understanding and

sharing meaning. [2]

At the center of our study of communication is the relationship that involves interaction

between participants. This definition serves us well with its emphasis on the process,

which we’ll examine in depth across this text, of coming to understand and share

another’s point of view effectively.

The first key word in this definition is process. A process is a dynamic activity that is

hard to describe because it changes. [3] Imagine you are alone in your kitchen thinking.

Someone you know (say, your mother) enters the kitchen and you talk briefly. What has

changed? Now, imagine that your mother is joined by someone else, someone you

haven’t met before—and this stranger listens intently as you speak, almost as if you were

giving a speech. What has changed? Your perspective might change, and you might

watch your words more closely. The feedback or response from your mother and the

stranger (who are, in essence, your audience) may cause you to reevaluate what you are

saying. When we interact, all these factors—and many more—influence the process of

communication.

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The second key word is understanding: “To understand is to perceive, to interpret, and

to relate our perception and interpretation to what we already know.” [4] If a friend tells

you a story about falling off a bike, what image comes to mind? Now your friend points

out the window and you see a motorcycle lying on the ground. Understanding the words

and the concepts or objects they refer to is an important part of the communication

process.

Next comes the word sharing. Sharing means doing something together with one or

more people. You may share a joint activity, as when you share in compiling a report; or

you may benefit jointly from a resource, as when you and several coworkers share a

pizza. In communication, sharing occurs when you convey thoughts, feelings, ideas, or

insights to others. You can also share with yourself (a process called intrapersonal

communication) when you bring ideas to consciousness, ponder how you feel about

something, or figure out the solution to a problem and have a classic “Aha!” moment

when something becomes clear.

Finally, meaning is what we share through communication. The word “bike” represents

both a bicycle and a short name for a motorcycle. By looking at the context the word is

used in and by asking questions, we can discover the shared meaning of the word and

understand the message.

Eight Essential Components of Communication In order to better understand the communication process, we can break it down into a

series of eight essential components:

1. Source

2. Message

3. Channel

4. Receiver

5. Feedback

6. Environment

7. Context

8. Interference

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Each of these eight components serves an integral function in the overall process. Let’s

explore them one by one.

Source

The source imagines, creates, and sends the message. In a public speaking situation, the

source is the person giving the speech. He or she conveys the message by sharing new

information with the audience. The speaker also conveys a message through his or her

tone of voice, body language, and choice of clothing. The speaker begins by first

determining the message—what to say and how to say it. The second step involves

encoding the message by choosing just the right order or the perfect words to convey the

intended meaning. The third step is to present or send the information to the receiver or

audience. Finally, by watching for the audience’s reaction, the source perceives how well

they received the message and responds with clarification or supporting information.

Message

“The message is the stimulus or meaning produced by the source for the receiver or

audience.” [5] When you plan to give a speech or write a report, your message may seem

to be only the words you choose that will convey your meaning. But that is just the

beginning. The words are brought together with grammar and organization. You may

choose to save your most important point for last. The message also consists of the way

you say it—in a speech, with your tone of voice, your body language, and your

appearance—and in a report, with your writing style, punctuation, and the headings and

formatting you choose. In addition, part of the message may be the environment or

context you present it in and the noise that might make your message hard to hear or

see.

Imagine, for example, that you are addressing a large audience of sales reps and are

aware there is a World Series game tonight. Your audience might have a hard time

settling down, but you may choose to open with, “I understand there is an important

game tonight.” In this way, by expressing verbally something that most people in your

audience are aware of and interested in, you might grasp and focus their attention.

Channel

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“The channel is the way in which a message or messages travel between source and

receiver.” [6] For example, think of your television. How many channels do you have on

your television? Each channel takes up some space, even in a digital world, in the cable

or in the signal that brings the message of each channel to your home. Television

combines an audio signal you hear with a visual signal you see. Together they convey the

message to the receiver or audience. Turn off the volume on your television. Can you

still understand what is happening? Many times you can, because the body language

conveys part of the message of the show. Now turn up the volume but turn around so

that you cannot see the television. You can still hear the dialogue and follow the story

line.

Similarly, when you speak or write, you are using a channel to convey your message.

Spoken channels include face-to-face conversations, speeches, telephone conversations

and voice mail messages, radio, public address systems, and voice over Internet protocol

(VoIP). Written channels include letters, memorandums, purchase orders, invoices,

newspaper and magazine articles, blogs, e-mail, text messages, tweets, and so forth.

Receiver

“The receiver receives the message from the source, analyzing and interpreting the

message in ways both intended and unintended by the source.” [7] To better understand

this component, think of a receiver on a football team. The quarterback throws the

football (message) to a receiver, who must see and interpret where to catch the ball. The

quarterback may intend for the receiver to “catch” his message in one way, but the

receiver may see things differently and miss the football (the intended meaning)

altogether.

As a receiver you listen, see, touch, smell, and/or taste to receive a message. Your

audience “sizes you up,” much as you might check them out long before you take the

stage or open your mouth. The nonverbal responses of your listeners can serve as clues

on how to adjust your opening. By imagining yourself in their place, you anticipate what

you would look for if you were them. Just as a quarterback plans where the receiver will

be in order to place the ball correctly, you too can recognize the interaction between

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source and receiver in a business communication context. All of this happens at the

same time, illustrating why and how communication is always changing.

Feedback

When you respond to the source, intentionally or unintentionally, you are giving

feedback.Feedback is composed of messages the receiver sends back to the source.

Verbal or nonverbal, all these feedback signals allow the source to see how well, how

accurately (or how poorly and inaccurately) the message was received. Feedback also

provides an opportunity for the receiver or audience to ask for clarification, to agree or

disagree, or to indicate that the source could make the message more interesting. As the

amount of feedback increases, the accuracy of communication also increases. [8]

For example, suppose you are a sales manager participating in a conference call with

four sales reps. As the source, you want to tell the reps to take advantage of the fact that

it is World Series season to close sales on baseball-related sports gear. You state your

message, but you hear no replies from your listeners. You might assume that this means

they understood and agreed with you, but later in the month you might be disappointed

to find that very few sales were made. If you followed up your message with a request for

feedback (“Does this make sense? Do any of you have any questions?”) you might have

an opportunity to clarify your message, and to find out whether any of the sales reps

believed your suggestion would not work with their customers.

Environment

“The environment is the atmosphere, physical and psychological, where you send and

receive messages.” [9] The environment can include the tables, chairs, lighting, and

sound equipment that are in the room. The room itself is an example of the

environment. The environment can also include factors like formal dress, that may

indicate whether a discussion is open and caring or more professional and formal.

People may be more likely to have an intimate conversation when they are physically

close to each other, and less likely when they can only see each other from across the

room. In that case, they may text each other, itself an intimate form of communication.

The choice to text is influenced by the environment. As a speaker, your environment will

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impact and play a role in your speech. It’s always a good idea to go check out where

you’ll be speaking before the day of the actual presentation.

Context

“The context of the communication interaction involves the setting, scene, and

expectations of the individuals involved.” [10] A professional communication context may

involve business suits (environmental cues) that directly or indirectly influence

expectations of language and behavior among the participants.

A presentation or discussion does not take place as an isolated event. When you came to

class, you came from somewhere. So did the person seated next to you, as did the

instructor. The degree to which the environment is formal or informal depends on the

contextual expectations for communication held by the participants. The person sitting

next to you may be used to informal communication with instructors, but this particular

instructor may be used to verbal and nonverbal displays of respect in the academic

environment. You may be used to formal interactions with instructors as well, and find

your classmate’s question of “Hey Teacher, do we have homework today?” as rude and

inconsiderate when they see it as normal. The nonverbal response from the instructor

will certainly give you a clue about how they perceive the interaction, both the word

choices and how they were said.

Context is all about what people expect from each other, and we often create those

expectations out of environmental cues. Traditional gatherings like weddings or

quinceañeras are often formal events. There is a time for quiet social greetings, a time

for silence as the bride walks down the aisle, or the father may have the first dance with

his daughter as she is transformed from a girl to womanhood in the eyes of her

community. In either celebration there may come a time for rambunctious celebration

and dancing. You may be called upon to give a toast, and the wedding or quinceañera

context will influence your presentation, timing, and effectiveness.

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In a business meeting, who speaks first? That probably has some relation to the position

and role each person has outside the meeting. Context plays a very important role in

communication, particularly across cultures.

Interference

Interference, also called noise, can come from any source. “Interference is anything that

blocks or changes the source’s intended meaning of the message.” [11] For example, if you

drove a car to work or school, chances are you were surrounded by noise. Car horns,

billboards, or perhaps the radio in your car interrupted your thoughts, or your

conversation with a passenger.

Psychological noise is what happens when your thoughts occupy your attention while

you are hearing, or reading, a message. Imagine that it is 4:45 p.m. and your boss, who

is at a meeting in another city, e-mails you asking for last month’s sales figures, an

analysis of current sales projections, and the sales figures from the same month for the

past five years. You may open the e-mail, start to read, and think, “Great—no problem—I

have those figures and that analysis right here in my computer.” You fire off a reply with

last month’s sales figures and the current projections attached. Then, at five o’clock, you

turn off your computer and go home. The next morning, your boss calls on the phone to

tell you he was inconvenienced because you neglected to include the sales figures from

the previous years. What was the problem? Interference: by thinking about how you

wanted to respond to your boss’s message, you prevented yourself from reading

attentively enough to understand the whole message.

Interference can come from other sources, too. Perhaps you are hungry, and your

attention to your current situation interferes with your ability to listen. Maybe the office

is hot and stuffy. If you were a member of an audience listening to an executive speech,

how could this impact your ability to listen and participate?

Noise interferes with normal encoding and decoding of the message carried by the

channel between source and receiver. Not all noise is bad, but noise interferes with the

communication process. For example, your cell phone ringtone may be a welcome noise

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to you, but it may interrupt the communication process in class and bother your

classmates.

Two Models of Communication Researchers have observed that when communication takes place, the source and the

receiver may send messages at the same time, often overlapping. You, as the speaker,

will often play both roles, as source and receiver. You’ll focus on the communication and

the reception of your messages to the audience. The audience will respond in the form of

feedback that will give you important clues. While there are many models of

communication, here we will focus on two that offer perspectives and lessons for

business communicators.

Rather than looking at the source sending a message and someone receiving it as two

distinct acts, researchers often view communication as a transactional process (Figure

1.3 "Transactional Model of Communication"), with actions often happening at the same

time. The distinction between source and receiver is blurred in conversational turn-

taking, for example, where both participants play both roles simultaneously.

Figure 1.3 Transactional Model of Communication

Researchers have also examined the idea that we all construct our own interpretations

of the message. As the State Department quote at the beginning of this chapter

indicates, what I said and what you heard may be different. In the constructivist model

(Figure 1.4 "Constructivist Model of Communication"), we focus on the negotiated

meaning, or common ground, when trying to describe communication. [12], [13]

Imagine that you are visiting Atlanta, Georgia, and go to a restaurant for dinner. When

asked if you want a “Coke,” you may reply, “sure.” The waiter may then ask you again,

“what kind?” and you may reply, “Coke is fine.” The waiter then may ask a third time,

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“what kind of soft drink would you like?” The misunderstanding in this example is that

in Atlanta, the home of the Coca-Cola Company, most soft drinks are generically

referred to as “Coke.” When you order a soft drink, you need to specify what type, even if

you wish to order a beverage that is not a cola or not even made by the Coca-Cola

Company. To someone from other regions of the United States, the words “pop,” “soda

pop,” or “soda” may be the familiar way to refer to a soft drink; not necessarily the brand

“Coke.” In this example, both you and the waiter understand the word “Coke,” but you

each understand it to mean something different. In order to communicate, you must

each realize what the term means to the other person, and establish common ground, in

order to fully understand the request and provide an answer.

Figure 1.4 Constructivist Model of Communication

Because we carry the multiple meanings of words, gestures, and ideas within us, we can

use a dictionary to guide us, but we will still need to negotiate meaning. KEY TAKEAWAY

The communication process involves understanding, sharing, and meaning, and it

consists of eight essential elements: source, message, channel, receiver, feedback,

environment, context, and interference. Among the models of communication are the

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transactional process, in which actions happen simultaneously, and the constructivist

model, which focuses on shared meaning.

EXERCISES

1. Draw what you think communication looks like. Share your drawing with your

classmates.

2. List three environmental cues and indicate how they influence your expectations for

communication. Please share your results with your classmates.

3. How does context influence your communication? Consider the language and culture

people grew up with, and the role these play in communication styles.

4. If you could design the perfect date, what activities, places, and/or environmental cues

would you include to set the mood? Please share your results with your classmates.

5. Observe two people talking. Describe their communication. See if you can find all eight

components and provide an example for each one.

6. What assumptions are present in transactional model of communication? Find an

example of a model of communication in your workplace or classroom, and provide an

example for all eight components.

[1] Weekley, E. (1967). An etymological dictionary of modern English (Vol. 1, p. 338). New York,

NY: Dover Publications.

[2] Pearson, J., & Nelson, P. (2000). An introduction to human communication: Understanding

and sharing (p. 6). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.

[3] Pearson, J., & Nelson, P. (2000). An introduction to human communication: Understanding

and sharing. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.

[4] McLean, S. (2003). The basics of speech communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

[5] McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication (p. 10). Boston, MA: Allyn &

Bacon.

[6] McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication (p. 10). Boston, MA: Allyn &

Bacon.

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[7] McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication (p. 10). Boston, MA: Allyn &

Bacon.

[8] Leavitt, H., & Mueller, R. (1951). Some effects of feedback on communication. Human

Relations, 4, 401–410.

[9] McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication (p. 11). Boston, MA: Allyn &

Bacon.

[10] McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication (p.11). Boston, MA: Allyn &

Bacon.

[11] McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication (p. 11). Boston, MA: Allyn &

Bacon.

[12] Pearce, W. B., & Cronen, V. (1980). Communication, action, and meaning: The creating of

social realities. New York, NY: Praeger.

[13] Cronen, V., & Pearce, W. B. (1982). The coordinated management of meaning: A theory of

communication. In F. E. Dance (Ed.), Human communication theory (pp. 61–89). New York, NY:

Harper & Row.

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1.3 Communication in Context LEARNING OBJECTIVE

1. Identify and describe five types of communication contexts.

Now that we have examined the eight components of communication, let’s examine this

in context. Is a quiet dinner conversation with someone you care about the same

experience as a discussion in class or giving a speech? Is sending a text message to a

friend the same experience as writing a professional project proposal or a purchase

order? Each context has an influence on the communication process. Contexts can

overlap, creating an even more dynamic process. You have been communicating in

many of these contexts across your lifetime, and you’ll be able to apply what you’ve

learned through experience in each context to business communication.

Intrapersonal Communication Have you ever listened to a speech or lecture and gotten caught up in your thoughts so

that, while the speaker continued, you were no longer listening? During a phone

conversation, have you ever been thinking about what you are going to say, or what

question you might ask, instead of listening to the other person? Finally, have you ever

told yourself how you did after you wrote a document or gave a presentation? As you

“talk with yourself” you are engaged in intrapersonal communication.

Intrapersonal communication involves one person; it is often called “self-talk.” [1]Donna

Vocate’s [2] book on intrapersonal communication explains how, as we use language to

reflect on our own experiences, we talk ourselves through situations. For example, the

voice within you that tells you, “Keep on Going! I can DO IT!” when you are putting your

all into completing a five-mile race; or that says, “This report I’ve written is pretty good.”

Your intrapersonal communication can be positive or negative, and directly influences

how you perceive and react to situations and communication with others.

What you perceive in communication with others is also influenced by your culture,

native language, and your world view. As the German philosopher Jürgen Habermas

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said, “Every process of reaching understanding takes place against the background of a

culturally ingrained preunderstanding.” [3]

For example, you may have certain expectations of time and punctuality. You weren’t

born with them, so where did you learn them? From those around you as you grew up.

What was normal for them became normal for you, but not everyone’s idea of normal is

the same.

When your supervisor invites you to a meeting and says it will start at 7 p.m., does that

mean 7:00 sharp, 7-ish, or even 7:30? In the business context, when a meeting is

supposed to start at 9 a.m., is it promptly a 9 a.m.? Variations in time expectations

depend on regional and national culture as well as individual corporate cultures. In

some companies, everyone may be expected to arrive ten to fifteen minutes before the

announced start time to take their seats and be ready to commence business at 9:00

sharp. In other companies, “meeting and greeting” from about 9 to 9:05 or even 9:10 is

the norm. When you are unfamiliar with the expectations for a business event, it is

always wise to err on the side of being punctual, regardless of what your internal

assumptions about time and punctuality may be.

Interpersonal Communication The second major context within the field of communication is interpersonal

communication.Interpersonal communication normally involves two people, and can

range from intimate and very personal to formal and impersonal. You may carry on a

conversation with a loved one, sharing a serious concern. Later, at work, you may have a

brief conversation about plans for the weekend with the security guard on your way

home. What’s the difference? Both scenarios involve interpersonal communication, but

are different in levels of intimacy. The first example implies a trusting relationship

established over time between two caring individuals. The second example level implies

some previous familiarity, and is really more about acknowledging each other than any

actual exchange of information, much like saying hello or goodbye.

Group Communication

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Have you ever noticed how a small group of people in class sit near each other? Perhaps

they are members of the same sports program, or just friends, but no doubt they often

engage in group communication.

“Group communication is a dynamic process where a small number of people engage in

a conversation.” [4] Group communication is generally defined as involving three to eight

people. The larger the group, the more likely it is to break down into smaller groups.

To take a page from marketing, does your audience have segments or any points of

convergence/divergence? We could consider factors like age, education, sex, and

location to learn more about groups and their general preferences as well as dislikes.

You may find several groups within the larger audience, such as specific areas of

education, and use this knowledge to increase your effectiveness as a business

communicator.

Public Communication In public communication, one person speaks to a group of people; the same is true of

public written communication, where one person writes a message to be read by a small

or large group. The speaker or writer may ask questions, and engage the audience in a

discussion (in writing, examples are an e-mail discussion or a point-counter-point series

of letters to the editor), but the dynamics of the conversation are distinct from group

communication, where different rules apply. In a public speaking situation, the group

normally defers to the speaker. For example, the boss speaks to everyone, and the sales

team quietly listens without interruption.

This generalization is changing as norms and expectations change, and many cultures

have a tradition of “call outs” or interjections that are not to be interpreted as

interruptions or competition for the floor, but instead as affirmations. The boss may say,

as part of a charged-up motivational speech, “Do you hear me?” and the sales team is

expected to call back “Yes Sir!” The boss, as a public speaker, recognizes that

intrapersonal communication (thoughts of the individual members) or interpersonal

communication (communication between team members) may interfere with this classic

public speaking dynamic of all to one, or the audience devoting all its attention to the

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speaker, and incorporate attention getting and engagement strategies to keep the sales

team focused on the message.

Mass Communication How do you tell everyone on campus where and when all the classes are held? Would a

speech from the front steps work? Perhaps it might meet the need if your school is a

very small one. A written schedule that lists all classes would be a better alternative.

How do you let everyone know there is a sale on in your store, or that your new product

will meet their needs, or that your position on a political issue is the same as your

constituents? You send a message to as many people as you can through mass

communication. Does everyone receive mass communication the same way the might

receive a personal phone call? Not likely. Some people who receive mass mailings

assume that they are “junk mail” (i.e., that they do not meet the recipients’ needs) and

throw them away unopened. People may tune out a television advertisement with a click

of the mute button, delete tweets or ignore friend requests on Facebook by the

hundreds, or send all unsolicited e-mail straight to the spam folder unread.

Mass media is a powerful force in modern society and our daily lives, and is adapting

rapidly to new technologies. Mass communication involves sending a single message to

a group. It allows us to communicate our message to a large number of people, but we

are limited in our ability to tailor our message to specific audiences, groups, or

individuals. As a business communicator, you can use multimedia as a visual aid or

reference common programs, films, or other images that your audience finds familiar

yet engaging. You can tweet a picture that is worth far more than 140 characters, and

you are just as likely to elicit a significant response. By choosing messages or references

that many audience members will recognize or can identify with, you can develop

common ground and increase the appeal of your message. KEY TAKEAWAY

Communication contexts include intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, public, and

mass communication. Each context has its advantages and disadvantages, and its

appropriate and inappropriate uses.

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EXERCISES

1. Please recall a time when you gave a speech in front of a group. How did you feel?

What was your experience? What did you learn from your experience?

2. If you were asked to get the attention of your peers, what image or word would

you choose and why?

3. If you were asked to get the attention of someone like yourself, what image or

word would you choose and why?

4. Make a list of mass communication messages you observe for a one hour period of

time. Share your list with classmates.

[1] Wood, J. (1997). Communication in our lives (p. 22). Boston, MA: Wadsworth.

[2] Vocate, D. (Ed.). (1994). Intrapersonal communication: Different voices, different minds.

Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

[3] Habermas, J. (1984). The theory of communicative action (Vol. 1, p. 100). Boston, MA:

Beacon Press.

[4] McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication (p. 14). Boston, MA: Allyn &

Bacon.

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1.4 Your Responsibilities as a Communicator LEARNING OBJECTIVE

1. Discuss and provide several examples of each of the two main responsibilities of a

business communicator.

Whenever you speak or write in a business environment, you have certain responsibilities to your

audience, your employer, and your profession. Your audience comes to you with an inherent set of

expectations that you will fulfill these responsibilities. The specific expectations may change given

the context or environment, but two central ideas will remain: be prepared, and be ethical.

Communicator Is Prepared As the business communicator’s first responsibility, preparation includes several facets

which we will examine: organization, clarity, and being concise and punctual.

Being prepared means that you have selected a topic appropriate to your audience,

gathered enough information to cover the topic well, put your information into a logical

sequence, and considered how best to present it. If your communication is a written one,

you have written an outline and at least one rough draft, read it over to improve your

writing and correct errors, and sought feedback where appropriate. If your

communication is oral, you have practiced several times before your actual

performance.

The Prepared Communicator Is Organized

Part of being prepared is being organized. Aristotle called this logos, or logic, and it

involves the steps or points that lead your communication to a conclusion. Once you’ve

invested time in researching your topic, you will want to narrow your focus to a few key

points and consider how you’ll present them. On any given topic there is a wealth of

information; your job is to narrow that content down to a manageable level, serving the

role of gatekeeper by selecting some information and “de-selecting,” or choosing to not

include other points or ideas.

You also need to consider how to link your main points together for your audience. Use

transitions to provide signposts or cues for your audience to follow along. “Now that

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we’ve examined X, let’s consider Y” is a transitional statement that provides a cue that

you are moving from topic to topic. Your listeners or readers will appreciate your being

well organized so that they can follow your message from point to point.

The Prepared Communicator Is Clear

You have probably had the unhappy experience of reading or listening to a

communication that was vague and wandering. Part of being prepared is being clear. If

your message is unclear, the audience will lose interest and tune you out, bringing an

end to effective communication.

Interestingly, clarity begins with intrapersonal communication: you need to have a clear

idea in your mind of what you want to say before you can say it clearly to someone else.

At the interpersonal level, clarity involves considering your audience, as you will want to

choose words and phrases they understand and avoid jargon or slang that may be

unfamiliar to them.

Clarity also involves presentation. A brilliant message scrawled in illegible handwriting,

or in pale gray type on gray paper, will not be clear. When it comes to oral

communication, if you mumble your words, speak too quickly or use a monotonous tone

of voice, or stumble over certain words or phrases, the clarity of your presentation will

suffer.

Technology also plays a part; if you are using a microphone or conducting a

teleconference, clarity will depend on this equipment functioning properly—which

brings us back to the importance of preparation. In this case, in addition to preparing

your speech, you need to prepare by testing the equipment ahead of time.

The Prepared Communicator Is Concise and Punctual

Concise means brief and to the point. In most business communications you are

expected to “get down to business” right away. Being prepared includes being able to

state your points clearly and support them with clear evidence in a relatively

straightforward, linear way.

It may be tempting to show how much you know by incorporating additional

information into your document or speech, but in so doing you run the risk of boring,

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confusing, or overloading your audience. Talking in circles or indulging in tangents,

where you get off topic or go too deep, can hinder an audience’s ability to grasp your

message. Be to the point and concise in your choice of words, organization, and even

visual aids.

Being concise also involves being sensitive to time constraints. How many times have

you listened to a speaker say “in conclusion” only to continue speaking for what seems

like forever? How many meetings and conference calls have you attended that got

started late or ran beyond the planned ending time? The solution, of course, is to be

prepared to be punctual. If you are asked to give a five-minute presentation at a

meeting, your coworkers will not appreciate your taking fifteen minutes, any more than

your supervisor would appreciate your submitting a fifteen-page report when you were

asked to write five pages. For oral presentations, time yourself when you rehearse and

make sure you can deliver your message within the allotted number of minutes.

There is one possible exception to this principle. Many non-Western cultures prefer a

less direct approach, where business communication often begins with social or general

comments that a U.S. audience might consider unnecessary. Some cultures also have a

less strict interpretation of time schedules and punctuality. While it is important to

recognize that different cultures have different expectations, the general rule holds true

that good business communication does not waste words or time.

Communicator Is Ethical The business communicator’s second fundamental responsibility is to be

ethical. Ethics refers to a set of principles or rules for correct conduct. It echoes what

Aristotle called ethos, the communicator’s good character and reputation for doing what

is right. Communicating ethically involves being egalitarian, respectful, and

trustworthy—overall, practicing the “golden rule” of treating your audience the way you

would want to be treated.