Apta it cctv rp 001 11

Effective Physical Security

FIFTH EDITION

Lawrence J. Fennelly

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Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

Foreword

Preface

Chapter 1. Encompassing Effective CPTED Solutions in 2017 and Beyond: Concepts and Strategies

Introduction

Environment

Space

Target Hardening

CPTED Assessments

Questions to be Answered During an Assessment

CPTED Survey for Colleges and Universities: 30 Vulnerabilities Based on CPTED Assessments

CPTED Recommendations

Psychological Properties of Colors

CPTED Landscape Security Recommendation

Conclusion

Chapter 2. Introduction to Vulnerability Assessment

Risk Management and Vulnerability Assessment

Risk Assessment and the Vulnerability Assessment Process

Statistics and Quantitative Analysis

Vulnerability Assessment Process Overview

Planning the Vulnerability Assessment

Protection Objectives

Data Collection—Detection

Data Collection—Delay

Data Collection—Response

Analysis

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Reporting and Using the Vulnerability Assessment

Systems Engineering and Vulnerability Assessment

System Requirements

System Design and Analysis

System Installation and Test

System Replacement

Summary

Chapter 3. Influence of Physical Design

Introduction

Defensible Space

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design

Conclusion

Chapter 4. Approaches to Physical Security

Levels of Physical Security

The Value of Planning

Physical Barriers

Security Surveillance System (CCTV)

The Security or Master Plan and Countermeasures

Convincing Oneself That a Proposal Is Justified

Designing Security and Layout of Site

Summary

Chapter 5. Security Lighting

Introduction

Illumination

Types of Lamps

Twenty-Five Things You Need to Know About Lighting

Energy Management

Lighting Checklist

Lighting Definitions

Chapter 6. Electronics Elements: A Detailed Discussion

Introduction

Alarm/Access Control Systems

Server (and Business Continuity Server)

Workstations

Advanced Elements

CCTV and Digital Video Systems

How Digital Video Differs From Analog

Wireless Digital Video

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Satellite

Wireless Architectures

Video Analytics

Lenses and Lighting

Security Communications

Analog Versus Digital

Command/Control and Communication Consoles

Workstation and Console Specifics

Guard Console Functions

Communication Systems

Summary

Questions and Answers

Chapter 7. Use of Locks in Physical Crime Prevention

Lock Terminology and Components

Key-Operated Mechanisms

Combination Locks

Lock Bodies

Door Lock Types

Strikes

Attacks and Countermeasures

Locks and the Systems Approach to Security

Appendix 7A: Key Control

New Standard Set for Exit Devices, Locks, and Alarms

Electrified Panic Hardware

Appendix 7B: Key Control and Lock Security Checklist

Chapter 8. Internal Threats and Countermeasures

Introduction

Internal Theft

Management Countermeasures

Physical Security Countermeasures

Security Officers

Chapter 9. External Threats and Countermeasures Introduction

Methods of Unauthorized Entry

Countermeasures

Chapter 10. Biometrics in the Criminal Justice System and Society Today Introduction

History of Biometrics and Fingerprinting in the United States

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Biometrics Usage Today

The Federal Bureau of Investigation’s Biometric Center of Excellence

Biometric Modalities and Technology

International Biometrics: India’s Private Usage of Biometrics on Society

Future Advancements of Biometrics

Chapter 11. Access Control Systems and Identification Badges

Access Control Systems and Protocols

Identification Badging System

Chapter 12. Chain-Link Fence Standards

Recommendations

Security Planning

Material Specifications

Design Features and Considerations

Typical Design Example

Chapter 13. Doors, Door Frames, and Signage

Introduction

Residential Buildings

Exterior Number Sizing

The Function of a Door

Terminology

Standards for Doors

Chapter 14. Glass and Windows

Introduction

Types of Glass

Glass and Security

Window Film

Chapter 15. The Legalization of Marijuana and the Security Industry

Marijuana—the Pros and Cons

Should Marijuana be Legal for Medicinal and/or Recreational Purposes?

The Short-Term Effects of Marijuana

The Long-Term Effects of Marijuana

Is Marijuana Addictive?

Security for Marijuana Farms and Dispensaries

Chapter 16. Designing Security and Working With Architects Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design Planning and Design Review

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Physical Security Systems

Chapter 17. Standards, Regulations, and Guidelines Compliance and Your Security Program, Including Global Resources

Introduction

Standards

Regulations

Guidelines

Managing Compliance

Resources

Chapter 18. Information Technology Systems Infrastructure

Introduction

Basics of Transport Control Protocol/Internet Protocol and Signal Communications

Transport Control Protocol/User Datagram Protocol/Real-Time Protocol

User Datagram Protocol

Networking Devices

Network Infrastructure Devices

Servers

Network Architecture

Network Configurations

Creating Network Efficiencies

Digital Video

Digital Resolution

Frame Rates

Display Issues

Managing Data Systems Throughput

System Architecture

Interfacing to Other Enterprise Information Technology Systems

Summary

Chapter 19. Security Officers and Equipment Monitoring Introduction

Command Center

Best Locations for Closed-Caption Television

Introduction to Access Control and Biometrics

Designated Restricted Areas

Summary

Chapter 20. Video Technology Overview

Overview

Video System

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Camera Function

Scene Illumination

Scene Characteristics

Lenses

Cameras

Transmission

Switchers

Quads and Multiplexers

Monitors

Recorders

Hard-Copy Video Printers

Ancillary Equipment

Summary

Glossary for CCTV

Chapter 21. Understanding Layers of Protection Analysis Introduction

Conclusion

Chapter 22. Fire Development and Behavior

Introduction

Stages of Fire

How Fire Spreads

Four Ways to Put Out a Fire

Classifying Fire

UL Standard 217, 268 and NFPA 72

Water Supply for Sprinklers and Tanks

Appendix: A Fire Safety Inspection

Administrative and Planning Phase

General Physical Inspection Phase

Extinguisher Inspection Phase

Stand Pipe, Fire Hose, and Control Valve Inspection Phase

Sprinkler System Inspection Phase

Hazardous Materials Inspection Phase

Alarm System Inspection Phase

Chapter 23. Alarms Intrusion Detection Systems

Introduction

False Alarms

Components of Alarm Systems

Application

Alarm Equipment Overhaul

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Additional Resources

Conclusion

Appendix 23A: Smoke Detectors

Appendix 23B: Alarm Certificate Services Glossary of Terms Certificate Types

Standards

Appendix 23C: Fire Classifications

Use of Fire Extinguishers

Appendix 1. Glossary of Terms

Index

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Copyright

Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom 50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States

Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-0-12-804462-9

For information on all Butterworth-Heinemann publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/

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Dedication

It is with great happiness that we dedicate this book to our two very special daughters- in-law, Annmarie Carr Fennelly and Janet Mansfield Fennelly. Both of these strong women are working mothers, have three beautiful children each, and are wonderful

Mothers, Wives, and our Daughters.

Larry and Annmarie Fennelly

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Foreword

A manager designs and develops security, physical security, safety and investigative programs.

Louis A. Tyska, CPP

This book is your road map to decoding and developing an effective security strategy beginning with the design build phase and addressing everything in between including life safety issues. Larry Fennelly and Marianna Perry have the knowledge and experience to see these complicated and ever-changing security challenges from a unique and multifaceted viewpoint. They both share their insight with the reader and that is why every security practitioner needs to read this book. Most security books focus on one topic, i.e., Risk Analysis or Security Surveillance Systems (CCTV) and access control and biometrics. I love this text because it has so much material in it that we need to address our everyday problems.

The baby boomers are retiring and the millennium generation is taking over. The face of security is also changing. Research is being done to advance the security profession to provide the highest level of protection while at the same time, increasing the bottom-line profitability of the organization. College courses are changing. Going forward, the combination of business as a major field of study and security or information technology as a minor is becoming the new norm. This change is being implemented to prepare security professionals to properly protect corporate assets.

The new “buzz words” from 2015 to 2020 will be the following:

1. What kind of “skill set” does the candidate/officer have? 2. What “certifications and specializations” does the candidate/officer have? 3. Both “physical security and informational security” will be merging with the move toward certifications. 4. “Career pathways” will be used by way of “internships.” 5. Your “certifications” will be the bar for testing qualifications. 6. Education for a career in security is being “redesigned.” Are you ready? 7. The holistic approach is preferred over independent components or “silos” as a logical approach to security systems.

8. 5.0 Megapixel cameras on phones and monitors with full (or true) HDTV—1080 are standard. Do not be left behind! Plan for the future now! The top crime threat problems according to recent reports are (1) cyber/communications security,

(2) workplace violence, (3) business continuity, (4) insider threat, and (5) property crime.

We mention this because if you are going to be addressing crime problems you first need to know what they are. To make recommendations and solve problems, you first have to make sure that you have correctly identified the issue. If a security assessment is not completed to determine the root causes of a security issue or vulnerability, the security practitioner may simply keep putting policies or procedures in place that address the symptoms and countermeasures of a problem and not the actual problem itself. This will be a frustrating (and sometimes costly) situation that can be avoided if, before any action is taken, an assessment is completed by a knowledgeable security professional to accurately identify security vulnerabilities. This will ensure that the true issues and concerns are being addressed, not just the symptoms.

The most demanding problem for managers and supervisors within a protection department is the physical security devices under his/her control. The supervisor’s role should be to assist in enabling the manager to provide a level of support within the organization. Supervisors must take responsibility for corporate regulations, moral and ethical tone as well as providing the required level of security and customer service required.

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Managers work with budgets and other resources (equipment, uniforms, technology, software, etc.) to ensure that the protective mission is achieved. Managers oversee processes (procedures) that accomplish organizational goals and objectives. Staff functions without a supervisory span of control over line employees may be performed by managers. Training, technical support, auditing, etc., are staff functions. A manager coordinates activities rather than supervises them. Turnover and job rotation can create overall improvement and a challenge. Staying current on industry trends and events by reviewing news sources, trade publications, and webinars and sources such as ASIS International and others.

Active shooter/active assailant’s incidents, stabbings, and random unthinkable acts of violence are happening in our workplaces and on our televisions everyday. We cannot escape these mindless crimes and thefts that impact every segment of the security management operation. “Security Matters” now more than ever! Trying to decide which security concepts are right for your organization is a daunting full-time task. However, I suggest that you start off with a professional security assessment, so you can identify your security needs.

This book is your road map to decoding and developing an effective security strategy beginning with the design build phase and addressing everything in between including life safety issues. The authors have the knowledge and experience to see these complicated and ever-changing security challenges from a unique and multifaceted viewpoint. They both share their insight with the reader and that is why every security practitioner needs to read this book. Most security books focus on one topic, i.e., Risk Analysis or Security Surveillance Systems (CCTV) and access control. I love this text because it has so much material in it that we need to address our everyday problems.

Today’s security books are more and more complicated and technical. We, as practitioners must stay ahead of the curve, to keep up. Books like this, and those of Thomas Norman, CPP, David Paterson, CPP, Sandi Davis (Women in Security), James F. Broder, CPP, Michael Fagel PhD, and Dr Jennifer Hestermann are security professionals and future educators along with Larry Fennelly and Marianna Perry. Writing a book listing 150 things…etc., is not an easy task. I commend these authors and those that I mentioned, for their vision and dedication that will keep us ahead of the curve.

Linda Watson, MA, CPP, CSC, CHS-V, Whirlaway Group LLC

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Preface

We completed this book in about 6 months. Normally, this undertaking would take 18 months. We know that it is hard to believe, but it is true. We both know that the faster we could complete this book, get it published and into the hands of those who are responsible for those practitioners in security, then possibly the information will get out there and be of further help to our profession. This is basically a very hard book to finish. The first 35 are easy the next 35 are ok, then it gets harder and harder. We went through two drafts and then after having a strong handle on it, we keep adding and adding to the various pieces. A perfect example is the section on body cameras, I saw a report that was negative, then I found another report that was positive, so we add a piece I felt this was the best part of the book, because it was getting better and better.

Physical security is a big topic, cybercrimes and cyberterrorism, workplace violence, emergency management, and IT security issues will continue to be the top issues going forward.

Regulations and Compliances and security standards for your corporation will continue to be developed and aid in the improvement of your security assessment. Follow CPTED principles and security best practices and master plan development. After you have done so, call your local media to promote your accomplishments. Let the bad guys know that you take crime prevention and effective security at your school serious!

Times have changed and you must change as well, I was reading a deposition recently and the

security manager said quote “We have been doing it this way for 30 years.” Of course, you have that is why a man died and your being sued.

Social media need to monitored and included in your assessment process.

We are concerned because we know that many of you do not have good security and do not have adequate security in place to protect your assets. We are not advocating that you make your corporate or place of work a fortress into a cold, uninviting fortress. Instead, we want you to have not only a safe environment but also has effective security in place to address vulnerabilities and have continuous assessments to improve the process.

Enterprise risk management (ERM): (1) It looks at a holistic approach to ERM, which breaks down silos between physical and technological security and provides comprehensives risk management solutions. Eugene Ferraro recently said, (2) “We owe it not only to this country, but also to the free world, to think further ahead about future threats and what the solutions look like. And if we can reach consensus around these solutions, we will be in a better position to build them.”

We wish to sincerely thank all of our contributors who made this book possible. We truly believe that compiling the knowledge of many security professionals is a more comprehensive approach to addressing the issue of physical security. We thank you for your professionalism as well as your contributions to our profession.

Lawrence J. Fennelly

Marianna A. Perry, CPP 1Enterprise Security Risks and Workplace Competencies, ASIS, University of Phoenix & Apollo Education Group, 2016. 2Ibid.

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C H A P T E R 1

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Encompassing Effective CPTED Solutions in 2017 and Beyond

Concepts and Strategies Lawrence J. Fennelly, CPOI, CSSI, CHS-III, CSSP-1, and Marianna A. Perry, MS, CPP, CSSP-1

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Abstract We are delighted to be a part of the series of white papers for School Dangers.Org. It is appropriate to say a few words about Tim Crowe and Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED), before you read our paper. Tim Crowe wrote Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (1991) based on a security assessment that he conducted for a school district in Florida. Tim's book (which was updated and modernized by Lawrence Fennelly in 2013) was and is still considered a primary resource for crime prevention practitioners in the security industry to help them better understand the relationship between design and human behavior. CPTED is a proactive approach to manipulate the physical environment and bring about the desired behavior of reduced criminal activity as well as reduced fear of crime. Tim Crowe and Larry Fennelly lectured for Rick Draper in Australia on the concepts of CPTED.

Keywords CPTED color; Design; Design concept; Deterrences; Environment; Fear of crime; Hot spots; Landscape security; LED; Maintenance; Measuring and evaluation; Methods; Police procedures; Programs Tim Crowe; QR code; Rick Draper; Strategies; Target hardening; Three-D concept

Deterrence’s, CPTED Design, Policies and Procedures, Training Programs and Security Awareness Programs.

Thomas L Norman, CPP, PSP, CSC 2016.

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Introduction We are delighted to be a part of the series of white papers for School Dangers.Org. It is appropriate to say a few words about Tim Crowe and Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED), before you read our paper.

Tim Crowe wrote Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (1991) based on a security assessment that he conducted for a school district in Florida. Tim’s book (which was updated and modernized by Lawrence Fennelly in 2013) was and is still considered a primary resource for crime prevention practitioners in the security industry to help them better understand the relationship between design and human behavior. CPTED is a proactive approach to manipulate the physical environment and bring about the desired behavior of reduced criminal activity as well as reduced fear of crime. Tim Crowe and Larry Fennelly lectured for Rick Draper in Australia on the concepts of CPTED.

Tim Crowe’s comprehensive set of guidelines were developed with one goal in mind—to reduce opportunities for crime in the built environment. His work is the “gold standard” for security practitioners and others who implement CPTED concepts as a crime prevention tool. Crowe’s work is frequently used as a training tool for law enforcement, town planners, and architects. These guidelines have been used in hundreds of training sessions and cited in numerous publications.

Tim Crowe was a professor at the National Crime Prevention Institute (NCPI) at the University of Louisville in Louisville, Kentucky. Marianna Perry is the former Director of NCPI and together both she and Tim have presented training sessions on CPTED.

We included this information because we want you to understand the origination of Tim Crowe’s work on CPTED.

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Environment The conceptual thrust of a CPTED program is that the physical environment can be manipulated to produce behavioral effects that will reduce the incidence and fear of crime, thereby improving the quality of life. These behavioral effects can be accomplished by reducing the propensity of the physical environment to support criminal behavior. Environmental design, as used in a CPTED program, is rooted in the design of the human–environment relationship. It embodies several concepts. The term environment includes the people and their physical and social surroundings. However, as a matter of practical necessity, the environment defined for demonstration purposes is that which has recognizable territorial and system limits.

The term design includes physical, social, management, and law enforcement directives that seek to affect positively human behavior as people interact with their environment.

Thus, the CPTED program seeks to prevent certain specified crimes (and the fear attendant on them) within a specifically defined environment by manipulating variables that are closely related to the environment itself.

The program does not purport to develop crime prevention solutions in a broad universe of human behavior but rather solutions limited to variables that can be manipulated and evaluated in the specified human/environment relationship. CPTED involves design of physical space in the context of the needs of legitimate users of the space (physical, social, and psychological needs), the normal and expected (or intended) use of the space (the activity or absence of activity planned for the space), and the predictable behavior of both legitimate users and offenders. Therefore, in the CPTED approach, a design is proper if it recognizes the designated use of the space, defines the crime problem incidental to and the solution compatible with the designated use, and incorporates the crime prevention strategies that enhance (or at least do not impair) the effective use of the space. CPTED draws not only on physical and urban design but also on contemporary thinking in behavioral and social science, law enforcement, and community organization.

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Space The continuum of space within a residential complex (that is, a property consisting of one or more buildings containing dwelling units and associated grounds or, more broadly, a neighborhood consisting primarily of residential uses) may be divided into four categories: • Public. Space that, whatever its legal status, is perceived by all members of a residential area or

neighborhood as belonging to the public as a whole, which a stranger has as much perceived right to use as a resident.

• Semipublic. Space accessible to all members of the public without passing through a locked or guarded barrier. There is thought to be an implied license for use by the public, and strangers will rarely be challenged. This is generally associated with multifamily housing.

• Semiprivate. Space restricted for use by residents, guests, and service people on legitimate assignments. In multifamily housing, this is usually secured by protection officers (or doormen), locks, or other forms of physical barriers. Strangers can be expected to be challenged as potential trespassers.

• Private. Space restricted for use by residents of a single dwelling unit, their invited guests, and service people, with access generally controlled by locks and other physical barriers. Unauthorized use is always challenged when the opportunity for challenge presents itself.

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Target Hardening The emphasis on design and use deviates from the traditional target-hardening approach to crime prevention. Traditional target hardening focuses predominantly on denying access to a crime target through physical or artificial barrier techniques (such as locks, alarms, fences, and gates). Target hardening often leads to constraints on use, access, and enjoyment of the hardened environment. Moreover, the traditional approach tends to overlook opportunities for natural access control and surveillance. The term natural refers to deriving access control and surveillance results as a by- product of the normal and routine use of the environment. It is possible to adapt normal and natural uses of the environment to accomplish the effects of artificial or mechanical hardening and surveillance. Nevertheless, CPTED employs pure target-hardening strategies either to test their effectiveness as compared with natural strategies or when they appear to be justified as not unduly impairing the effective use of the environment.

As an example, a design strategy of improved street lighting must be planned, efficient, and evaluated in terms of the behavior it promotes or deters and the use impact of the lighted (and related) areas in terms of all users of the area (offenders, victims, other permanent, or casual users). Any strategies related to the lighting strategy (e.g., block-watch or neighborhood watch, 911 emergency service, police patrol) must be evaluated in the same regard. This reflects the comprehensiveness of the CPTED design approach in focusing on both the proper design and effective use of the physical environment. Additionally, the concept of proper design and effective use emphasizes the designed relationship among strategies to ensure that the desired results are achieved. It has been observed that improved street lighting alone (a design strategy) is ineffective against crime without the conscious and active support of citizens (in reporting what they see) and of police (in responding and conducting surveillance). CPTED involves the effort to integrate design, citizen and community action, and law enforcement strategies to accomplish surveillance consistent with the design and use of the environment.

CPTED Strategies There are three overlapping strategies in CPTED (as shown in Fig. 1.1): 1. Natural access control 2. Natural surveillance 3. Territorial reinforcement

Access control and surveillance have been the primary design concepts of physical design programs. At the outset of the CPTED program, access control and surveillance systems— preexisting as conspicuous concepts in the field of CPTED—received major attention. Access control and surveillance are not mutually exclusive classifications since certain strategies achieve both, and strategies in one classification typically are mutually supportive of the other. However, the operational thrust of each is distinctly different, and the differences must be recognized in performing analysis, research, design, implementation, and evaluation.

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FIGURE 1.1 Overlapping strategies in CPTED.

Access control is a design concept directed primarily at decreasing crime opportunity. Access control strategies are typically classified as organized (e.g., security officers), mechanical (e.g., locks, lighting, and alarms), and natural (e.g., spatial definition). The primary thrust of an access control strategy is to deny access to a crime target and to create a perception of risk in offenders. Surveillance is a design concept directed primarily at keeping intruders under observation. Therefore, the primary thrust of a surveillance strategy is to facilitate observation, although it may have the effect of an access control strategy by effectively keeping intruders out because of an increased perception of risk. Surveillance strategies are typically classified as organized (e.g., police patrol), mechanical (e.g., lighting, locks, and alarms), and natural (e.g., windows).

Photos 1.1–1.3 reflect good natural surveillance. Traditionally, access control and surveillance, as design concepts (Fig. 1.2), have emphasized

mechanical or organized crime prevention techniques while overlooking, minimizing, or ignoring attitudes, motivation, and use of the physical environment. More recent approaches to physical design of environments have shifted the emphasis to natural crime prevention techniques, attempting to use natural opportunities presented by the environment for crime prevention. This shift in emphasis led to the concept of territoriality.

The concept of territoriality (elaborated most fully to date in the public housing environment) suggests that physical design can contribute to a sense of territoriality. That is, physical design can create or extend a sphere of influence so that users develop a sense of proprietorship—a sense of territorial influence—and potential offenders perceive that territorial influence (Photo 1.4).

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PHOTO 1.1

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PHOTO 1.2

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PHOTO 1.3

FIGURE 1.2 Typical access control and surveillance concepts as well as classifications.

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PHOTO 1.4 Reflects physical design based on territoriality.

At the same time, it was recognized that natural access control and surveillance contributed to a sense of territoriality, making it effective for crime prevention. Natural access control and surveillance will promote more responsiveness by users in protecting their territory (e.g., more security awareness, reporting, and reacting) and promote greater perception of risk by offenders.

Maintenance Finally, care and maintenance allow for the continued use of a space for its intended purpose, as well as contributing to territorial reinforcement. Deterioration and blight indicate less concern and control by the intended users of a site and indicate a greater tolerance of disorder. Proper maintenance protects the public health, safety, and welfare in all existing structures, residential and nonresidential, and on all existing premises by establishing minimum standards, best practices, as well as a master plan. Maintenance is the responsibility of the facilities manager, owners, and occupants.

Furthermore, the effort to achieve a balance between design for crime prevention and design for effective use of environments contributed to the shift in focus from organized and mechanical strategies per se to natural strategies. This was because natural strategies exploited the opportunities of the given environment both to naturally and routinely facilitate access control and surveillance and to reinforce positive behavior in the use of the environment. The concept reflects a preference, where feasible, to reinforce existing or new activities, or to otherwise reinforce the behavior of environment users so that crime prevention flows naturally and routinely from the activity being promoted.

The conceptual shift from organized and mechanical to natural strategies has oriented the CPTED program to develop plans that emphasize natural access control and surveillance and territorial reinforcement (Photo 1.5).

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PHOTO 1.5 Reflects mechanical layout of mounted camera with street light and roof lighting.

Although conceptually distinct, it is important to realize that these strategy categories tend to overlap in practice. It is perhaps most useful to think of territorial reinforcement as the umbrella concept, comprising all natural surveillance principles, which in turn comprises all access control principles. It is not practical to think of territorial reinforcement, natural surveillance, and access control as independent strategies because, for example, access control operates to denote transitional zones, not necessarily impenetrable barriers. If these symbolic or psychological barriers are to succeed in controlling access by demarcating specific spaces for specific individuals, potential offenders must perceive that unwarranted intrusion will elicit protective territorial responses from those who have legitimate access. Similarly, natural surveillance operates to increase the likelihood that intrusion will be observed by individuals who care but are not officially responsible for regulating the use and treatment of spaces. If people observe inappropriate behavior but do nothing about it, then the most carefully planned natural surveillance tactics are useless in terms of stopping crime and vandalism (Photo 1.6).

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PHOTO 1.6 Can you see the man hiding in the bushes?

The Three-D Approach1 For CPTED to be a success, it must be understandable and practical for the normal users of the space. That is, the normal residents of a neighborhood and the people who work in buildings or commercial areas must be able to use these concepts. Why? Because these people know more about what is going on in that environment and they have a vested interest (their own well-being) in ensuring that their immediate environment operates properly. The technologist or specialist, who may be a traffic engineer, city planner, architect, or security specialist, should not be allowed to shoulder the responsibility alone for safety and security. The specialist needs to follow the dictates of the users of the space because he/she can often be swayed by misperceptions or by the conflicting demands of his professional competition.

The Three-D approach to space assessment provides a simple guide for the layperson to use in determining the appropriateness of how his/her space is designed and used. The Three-D concept is based on the three functions or dimensions of human space: 1. All human space has some designated purpose. 2. All human space has social, cultural, legal, or physical definitions that prescribe the desired and acceptable behaviors. 3. All human space is designed to support and control the desired behaviors.

By using the Three Ds as a guide, space may be evaluated by asking the following types of questions.

Designation • What is the designated purpose of this space? • What was it originally intended to be used for? • How well does the space support its current use and its intended use? Is there conflict?

Definition • How is the space defined? • Is it clear who owns it?

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• Where are its borders? • Are there social or cultural definitions that affect how that space is used? • Are the legal or administrative rules clearly set out and reinforced in policy? • Are there signs? • Is there conflict or confusion between the designated purpose and definition?

Design • How well does the physical design support the intended function? • How well does the physical design support the definition of the desired or accepted behaviors? • Does the physical design conflict with or impede the productive use of the space or the proper

functioning of the intended human activity? • Is there confusion or conflict in the manner in which the physical design is intended to control

behavior? The three CPTED strategies of territorial reinforcement, natural access control, and natural

surveillance are inherent in the Three-D concept. Does the space clearly belong to someone or some group? Is the intended use clearly defined? Does the physical design match the intended use? Does the design provide the means for normal users to naturally control the activities, to control access, and to provide surveillance? Once a basic self-assessment has been conducted, the Three Ds may then be turned around as a simple means of guiding decisions about what to do with human space. The proper functions have to be matched with space that can support them—with space that can effectively support territorial identity, natural access control, and surveillance and intended behaviors have to be indisputable and be reinforced in social, cultural, legal, and administrative terms or norms. The design has to ensure that the intended activity can function well and it has to directly support the control of behavior.

Examples of Strategies in Action There are hundreds of examples of CPTED strategies in practice today. In each example, there is a mixture of the three CPTED strategies that is appropriate to the setting and to the particular security or crime problem. Some of the examples were created in the direct application of CPTED concepts. Others were borrowed from real-life situations. The common thread is the primary emphasis on naturalness—simply doing things that you already have to do but doing them a little better.

Some examples of CPTED strategy activities are: • Providing clear border definition of controlled space; • Providing clearly marked transitional zones that indicate movement from public to semipublic to

private space; • Relocating gathering areas to locations with natural surveillance and access control, or to

locations away from the view of would-be offenders; • Placing safe activities in unsafe locations to bring along the natural surveillance of these activities

to increase the perception of safety for normal users and risk for offenders; • Placing unsafe activities in safe spots to overcome the vulnerability of these activities with the

natural surveillance and access control of the safe area; • Redesignating the use of space to provide natural barriers to conflicting activities; • Improving the scheduling of space to allow for effective use and appropriate critical intensity; • Redesigning space to increase the perception or reality of natural surveillance; • Overcoming distance and isolation through improved communication and design efficiencies.

Use of Information It goes without saying that all important decisions should be based on good information. Especially where the design and use of the physical environment is at stake, it is imperative that at least five basic types of information be collected and used. Unless a rational basis is used to make informed decisions, the same mistakes that generated the original problem will continue to be made.

The five basic types of information needed for good CPTED planning are crime analysis information, demographic information, land use information, observations, and resident or user interviews. This information does not have to be sophisticated. It exists in a fundamental form in

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every community or location. Moreover, unless it can be presented in its most basic form, it is of little value. For instance, very little can be done with a statistical measure that says burglaries are up by 5%. Much more can be done with a crime map that shows a clustering of burglaries in a specific block.

Even more can be done when one finds that the burglar used an alleyway as his/her approach to a series of related offenses because it afforded a good cover for his vehicle.

The other bits of information that are needed should be available in simple, usable formats. Following is a simple guide to each type of information: • Crime analysis. This type of information is available in every police department; it is obtained by

plotting offenses on a wall map and organizing the information on crime reports for the major purpose of identifying patterns of criminal activity. There are two basic types of patterns: geographic and similar offense.

• Demographic. This is information that describes the nature of the population for a given city, district, or neighborhood. It is available through city planning departments or the city manager’s or mayor’s office. Another source of this type of information is the Census Bureau and the city and county data books that may be found in most public libraries.

• Land use. City planning departments, zoning boards, traffic engineering councils, and local councils of government have information and maps that describe and depict the physical allocations and uses of land. Simple wall maps with colored sections showing residential areas, commercial areas, industrial areas, parks, schools, and traffic flows can be of immeasurable assistance in understanding the physical setting. Natural boundaries and neighborhoods are easier to visualize on such maps, especially in relation to land use and pedestrian and traffic flows.

• Observations. It is very helpful to conduct either formal or informal visual reviews of physical space to get first-hand knowledge of how, when, and by whom that space is used and where problems may arise.

• Environmental cues are the key to normal user and offender behavior. • Observations may include pedestrian/vehicle counts, on- and off-street parking, maintenance of

yards and fences, the degree of proprietary behaviors prohibited by residents and/or users, the presence of either controlling or avoidance behaviors, and other potential indicators of territorial concern such as the percentage of window blinds drawn in homes and businesses overlooking parks or schools.

• Resident or user interviews. This source of information is needed to balance the other data sources. People’s perceptions of where they feel safe and where they feel endangered often vary from the locations on crime maps where the most offenses occur. It is vital to determine the residents’ or users’ perceptions and extent of identity with the surrounding space, what affects their behavior or reactions as they move about, and what they think the needs are. Any attempt to skip the basics in favor of more complex forms of information gathering or analysis often obscures the picture. Professionals often suppress the active participation of residents or space users by relying on complex modes of analysis. This is dangerous because it can cause some very basic ideas or explanations to be overlooked. It is axiomatic that very little good will be accomplished without the full and active involvement of the users of space.

Some Benefits of CPTED Planning Activities In addition to dealing with the reduction of crime and fear problems, other benefits of CPTED planning include the following: • Treatment of crime problems at various environmental scales. The CPTED process for identifying

crime/environment problems; selecting CPTED strategies; and initiating, implementing, and evaluating anticrime projects can be applied to entire neighborhoods or types of institutional settings within a city, such as secondary schools, or the process can be applied equally well to a small geographic area or to one particular institution.

• Integration of prevention approaches. CPTED principles are derived from an opportunity model of criminal behavior that assumes that the offender’s behavior can be accounted for by understanding how, and under what circumstances, variables in the environment interact to induce crime. Once an assessment of the opportunity structure is made, then appropriate strategies can be designed and integrated into a coordinated, consistent program.

• Identification of short- and long-term goals. Comprehensive broad-based programs like CPTED have

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ultimate goals that may take years to accomplish. Unlike CPTED, however, many programs fail to develop short-term or proximate goals and adequate ways to measure their success. The CPTED approach includes an evaluation framework that details proximate goals relating to increased access control, surveillance, and territorial reinforcement. The rationale is that the ultimate program success is directly related to its success in achieving the proximate goals.

• Encouragement of collective responses to problems. The CPTED emphasis is on increasing the capacity of residents to act in concert rather than individually. Strategies are aimed at fostering citizen participation and strengthening social cohesion.

• Interdisciplinary approach to urban problems. An explicit policy of interdisciplinary teaming ensures effective cooperation among diverse city departments such as public works, social services, economic development, police, and so forth. Each participant benefits from exposure to the responsibilities, jurisdiction, and skills of the others.

• Encouragement of better police/community relations. A key strategy is to coordinate law enforcement and community service activities with the result of improving police/community relations and developing an anticrime program that is not solely dependent on enforcement agencies.

• Development of security guidelines and standards. CPTED programming can lead to the creation of security criteria for newly constructed or modified environments to avoid planning and design decisions that inadvertently provide opportunities for crime.

• Assistance in urban revitalization. Through its impact on physical, social, and economic conditions, CPTED can be instrumental in revitalizing communities including downtown areas. Once business leaders, investors, and other citizens perceive that a comprehensive effort is underway to reduce crime and fear, there will be an improvement in community identity and cohesiveness.

• Acquisition of development funds. The incorporation of CPTED into existing programs can provide additional jurisdiction for awarding grants, loans, and community development funds.

• Institutionalization of crime prevention policies and practices. CPTED projects can create a local management capability and expertise to maintain ongoing projects. This capability can be incorporated into existing citizen organizations or municipal agencies.

An Ounce of Prevention: A New Role for Law Enforcement Support of Community Development Public/private sector partnerships enhance public safety by sharing information, making the community more aware of threats and involving them in the problem-solving process. Collaboration is a key word for partnerships because all partners must recognize that their goals or missions overlap and they work together to share resources and achieve common goals. The added value of public–private sector partnerships is the cross-transfer of skills, knowledge, and expertise between the public and the private sectors.2 For a partnership to be successful, each partner has to understand the value they will gain from participating. Successful partnerships involve partners that are committed to working together to achieve common goals—building the community. There are a number of compelling reasons for law enforcement to be involved in CPTED aside from the formulation of partnerships: 1. CPTED concepts have been proved to enhance community activities while reducing crime problems. 2. CPTED concepts are fundamental to traditional law enforcement values in terms of helping the community to function properly. 3. CPTED requires the unique information sources and inherent knowledge of the community that is endemic to the law enforcement profession. 4. CPTED problems and issues bear a direct relationship to repeat calls or service and to crime- producing situations. 5. CPTED methods and techniques can directly improve property values, business profitability, and industrial productivity, thereby enhancing local tax bases.

Law enforcement agencies, regardless of size, must be involved formally in the review and approval process of community and business projects. Their participation must be active and creative, rather than passive and reactive. Moreover, any such involvement should not be understood to expose the agencies to possible litigation, since it is the role of law enforcement in CPTED to provide additional information and concerns that may not have occurred to the persons who are responsible (and qualified) for making changes to the environment. The expression, “Pay

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me now, or pay me later,” conveys the idea that the early involvement of a knowledgeable law enforcement agency in the conceptualization and planning of community projects can lead to improvements in the quality of life and to reductions in the fear and incidence of crime. This early involvement is one of the most cost-effective methods of crime prevention.3

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CPTED Assessments4 During a CPTED assessment, focus on the CPTED principles of: Natural surveillance Access management Territoriality Physical maintenance Order maintenance Activity support

Be sure that you notice positive attributes of the area while identifying needed changes or improvements. Logically organize your observations and recommendations.

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Questions to be Answered During an Assessment • Are there casual surveillance opportunities? If not, can they be added? • Is there sufficient lighting for all vehicular and pedestrian pathways and activity areas used

during hours of darkness (Photo 1.7)? • Is there sufficient activity lighting indoors and is it supplemented by sources of natural light? Is

there emergency lighting?

PHOTO 1.7 Reflects a lack of landscape maintenance.

• Is access managed? If not, what combination of strategies could be used to better manage access? • Are all spaces designated and delineated for specific use? If not, can they be? • Are there conflicts between uses? • Is there sufficient capacity? Is crowding creating tension, fear, or potential dangers? • Are there expressions of pride and ownership (territoriality)? Can they be increased? • Are all areas well maintained—kept clean and functional with no needed repairs or

replacements? If not, when were they last maintained? • Are rules of conduct communicated? Enforced? • Are there supporting activities that enhance surveillance, access management, and social order?

If not, can they be added? • Are the grounds legible? Is it easy to understand where you are at any given point? Is it obvious

which path or direction you need to take to arrive at a desired location? • Does the landscaping enhance the ability to read the site? Does it provide shade and buffering

where needed? Does it provide an aesthetic quality? Is it accessible? Is it healthy and well maintained? Is it a problem?

• How do the site users behave? Is there respect for the environment? Are there areas where tensions and disorder are common?

• Is there graffiti or other signs of vandalism?

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• Is there CCTV or video surveillance? If so, are they placed in prime locations? Are there other means of surveillance?

• Are there successful CPTED applications already in place? If so, take note and use them as positive examples.5

Surrounding Neighborhood • Adjacent land uses • Condition of adjacent streets and properties • Traffic patterns and volumes on adjacent streets • Pedestrian crossing safeguards (marked crossings, traffic lights) • Recommendations for improvements

Perimeter and Points of Entry • First impressions on approaching the site/location • Walls and/or fencing • Type, location, hours of operation, and users • Special staff and/or visitor access points • Sign(s) that identify the site/location, welcome visitors, and information about special visitor

parking and entry • Signs and/or maps to guide visitors to special parking and entry • Signs and/or pavement markings to guide vehicles • Surveillance opportunities from interior spaces • Landscaping and cleanliness (Photo 1.8) • Lighting • Recommendations for improvements.

Vehicular Travel Routes and Parking Facilities • Motor vehicle traffic patterns, including bus and student drop-off/pickup loops in school