Aaron gentzler publisher seven figure publishing

EXAM INTERCULTURAL COMMUNCATION

Your second exam will mirror your first. Once again, you need to write two questions and give a 2-page answer to each question. Each question will entail 3 concepts- all from different chapters. The core concept for this exam has to come from chapters 6-12; however, the secondary concepts can be from any chapter in the book. Please remember that, the aim of this exam is to help you think about the concepts in the book and their connection to one another. You need to show that you are both reading the book and critically thinking of the concepts. Therefore, 70% of your grade will depend on referencing the book.

When you use an idea from the book or when you make a statement/an argument that comes from the book, write the page number, where the information is- i.e.: Communication is a cultural phenomenon (p. 4). If you are taking a direct quote from the book, make sure you cite it properly (see APA style for further information). I want to give you freedom to think about the concepts in the book and create your question depending on what you think is significant. That's why I don't want to give you specific examples, which may limit your take on the assignment.

For each question:

Pick a core/primary concept and two secondary concepts, all from different chapters. Your question should center around your core concept. Let's say your core concept is a tomato. The question shouldn't be a "yes/no" question (i.e.: are tomatoes red?), and it shouldn't be a 'what" question (i.e.: what is a tomato?). Rather, write a question that will allow you to explore the concept (i.e.: explore tomatoes and its uses). A question such as this will let you define the concept but will allow you to go beyond the definition and explore it further.

In your answer, bring in two additional concepts. Analyze/ discuss how these two concepts are related to/connected to the central concept. For example, you pick apples and bananas as your secondary concepts in your question about tomatoes. You would explain how each one relates to or compares to the central concept (both tomatoes and apples are red and round but there are nutritional differences that makes the tomato different than an apple- bananas may seem very different than a tomato on the first glance, but when we look deeper there are many commonalities). Through these connections, you are exploring your central concept further. Thus, by showing the comparison to the apple and the banana, you're explaining the qualities of a tomato further.

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXTS

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXTS

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INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXTS FIFTH EDITION

Judith N. Martin Arizona State University

Thomas K. Nakayama Northeastern University

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INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXTS Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2010 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, any network or other electronic stor- age or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.

Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 DOC/DOC 0 9

ISBN: 978-0-07-338512-9 MHID: 0-07-338512-3

Vice president and editor-in-chief: Michael Ryan Design manager: Preston Thomas Publisher: Frank Mortimer Designer: Allister Fein Sponsoring editor: Katie Stevens Cover designer: Allister Fein Director of development: Dawn Groundwater Photo researcher: Poyee Oster Development editor: Craig Leonard Media project manager: Thomas Brierly Editorial coordinator: Erika Lake Production supervisor: Louis Swaim Marketing manager: Leslie Oberhuber Marketing Specialist: Rebecca Saidlower Senior production editor: Mel Valentín Production assistant: Rachel J. Castillo Production service: Matrix Productions Inc.

The text was set in 10.5/12 Janson by Laserwords, and printed on acid-free 45# New Era Matte Plus by R.R. Donnelly & Sons.

Cover image: © William Whitehurst /Corbis

Because this page cannot legibly accommodate all acknowledgements for copyrighted material, credits appear at the end of the book, and constitute an extension of this copyright page.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Martin, Judith N. Intercultural communication in contexts / Judith Martin, Thomas Nakayama. — 5th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN-13: 978-0-07-338512-9 (alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-07-338512-3 (alk. paper) 1. Intercultural communication. I. Nakayama, Thomas K. II. Title.

HM1211.M373 2010 303.48’2—dc22 2008051898

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About the Authors

The two authors of this book come to intercultural communication from very different backgrounds and very different research traditions. Yet we believe that these differences offer a unique approach to thinking about intercultural com- munication. We briefl y introduce ourselves here, but we hope that by the end of the book you will have a much more complete understanding of who we are.

Judith Martin grew up in Mennonite communities, primarily in Delaware and Pennsylvania. She has studied at the Université de Grenoble in France

and has taught in Algeria. She received her doctorate at the Pennsylvania State University. By background and training, she is a social scientist who has focused on intercultural communication on an interpersonal level and has studied how people’s communication is affected as they move or sojourn between interna- tional locations. She has taught at the State University of New York at Oswego, the University of Minnesota, the University of New Mexico, and Arizona State Uni- versity. She enjoys gardening, going to Mexico, and hosting annual Academy Awards parties, and she does not miss the harsh Midwestern winters.

Tom Nakayama grew up mainly in Georgia, at a time when the Asian American presence was much less than it is now. He has studied at the Université de Paris and various universities in the United States. He received his doctorate from the University of Iowa. By background and training, he is a critical rhetorician who views intercultural communication in a social con- text. He has taught at the California State University at San Bernardino and Arizona State University. He is now professor and chair of communication studies at Northeastern University in Boston. He lives near the Back Bay station and loves walking to work. He loves the change of seasons, especially autumn.

The authors’ very different life stories and research programs came together at Arizona State University. We have each learned much about intercultural communication through our own experiences, as well as through our intellec- tual pursuits. Judith has a well-established record of social science approaches to intercultural communication. Tom, in contrast, has taken a nontraditional

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vi About the Authors

approach to understanding intercultural communication by emphasizing critical perspectives. We believe that these differences in our lives and in our research offer complementary ways of understanding intercultural communication.

Since the early 1990s, we have engaged in many different dialogues about intercultural communication—focusing on our experiences, thoughts, ideas, and analyses—which led us to think about writing this textbook. But our interest was not primarily sparked by these dialogues; rather, it was our overall interest in improving intercultural relations that motivated us. We believe that commu- nication is an important arena for improving those relations. By helping people become more aware as intercultural communicators, we hope to make this a better world for all of us.

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Brief Contents

PART I FOUNDATIONS OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION 1

Chapter 1 Why Study Intercultural Communication? 3

Chapter 2 The History of the Study of Intercultural Communication 44

Chapter 3 Culture, Communication, Context, and Power 83

Chapter 4 History and Intercultural Communication 120

PART II INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION PROCESSES 159

Chapter 5 Identity and Intercultural Communication 161

Chapter 6 Language and Intercultural Communication 218

Chapter 7 Nonverbal Codes and Cultural Space 265

PART III INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION APPLICATIONS 303

Chapter 8 Understanding Intercultural Transitions 305

Chapter 9 Popular Culture and Intercultural Communication 347

Chapter 10 Culture, Communication, and Intercultural Relationships 380

Chapter 11 Culture, Communication, and Confl ict 425

Chapter 12 Striving for Engaged and Effective Intercultural Communication 464

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VVVVVVContents Preface xix To the Student xxvii

PART I FOUNDATIONS OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION 1

Chapter 1 Why Study Intercultural Communication? 3

The Self-Awareness Imperative 4

The Demographic Imperative 6 Changing U.S. Demographics 6 Changing Immigration Patterns 8

The Economic Imperative 17

The Technological Imperative 21 Technology and Human Communication 21 Access to Communication Technology 26

The Peace Imperative 28

The Ethical Imperative 32 Relativity Versus Universality 34 Being Ethical Students of Culture 35

Internet Resources 38

Summary 39

Discussion Questions 40

Activities 40

Key Words 41

References 41

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x Contents

Chapter 2 The History of the Study of Intercultural Communication 44

The Early Development of the Discipline 45 Nonverbal Communication 46

Application of Theory 46

An Emphasis on International Settings 46

An Interdisciplinary Focus 47

Perception and Worldview of the Researcher 49

Three Approaches to Studying Intercultural Communication 50 The Social Science Approach 54

The Interpretive Approach 59

The Critical Approach 65

A Dialectical Approach to Understanding Culture and Communication 71 Combining the Three Traditional Paradigms: The Dialectical Approach 71

Six Dialectics of Intercultural Communication 73

Keeping a Dialectical Perspective 76

Internet Resources 76

Summary 77

Discussion Questions 78

Activities 78

Key Words 79

References 79

Chapter 3 Culture, Communication, Context, and Power 83

What Is Culture? 84 Social Science Defi nitions: Culture as Learned, Group- Related Perceptions 87 Interpretive Defi nitions: Culture as Contextual Symbolic Patterns of Meaning, Involving Emotions 87 Critical Defi nitions: Culture as Heterogeneous, Dynamic, and a Contested Zone 90

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Contents xi

What Is Communication? 94

The Relationship Between Culture and Communication 95 How Culture Infl uences Communication 95 How Communication Reinforces Culture 107 Communication as Resistance to the Dominant Cultural System 109

The Relationship Between Communication and Context 109

The Relationship Between Communication and Power 110

Internet Resources 116

Summary 116

Discussion Questions 117

Activities 117

Key Words 118

References 118

Chapter 4 History and Intercultural Communication 120

From History to Histories 122 Political, Intellectual, and Social Histories 123 Family Histories 124 National Histories 125 Cultural-Group Histories 126

History, Power, and Intercultural Communication 128 The Power of Texts 128 The Power of Other Histories 130 Power in Intercultural Interactions 133

History and Identity 133 Histories as Stories 133 Nonmainstream Histories 135

Intercultural Communication and History 146 Antecedents of Contact 146

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xii Contents

The Contact Hypothesis 149 Negotiating Histories Dialectically in Interaction 152

Internet Resources 153

Summary 154

Discussion Questions 155

Activities 156

Key Words 156

References 156

PART II INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION PROCESSES 159

Chapter 5 Identity and Intercultural Communication 161

Thinking Dialectically About Identity 162 The Social Science Perspective 163 The Interpretive Perspective 166 The Critical Perspective 167

Identity and Language 171

Identity Development Issues 172 Minority Identity Development 173 Majority Identity Development 177

Social and Cultural Identities 180 Gender Identity 180 Sexual Identity 182 Age Identity 182 Racial and Ethnic Identities 184 Characteristics of Whiteness 187 Religious Identity 192 Class Identity 194 National Identity 197 Regional Identity 199

Personal Identity 199

Multicultural People 200

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Identity, Stereotypes, and Prejudice 205

Identity and Communication 208

Internet Resources 211

Summary 212

Discussion Questions 212

Activities 213

Key Words 213

References 214

Chapter 6 Language and Intercultural Communication 218

Social Science Perspective on Language 219 Language and Perception 221 Recent Research Findings 224 Language and Thought: Metaphor 225 Cultural Variations in Communication Style 227

Interpretive Perspective on Language 228 Variations in Contextual Rules 231

Critical Perspective on Language 233 Co-Cultural Communication 234 Discourse and Social Structure 237

The “Power” Effects of Labels 238

Moving Between Languages 241 Multilingualism 241

Translation and Interpretation 243

Language and Identity 246 Language and Cultural Group Identity 247

Code Switching 249

Language Politics and Policies 251

Language and Globalization 254

Internet Resources 260

Summary 260

Discussion Questions 261

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xiv Contents

Activities 262

Key Words 262

References 262

Chapter 7 Nonverbal Codes and Cultural Space 265

Thinking Dialectically About Nonverbal Communication: Defi ning Nonverbal Communication 267 Comparing Verbal and Nonverbal Communication 268 What Nonverbal Behavior Communicates 270

The Universality of Nonverbal Behavior 271 Recent Research Findings 271 Nonverbal Codes 273 Stereotype, Prejudice, and Discrimination 281 Semiotics and Nonverbal Communication 285

Defi ning Cultural Space 287 Cultural Identity and Cultural Space 287 Changing Cultural Space 293 Postmodern Cultural Spaces 295

Internet Resources 297

Summary 298

Discussion Questions 299

Activities 299

Key Words 300

References 300

PART III INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION APPLICATIONS 303

Chapter 8 Understanding Intercultural Transitions 305

Thinking Dialectically About Intercultural Transitions 307

Types of Migrant Groups 309 Voluntary Migrants 310 Involuntary Migrants 311

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Migrant-Host Relationships 314 Assimilation 314 Separation 315 Integration 316 Marginalization 318 Cultural Hybridity 318

Cultural Adaptation 320 Social Science Approach 320 Interpretive Approach 327 Critical Approach: Contextual Infl uences 336

Internet Resources 342

Summary 343

Discussion Questions 343

Activities 343

Key Words 344

References 344

Chapter 9 Popular Culture and Intercultural Communication 347

Learning About Cultures Without Personal Experience 348 The Power of Popular Culture 349 What Is Popular Culture? 350

Consuming and Resisting Popular Culture 354 Consuming Popular Culture 354 Resisting Popular Culture 356

Representing Cultural Groups 360 Migrants’ Perceptions of Mainstream Culture 362 Popular Culture and Stereotyping 363

U.S. Popular Culture and Power 367 Global Circulation of Images and Commodities 367 Cultural Imperialism 370

Internet Resources 375

Summary 376

Discussion Questions 376

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xvi Contents

Activities 376

Key Words 377

References 377

Chapter 10 Culture, Communication, and Intercultural Relationships 380

Benefi ts and Challenges of Intercultural Relationships 382 Benefi ts 382 Challenges 384

Thinking Dialectically About Intercultural Relationships 388 Personal-Contextual Dialectic 389 Differences-Similarities Dialectic 390 Cultural-Individual Dialectic 391 Privilege-Disadvantage Dialectic 391 Static-Dynamic Dialectic 391 History/Past–Present /Future Dialectic 392

Intercultural Relationships 392 Social Science Approach: Cross-Cultural Differences 392 Interpretive Approach: Communicating in Intercultural Relationships 398 Critical Approach: Contextual Infl uences 413

Internet Resources 418

Summary 418

Discussion Questions 419

Activities 420

Key Words 420

References 420

Chapter 11 Culture, Communication, and Confl ict 425

Characteristics of Intercultural Confl ict 427

Two Orientations to Confl ict 431 Confl ict as Opportunity 431

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Confl ict as Destructive 433 Cultural Differences in Confl ict Views: A Dialectical Perspective 435

The Social Science Approach to Confl ict 436 Strategies and Tactics for Dealing with Confl ict 436 Gender, Ethnicity, and Confl ict 440 Value Differences and Confl ict Styles 441

Interpretive and Critical Approaches to Social Confl ict 443 Social Contexts 443 Economic Contexts 445 Historical and Political Contexts 446

Managing Intercultural Confl ict 447 Productive Versus Destructive Confl ict 447 Competition Versus Cooperation 448 Dealing with Confl ict 450 Mediation 457

Internet Resources 460

Summary 460

Discussion Questions 461

Activities 461

Key Words 462

References 462

Chapter 12 Striving for Engaged and Effective Intercultural Communication 464

The Components of Competence 465 Social Science Perspective: Individual Components 465 Interpretive Perspective: Competence in Contexts 475 Critical Perspective: Competence for Whom? 477

Applying Knowledge About Intercultural Communication 478 Entering Into Dialogue 478 Becoming Interpersonal Allies 480

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xviii Contents

Building Coalitions 482 Social Justice and Transformation 483 Forgiveness 488

What the Future Holds 491

Internet Resources for Intercultural Interaction 495

Summary 496

Discussion Questions 497

Activities 497

Key Words 497

References 498

Credits C-1

Name Index I-1

Subject Index I-7

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xix

Preface

THE INCREASING IMPORTANCE OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN A RAPIDLY CHANGING WORLD

The falling value of the U.S. dollar against many other world currencies, the rising price of fuel, and the impact these changes have had on travel and busi- ness costs point to new international relationships. How will the expansion of globalization be affected? What kind of impact will there be on the exchange of products and movement of people around the world? How will economic changes infl uence where tourists come from and where they visit? Changes such as these are likely to infl uence the shape of intercultural communication.

When we look back upon the international and intercultural situation at the time we fi rst began writing this book, we recognize how rapidly the world has changed and how, as a result, these changes have raised even more pressing issues for intercultural communication scholars and practitioners. As the U.S. dollar remains weak, foreign businesses may fi nd buying opportunities in the United States, such as the recent acquisition of Anheuser-Busch by a Belgian company. U.S. tourists may fi nd it expensive to travel to many locations overseas, but tour- ists from those places may fi nd it much cheaper to come to the United States. Natural disasters such as the typhoon in Myanmar and earthquakes in China, as well as the ongoing confl ict in Darfur, have summoned a variety of positive responses, including tremendous caring and compassion across intercultural and international divides, but these tragedies also exacerbated enduring social group inequities. Regional identities continue to challenge national identities, such as is the case in Belgium, which appears closer than ever to dissolution along the lines of linguistic identities. In addition, the Internet and cell phones have made intercultural interactions that once may have seemed distant or peripheral to our lives now far more immediate.

In this climate, the study of intercultural communication takes on special signifi cance, because it offers tools to help us as we grapple with questions about religious and ethnic differences, hate crimes, and many other related issues. Those who study, teach, and conduct research in intercultural communication face an increasing number of challenges and diffi cult questions: Is it enough to identify differences among people? Are we actually reinforcing stereotypes in emphasizing differences? Is there a way to understand the dynamics of intercul- tural communication without resorting to lists of instructions? Don’t we have to talk about the broader social, political, and historical contexts when we teach

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xx Preface

intercultural communication? How can we use our intercultural communication skills to help enrich our lives and the lives of those around us? Can intercultural communication scholars promote a better world for all?

Such questions are driven by rapidly changing cultural dynamics—both within the United States and abroad. On the one hand, attempts to establish peace between Israel and Palestine by withdrawing Israeli settlements from Gaza, as well as the continued expansion of the European Union, CAFTA (Central American Free Trade Agreement), and the African Union (formerly the Organization of African States), refl ect some global movement toward unity. On the other hand, the increase in nuclear armaments, continuing clashes between India and Pakistan over Kashmir, and the tribal and religious struggles within Iraq exemplify continuing intergroup confl ict. These extremes demon- strate the dynamic nature of culture and communication.

We initially wrote this book in part to address questions and issues such as these. Although the foundation of intercultural communication theory and research has always been interdisciplinary, the fi eld is now informed by three identifi able and competing paradigms, or “ways of thinking.” In this book, we attempt to integrate three different research approaches: (1) the traditional social-psychological approach that emphasizes cultural differences and how these differences infl uence communication, (2) the interpretive approach that empha- sizes understanding communication in context, and (3) the more recent critical approach that underscores the importance of power and historical context to understanding intercultural communication, including postcolonial approaches.

We believe that each of these approaches has important contributions to make to the understanding of intercultural communication and that they operate in interconnected and sometimes contradictory ways. In this fi fth edition, we have further strengthened our dialectical approach, which encourages students to think critically about intercultural phenomena as seen from these various perspectives.

Throughout this book, we acknowledge that there are no easy solutions to the diffi cult challenges of intercultural communication. Sometimes our discus- sions raise more questions than they answer. We believe that this is perfectly reasonable. The fi eld of intercultural communication is changing, but the rela- tionship between culture and communication is as well—because that relation- ship is, and probably always will be, complex and dynamic. We live in a rapidly changing world where intercultural contact will continue to increase, creating an increased potential for both confl ict and cooperation. We hope that this book provides the tools needed to think about intercultural communication, as a way of understanding the challenges and recognizing the advantages of living in a multicultural world.

SIGNATURE FEATURES OF THE BOOK

Students usually come to the fi eld of intercultural communication with some knowledge about many different cultural groups, including their own. Their understanding often is based on observations drawn from television, movies,

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Preface xxi

the Internet, books, personal experiences, news media, and other sources. But many students have a diffi cult time assimilating information that does not read- ily fi t into their preexisting knowledge base. In this book, we hope to move students gradually to the notion of a dialectical framework for thinking about cul- tural issues. That is, we show that knowledge can be acquired in many differ- ent ways—through social scientifi c studies, experience, media reports, and so on—but these differing forms of knowledge need to be seen dynamically and in relation to each other. We offer students a number of ways to begin think- ing critically about intercultural communication in a dialectical manner. These include:

■ An explicit discussion of differing research approaches to intercultural communication, focusing on both the strengths and limitations of each

■ Ongoing attention to history, popular culture, and identity as important factors in understanding intercultural communication

■ Student Voices boxes in which students relate their own experiences and share their thoughts about various intercultural communication issues

■ Point of View boxes in which diverse viewpoints from news media, research studies, and other public forums are presented

■ Incorporation of the authors’ own personal experiences to highlight particular aspects of intercultural communication

NEW TO THE FIFTH EDITION

■ In each chapter we have added a section on Internet Resources to enable students to fi nd additional relevant information, examples, and illustrations on the chapter topic.

■ To refl ect the increasing infl uence of globalization, we continue to emphasize its importance to intercultural communication. For example, in Chapter 1, we discuss how globalization and related economic disparities infl uence intercultural communication. In Chapter 8, we expanded our discussion of the impact of globalization on the continuing worldwide migration and the resulting intercultural encounters.

■ The continuing and expanding infl uence of communication technology in our daily lives is addressed by new material in Chapter 10 acknowledging the increasing role of social networking sites (SNS) in intercultural rela- tionships and by new material in Chapter 12 addressing developing inter- cultural competence in online interaction.

■ Our expanded discussion of the implications of religious identity in Chapters 5 and 11 is prompted by continued awareness of the important role religion plays in intercultural communication.

■ We have also enhanced discussion of the important roles that institutions play in intercultural contact. In Chapter 10, we continue to address the role of institutions in supporting or discouraging intercultural relationships.

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xxii Preface

SUPPLEMENTAL RESOURCES

The Online Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/martinnakayama5 provides interactive resources to fi t the needs of a variety of teaching and learning styles. For every chapter, students and instructors can access chapter outlines, sample quizzes with feedback, crossword puzzles using key terms, and Internet activi- ties. For instructors specifi cally, the OLC offers an online Instructor’s Resource Manual with sample syllabi, discussion questions, and general pedagogical tips for teaching the course and to help meet the special challenges arising from the controversial nature of much of the material. In addition, a computerized test bank that allows instructors to edit and add their own questions is available in both Windows and Macintosh formats.

CHAPTER-BY-CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Intercultural Communication in Contexts is organized into three parts: Part I, “Foundations of Intercultural Communication”; Part II, “Intercultural Commu- nication Processes”; and Part III, “Intercultural Communication Applications.”

Part I, “Foundations of Intercultural Communication,” explores the his- tory of the fi eld and presents various approaches to this area of study, including our own.

We begin Chapter 1 with a focus on the dynamics of social life and global conditions as a rationale for the study of intercultural communication. We introduce ethics in this chapter to illustrate its centrality to any discussion of intercultural interaction. In this edition, we have emphasized the importance of the self-awareness imperative as a starting point for enhanced intercultural effectiveness and have also expanded our discussion of the impact of globaliza- tion and immigration on intercultural encounters.

In Chapter 2, we introduce the history of intercultural communication as an area of study as well as the three paradigms that inform our knowledge about intercultural interactions. We establish the notion of a dialectical approach so that students can begin to make connections and form relationships among the paradigms and use the example of Hurricane Katrina to help explicate the three paradigms. In this edition, we have included new examples of recent postcolo- nial approaches, focusing on Africa, to help students learn how past colonization impacts contemporary intercultural relations.