A single musical line implies "monophonic texture."

120 CHAPTER FOUR .. MUSIC AND OPERA

FORMAL AND TECHNICAL QUALITIES

We all have favorite forms of music: tejano, reggae, rock, rhythm and blues, rap, gospel, or Classical. Occasionally we are surprised to find that our favorite tune or musical form was once something else: a rock tune that first was an operatic aria, or an ethnic style that combines styles from other ethnic traditions. W hatever the case, all music comprises rhythms and melodies-they differ only in the ways they are put together. In this chapter we shall con­ centrate first on some traditional forms, but after that we discuss qualities that apply to all music.

Music has often been described as the purest of the art forms because it is free from the physical restrictions of space that apply to the other arts. However, the freedom enjoyed by the composer becomes a constraint for us lis­ teners because music places significant responsibility on us. That responsibility is especially critical when we try to learn and apply musical terminology, because we have only a fleeting moment to capture many of the character­ istics of music. A painting or a sculpture stands still for us; it does not change or disappear, despite the length of time it takes us to examine and appreciate. Our attempt to grasp musical terminology appears more challenging because many of the concepts seem technical and most of the terminology foreign: specifically Italian. Nonetheless, music plays such a natural and ever-present role in our lives that we undoubtedly know and can perceive more than we suspect at both a formal and a technical level.

FORMS

At a formal level, our experience of a musical work begins with its type, or form. The term fonn is a very broad one. In addition to the forms we identify momentarily, all of which are associated with what we call "classical" (seri­ ous, or "high" art) music, we can also identify broader "forms" of music of which "classical" is only one-for example, the musical forms of jazz, pop/rock, and so on (see the Companion Website: Music, Musical Forms). As we will see in Chapter 11, the term Classical also refers to a specific style of music within this broad "classical" form.

The basic form of a music composition shapes our ini­ tial encounter by providing us with some specific parameters for understanding. Unlike our experience in the theatre, we usually find an identification of the musi­ cal composition, by type, in the concert program. Here are a few of the more common forms: three vocal forms and three instrumental forms. We will encounter a few more

in Part II of the text, and will define them within their historical contexts.

Mass The mass is a sacred choral composition consisting of five

'sections: Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus; �Ad Ag;UJi Dei. tKEE-ree-ay; KRAY-doh; SAHNK-toos; AHN-yoos-day­ ee). These also form the parts of the mass ordinary-the Roman Catholic church texts that remain the same from day to day throughout most of the year. The Kyrie text implores, "Lord , have mercy upon us. Christ, have mercy upon us. Lord, have mercy upon us." The Gloria text begins, "Glory be to God on High, and on earth peace, good will towards men." The Credo states the creed: "We believe in one God, the Father, the Almighty, maker of heaven and earth," and so on. The Sanctus confirms, "Holy, holy, holy, Lord God of Hosts: Heaven and earth are full of thy glory. Glory be to thee, 0 Lord Most High." The Agnus Dei (Lamb of God), implores , "0 Lamb of God, that takest away the sins of the world, have mercy upon us. 0 Lamb of God, that takest away the sins of the world, have mercy upon us. 0 Lamb of God, that takest away the sins of the world, grant us thy peace." (Listen to "Kyrie" from the Pope Marcellus Mass by Palestrina [Pa-Ieh­ STREE-nahl, music CD track 7.) The requiem mass, which often comprises a musical program, is a special

V�ass for the dead. -

Cantata A cantata is usually a choral work with one or more

"'soloists and an instrumental ensemble. Written in several movements, and typified by the chu�h cantata of the Lutheran church of the Baroque period, it often includes chorales and organ accompaniment. The word "cantata" originally meant a sung iece. The Lutheran church can-

ta exemplified by those ofJohahn Sebastian Bach) uses a religiOUS text, either original or drawn from the Bible or based on familiar hymns-chorales. In essence, it served as a sermon in music, drawn from the lectionary (pre­ scribed Bible readings for the day and on which the ser­ mon is based). A typical cantata might last twenty-five minutes and include several different movements-cho­ ruses, recitatives, arias, and duets.

Oratorio An oratorio is a lar e-scale composition usin chorus, vocal soloists, and orchestra. orma y an oratorio sets ; narrative text (usually bilill'cal) , but does not emp[oy acting, scenery, or costumes. The oratorio was a major

evelmeIll of the Baroque period. This type of musical composition unfolds through a series of choruses, arias, duets, recitatives, and orchestral interludes. The chorus of an oratorio has special importance and can comment on or participate in the dramatic exposition. Another feature of the oratorio is the use of a narrator, mh� recitativ§. (vo�al lines imitating the rhythms and inflections of nor-

-mal speech) tell the story aaaconnect the various pa� Like operas, oratonos can last more than two hours.

- (Listen to Handel's "Hallelujah Chorus" from the oratorio Messiah, music CD track 9.)

Fugue �ue is a polyphonic (see p. 127) composition based on one main them...e,.. It can be written for a group of instruments or voices or for a single instrument like an organ or harpsichord. Throughout the composition, d.i.i:­ faent melodic lines, called "voices," imitate the subjec� The top melodic line is the soprano and the bottom line the bass. A fugue usually includes three, four, or five voic­ es. The composer's exploration of the subject typically passes through different keys and combines with different melodic and rhythmic ideas. Fugal form is extremely flex­ ible: the only constant feature is the beginning, in which a single, una<::companied voice states the theme. The lis­ tener's task, then, is to remember that subject ancUollow it through th;.. various manipulations that f911ow.

Symphony n orchestral com osition, usually in four movements, a

symphony typically lasts etween twenty and forty-five minutes . In this large work, the composer explores the full dynamic and tonal range of the orchestral ensemble. The symphony came from the Classical period of the late eighteenth century and evokes a wide range of carefully �d emotions throug.h contrasts of tempo and mood. The sequence of movements usually begins with an active fast movement, changes to a lyrical slow move­ ment, moves to a dancelike movement, and closes with a bold fast movement. The opening movement almost always takes a specific shape-sonata form-in which a theme is introduced, alternated, and repeated. In most Classical symphonies, each movement is self-contained with its own set of themes. Unity in a symphony occurs panly from the use of the same key in three of the move­ ments and also from careful emotional and musical com­ plement among the movements. (Listen to Haydn's S!,mphony No. 94 in G Major, "Surprise", music CD track 11; also Beethoven'S Symphony No.5 in C Minor-first movement, music CD track 14. In the Haydn, listen for

CHAPTER FOUR + MUSIC AND OPERA 121

the theme's mood. In the Beethoven, listen for repetition of the theme.)

Concerto A solo concerto Ckahn-CHAIR-toh) is an extended com-

�position for an instrumental soloist and orchestra. Reaching its zenith during the Classical period of the eighteenth century, it typically contains three movements, in which the first is fast, the second slow, and the third fast. ,.Concertos jojn a soloist's virtuosity and interpretive skills with the wide-ranging dynamics and tonal colors of �n orchestra. The concerto thus provides a dramatic con­ trast of musical ideas and sound in which the soloist is tJ;te

�ically, concertos present a great challenge to the soloist and a great reward to the listener, who can delight in the soloist's meeting of the techniqll and interpretive challenges of the work. Nonetheless, the concerto bal­ ances the orchestra and soloist, which act as partners, fOCUSing on the interplay between them. Concertos can last from twenty to forty-five minutes (listen to Brandenburg Concerto No.2 in F Major, music CD track 8). Typically, during the first movement, and sometimes the third, of a Classical concerto, the soloist has an unaccom­ panied showpiece called a cadenza.

Common in the late Baroque period of the seventeenth century (see Chapter 11), the concerto &rosso is a compo­ sition for several instrumental soloists and small orch§; tra (in contrast to the solo concerto-see above). In the

-

Baroque style, contrast between loud and soft sounds and large and small groups of performers was typical. In a concerto grosso, a small group of soloists (two to four) contrasts a larger group called the tutti consisting of between eight and twenty players. Most often a concerto grosso contains three movements contrasting in tempo and character. The first movement is fast; the second, slow; and the third, fast. The opening movement, usually bold, explores the contrasts between tutti and soloists. The slow movement tends to be more lyrical, quiet, and intimate. The final movement is lively, lightheaned, and sometimes dancelike.

COMPOSITION

Understanding vocabulary and being able to identify its application in a musical composition helps us to compre­ hend communication using the musical language, and thereby to understand the creative communicative intent of the composer and the musicians who bring the com­ position to life. The ways in which musical artists shape the characteristics that follow bring us experiences that can challenge our intellects and excite our emotions.

122 CHAPTER FOUR .. MUSIC AND OPERA

As in all communication, meaning depends upon each of the parties involved; communicators and listeners must assume responsibility for facility in the language utilized.

Among the basic elements by which music is com­ posed, we discuss six: (1) Sound; (2) Rhythm; (3) Melody; (4) Harmony; (5) Tonality; and (6) Texture.

Sound Musical composers design sounds and silences. In the broadest sense, sound is anything that excites the audito­ ry nerve: sirens, speech, crying babies, jet engines, falling trees, and so on. We might even call such sources noise. Musical composition, although it can employ even "noise," usually depends on controlled and shaped sound, consistent in quality. We distinguish music from other sounds by recognizing four basic properties: (1) pitch; (2) dynamics; (3) tone color; and (4) duration.

PITCH Pitch is a physical phenomenon measurable in vibrations per second. Therefore, when we describe dif­ ferences in pitch we describe recognizable and measura­ ble differences in sound waves. A pitch has a steady, con­ stant frequency. A faster frequency produces a higher pitch; a slower frequency produces a lower pitch. Making a sounding body-a vibrating string, for example-small­ er makes it vibrate more rapidly. Musical instruments designed to produce high pitches, such as the ·piccolo, therefore tend to be small. Instruments designed to pro­ duce low pitches tend to be large-for instance, bass viols and tubas. In music, we call a sound that has a definite Jljtcb a tone �

In Chapter 1 we discussed color. It comprises a range of light waves within a visible spectrum. Sound also com­ prises a spectrum, whose audible pitches range from 16 to 38,000 vibrations per second. We can perceive 11,000 dif­ ferent pitches! That exceeds practicality for musical com­ position. Therefore, by convention musicians traditional­ ly divide the sound spectrum into at least ninety equally spaced frequencies comprising seven and a half o ctaves. A piano keyboard consists of eighty-eight keys (seven

q Dii

D� E�

4.1 Part of the piano keyboard, with pitches.

F G A

,.j

! Q. Q. Q. ! -!! Q. -! -!! ! ..!II � -!! ..!II ..!II j � "E 0 a ==

� � � � � � 0 ::c ::c I I i i i

i i !

I I I do re mi Fa sol 10 Ii do

Major scale Minor scale (diatonic)

do re mi Fa sol 10 Ii do I I I i i i

I i

I i I

I

! Q. Q. t Q. t Q.

-!! -!i -!i � ..!II "5

1 " "5 "E "E

� ::c � ::c ..c: ::c b -b c: 0

�

4.2 The maior and minor scales.

octaves plus two additional notes), which represents the same number of equally spaced pitches (Fig. 4.0.

A scale JD arrangemeat of pitSAeS played jD ascend� ing or descending order-is a conventional organization of the frequencies of the sound spectrum. The thirteen equally spaced pitches in an octave comprise a chromatic scale. However, the scales that sound most familiar to us are the major and minor scales, each of which consists of an octave of eight pitches. The distance between anl:!�o pitches is an interval. Intervals between two adjacent

�pitches are half steps. Intervals of two half steps are whole steps. The major scale-do re mi fa solla ti do (recall the song, "Doe, a deer ... " from The Sound of Music)-has a specific arrangement of whole and half steps (Fig. 4.2). Lowering the third and sixth notes of the major scale gives us the harmonic (the most common) minor scale.

Not all music conforms to the conventions of Western scales. European music prior to approximately 1600 C.E. does not, nor does Eastern music, which makes great use of quarter tones. In addition, some contemporary Western music departs completely from the conventions of to nality. Listen, for example to tracks 1 and 2 on the music CD. These examples represent cultures whose music does not conform to the Western conventions of pitch, scale, and tonality.

DYNAMICS We call degrees of loudness or soft music dynamicS. Any tone can e oud, soft, or anywhere in between. Dyn-;mics describe the loudness or softness of the tones, measured in decibels, and depend upon the physical phenomenon of amphtude Of vibration. Emp­ loying greater force in the production of a tone creates wider sound waves and causes greater stimulation of the auditory nerves. This means that the size of the sound wave, not its number of vibrations per second, changes.

---------------------.......... -... � -------

VOICE

r Soprano

STRINGS

WOODWINDS

BRASSES

PERCUSSION

Women's �

Mezzo-soprano

Bass drum

Cello (violoncello)

� Contralto

CHAPTER FOCR + MUSIC AND OPERA 123

Men's .........

Baritone �

Boss

English horn

Trombone

Triangle

Snore drum Cymbal

4.3 The key sources of musical tone in on orchestro (instruments not to scale).

124 CHAPTER FOUR .. MUSIC AND OPERA

Composers indicate dynamic level with a series of spe­ cific notations:

pp pianissimo (pee-yah-NEE-see-moh) very soft p piano soft mp mezzo (MEHT-zoh) piano moderately soft mf mezzo forte (FOR-tay) moderately loud f forte loud ff fortissimo very loud

The notations of dynamics that apply to an individual tone, such as p, mp, and I, may also apply to a section of music. Changes in dynamics may be abrupt, gradual, wide, or small.

As we listen to and compare musical compositions we can consider the use and breadth of dynamics in the same sense that we consider the use and breadth of palette in painting. Compare the different dynamic treatments of music CD track 1, "Han Ya Xi Shui," particularly the end­ ing, with music CD track 19, Debussy's "Clair de Lune."

TONE COLOR Tone color, or timbre (TAM-ber), is the characteristic of tone that allows us to distinguish a pi.tch played on a violin, for example, from the same pitch. played on a piano:..ln addition to identifying characteris­ tic differences among sound-producing sources, tone color can also refer to differences in uali of tones pro­ duce by the same source. Here the analogy 0 "tone color" is particularly appropriate. We describe a tone pro­ duced with an excess of air-for example, by a breathy human voice-as "white." Figure 4.3 illustrates some of the various sources that produce musical tone and account for its variety of tone colors (see the Companion Website: Music, Instruments) .

In the keyboard family, the piano could be considered either a stringed or a percussion instrument since it pro­ duces its sound by vibrating strings struck by hammers. The harpsichord sets strings in motion by plucking, and the organ makes sound by air.

Electronically produced music, available since the development of the RCA synthesizer at the Columbia­ Princeton Electronics Music Center in the 1950s, has become a standard source in assisting contemporary com­ posers. Originally electronic music fell into two categories: (1) the electronic altering of acoustically produced sounds, which came to be labeled as musique concrete, and (2) elec­ tronically generated sounds. However, advances in tech­ nology have blurred those differences over the years.

DURATION Another characteristic of sound is duration: the length of tim@ '1HmHie'R contjnues without "jnremlp-

-�ration in musical composition uses a set of con'":

Note Values

o J J » ) J J Whole Half Quarter Eighth Sixteenth Thirty-second Sixty-fourt.

Rests

Sixty-fourtl

4.4 Musical notation.

ventions called notation (Fig. 4.4). This system consist! of a series of symbols (notes) by which the compose: indicates the relative duration of each tone. The system � progressive-each duration notation uses a symbol eithel double or half the duration of the other notes. Muska notation also includes a series of symbols that denote the duration of silences in a composition. These symbols called rests, have the same values as the symbols for dura­ tion of tone.

Rhythm Rhythm comprises recurring pulses and accents that cr - ate I entl la e patterns. it out rhythm we have only an aimless rising and falling of tones. Composing music means placing each tone into a time or rhythmical rela­ tionship with every other tone. As with the dots and dash­ es of the Morse code we can "play" the rhythm of a musi­ cal composition without reference to its tones. Each sym­ bol of the musical notation system denotes a duration rel­ ative to each other symbol in the system. Rhythm consists of: (1) beat; (2) meter; and (3) tempo (see''tfie Comp""iffiWh

Website: Music, Rhythm).

BEAT The individual pulses we hear are called beats. Beats �ay be grouped into rhythmic patterns by placing accents every few beats. Beats form basic units of time and the background against which the composer places notes of various lengths. ,

� � � iMJ7'�{)r--<-METn Normal musical practice groups clusters of beats into units called measures. When these groupings are reg­ ular and reasonably equal they comprise simple meters. When the number of beats in a measure equals three or two it constitutes triple or duple meter. We, as listeners, can distinguish between duple and triple meters because of their different accent patterns. In triple meter we hear an accent every third beat-ONE two three, ONE twO three-and in duple meter the accent is every other beat-ONE two, ONE two. If four beats occur in a meas-

-

ure (sometimes called quadruple meter), the second accent is weaker than the first-ONE two THREE four, ONE two THREE four.

Listen to music CD track 3, a sample of Ghanaian drumming. Here we find a definite triple meter, as con­ trasted with the duple meter in music CD track 6, "As Vesta Was Descending." When accent occurs on normal­ ly unaccented beats, we have syncopation, as also occurs in the Ghanaian drumming piece. Sometimes repetitive patterning or strict metrical development does not occur. The free-flowing rhythm of music CD track 4, "0 ViridissimaVirga," by Hildegard of Bingen (see Chapter 10) illustrates the lack of strict metrical development.

TEMPO .l.empo is the rate of speed of the composition. A composer may notate tempo in two ways. The first method is by a metronome marking, such as � ::; 60 means that the piece should be played at the rate of sixty quarter notes (.J) per minute. Such notation is precise. The other method is less precise and involves more descriptive ter­ minology in Italian:

Largo (broad)

} Grave (grahv) (grave, solemn)

Lento (slow)

Adagio (ah-DAH-zhee-oh) (leisurely) }

Andante (at a walking pace)

Moderato (moderate)

Allegro (cheerful)

Vivace (vee-VAH-chay) (vivacious)

Presto (very quick)

Melody

}

}

Melody com rises a succession of sounds wi

Very slow

Slow

Moderate

Fast

Very fast

an tonal organization We can visualize melody as linear and essentially horizontal. Two other terms, tune and theme, relate to melody as parts to a whole. For example, the tune in Figure 4.5 is a melody.

However, a melody is not always a tune. In general, the term tune implies singability, and many melodies can­ not be considered singable. A theme is also a melody. However, in musical composition theme specifically means a central musical idea, which may be restated and varied throughout a piece. Thus a melody is not neces­ sarily a theme.

Related to theme and melody is the motif Cmoh-TEEF), Or motive, a short melodic or rhythmi�around which

CHAPTER FOUR ... MUSIC AND OPERA 125

light

4.5 "The Star-Spangled Banner" (excerpt).

_a composer may design a composition. F or example, in Beethoven's Symphony No. 5 in C Minor (music CD track 14) the first movement develops around a motif of four notes.

In listening for how a composer develops melody, theme, and motif we can use two terms to describe what we hear: conjunct and disjunct. Conjunct melodies com­ prise notes close together, stepwise, on the musical scale. For example, the interval between the opening notes of the soprano line of]. S. Bach's chorale "Jesu Joy of Man's Desiring" from Cantata 147 (Fig. 4.6) never exceeds a whole step. Disjunct melodies contain intervals of two steps or more. However, no formula exists for determin­ ing disjunct or conjunct characteristics; no line marks where a melody ceases to be disjunct and becomes conjunct. These constitute relative, desCriptive terms. For example, the opening melody of "The Star-Spangled Banner" (see Fig. 4.5) is more disjunct than the opening melody of "Jesu Joy of Man's Desiring"-or the latter is more conjunct than the former.

4.6 ':Jesu Joy of Man's Desiring" (excerpt).

Harmony

When two or more tones sound at the same time, we have harmony. This is essentially a vertical arrangement, in contrast with the horizontal arrangement of melody. However, harmony also has a horizontal property: move­ ment forward in time. In listening for harmony we listen for how simultaneous tones sound together.

Two tones played simultaneously constitute an inter­ val; three or more form a chord. When we hear an interval or a chord we respond first to its consonance or dissonance. Consonant harmonies sound pleasant and stable in their arrangement, while dissonant harmonies sound tense and unstable. Consonance and dissonance, however, are not absolute properties. Essentially they derive from conven­ tion and, to a large extent, culture. Dissonance to our ears may be consonance to someone else's, and vice versa. We

126 CHAPTER FOUR • MUSIC AND OPERl\

--------------------�Pr�-------------------

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

W olfgang Amadeus Mozart (MOHT-zahrt;

. 1756-91) is often considered the greatest musical genius of all time. His output­

especially in view of his short life-was enormous and included sixteen operas, forty-one symphonies, twenty-seven piano and five violin concertos, twen­ ty-five string. quartets, nineteen masses, and other works in every form popular in his time. Perhaps his greatest single achievement is in the characteriza­ tion of his operatic figures.

Mozart was born on January 27, 1756, in Salzburg, Austria. His father, Leopold Mozart, held the position of composer to the archbishop and was a welJ-known violinist and author of a celebrated theoretical treatise on playing the instrument. When Wolfgang was only six years old, his father took him and his older sister, Maria Anna, (called Nannerl) on tours throughout Europe during which they per­ formed as harpsichordists and pianists-separately and together. They gave public concerts and played at the various courts. In Paris in 1764, Wolfgang wrote his first published works, four violin sonatas. In London he came under the influence of Johann Christian Bach. In 1768 young Mozart became hon­ orary concertmaster for the archbish@p of Salzburg.

In 1772, however, a new archbishop came to power, and the cordial relationship Mozart enjoyed with the previous archbishop came to an end. By 1777 the situation became so strained that the young composer asked to be relieved of his duties, and the archbishop grudgingly agreed.

In 1777 Mozart traveled with his mother to Munich and Mannheim, Germany, and to Paris,

need, above all, to determine how the composer utilizes these two properties. Most Western music sounds primari­ ly consonant. Dissonance, on the other hand, can be used for contrast, to draw attention to itself, or as a normal part of harmonic progression.

As its name implies, harmonic progression involves the movement forward in time of harmonies. In discussing pitch we noted the convention of the major and minor scales-the arrangement of the chromatic scale into a sys­ tem of tonality. When we play or sing a major or minor scale we note a particular phenomenon: our movement

where she died. During this trip alone, Mozart com­ posed seven violin sonatas, seven piano sonatas, a ballet, and three symphonic works, including the Paris Symphony.

The final break between Mozart and the archbish­ op occurred in 1781, but before that time Mozart had unsuccessfully sought another position. Six years later, in 1787, Emperor Joseph II finally engaged him as chamber composer-at a salary con­ siderably smaller than that of his predecessor. Mozart's financial situation worsened steadily, and he incurred significant debts that hounded him until his death.

Meanwhile, his opera The Abduction from the Seraglio (suh-RAH-Iee-oh) enjoyed great success in 1782; in the same year he married Constanze Weber, the daughter of friends. He composed his great Mass in C Minor for her, and she was the soprano soloist in its premiere.

During the last ten years of his life, Mozart pro­ duced most of his great piano concertos; the four horn concertos; the Haffner, Prague, Unz,. and Jupiter symphonies; the six string quartets dedicat­ ed to Haydn; five string quintets; and the major operas, The Marriage of Figaro, Don Giovanni, Cosi /1Jn Tutte, La C/emenza di Tito, and The Magic Flute. Mozart could not complete his final work, the Requiem, because of illness. He died in Vienna on December 5,1791, and was buried in a mass grave. Although the exact nature of his illness is unknown, no evidence exists that Mozart's death was deliber­ ately caused (as the popular movie, Amadeus, implies). Learn more at www.mozartproject.org.