Social Psychology Ninth Edition
Elliot Aronson
Timothy D. Wilson
Robin M. Akert
Samuel R. Sommers
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Aronson, Elliot. Social psychology / Elliot Aronson, Timothy D. Wilson, Robin M. Akert, Samuel R. Sommers. — Ninth Edition. pages cm Revised editon of the authors’ Social psychology, 2013. ISBN 978-0-13-393654-4 (Student Edition) 1. Social psychology. I. Wilson, Timothy D. II. Akert, Robin M. III. Title. HM1033.A78 2016 302—dc23 2015016513
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To my grandchildren: Jacob, Jason, Ruth, Eliana, Natalie, Rachel, and Leo. My hope is that your capacity for empathy and compassion will help make
the world a better place.
—E.A.
To my family, Deirdre Smith, Christopher Wilson, and Leigh Wilson
—T.D.W.
To my mentor, colleague, and friend, Dane Archer
—R.M.A.
To my students—past, present, and future—for making coming to work each morning fun, educational, and unpredictable.
—S.R.S.
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iv
1 Introducing Social Psychology 1
2 Methodology: How Social Psychologists Do Research 23
3 Social Cognition: How We Think About the Social World 51
4 Social Perception: How We Come to Understand Other People 84
5 The Self: Understanding Ourselves in a Social Context 119
6 The Need to Justify Our Actions: The Costs and Benefits of Dissonance Reduction 157
7 Attitudes and Attitude Change: Influencing Thoughts and Feelings 188
8 Conformity: Influencing Behavior 226
9 Group Processes: Influence in Social Groups 269
10 Interpersonal Attraction: From First Impressions to Close Relationships 303
11 Prosocial Behavior: Why Do People Help? 344
12 Aggression: Why Do We Hurt Other People? Can We Prevent It? 375
13 Prejudice: Causes, Consequences, and Cures 413
Social Psychology in Action 1 Using Social Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable and Happy Future 455
Social Psychology in Action 2 Social Psychology and Health 476
Social Psychology in Action 3 Social Psychology and the Law 496
Brief Contents
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v
Preface xi About the Authors xvii Special Tips for Students xix
1 Introducing Social Psychology 1 Defining Social Psychology 3 Try IT! How Do Other People Affect your Values? 3
Social Psychology, Philosophy, Science, and Common Sense 4 How Social Psychology Differs from Its Closest Cousins 6
Try IT! Social Situations and Shyness 7
The Power of the Situation 9 The Importance of Explanation 10 The Importance of Interpretation 12
Where Construals Come From: Basic Human Motives 15 The Self-Esteem Motive: The Need to Feel Good About Ourselves 16
SuffERiNg AND SELf-JuSTifiCATioN
The Social Cognition Motive: The Need to Be Accurate 17 ExpECTATioNS AbouT ThE SoCiAL WoRLD
Summary 20 • Test Yourself 21
2 Methodology: How Social Psychologists Do Research 23
Social Psychology: An Empirical Science 24 Try IT! Social Psychology Quiz: What’s your Prediction? 25
Formulating Hypotheses and Theories 25 iNSpiRATioN fRoM EARLiER ThEoRiES and ReSeaRch • hYpoTheSeS BaSed oN pERSoNAL obSERvATioNS
Research Designs 27
The Observational Method: Describing Social Behavior 28 eThnogRaphY • aRchival analYSiS • limiTS of ThE obSERvATioNAL METhoD
The Correlational Method: Predicting Social Behavior 30 SuRveYS • limiTS of The coRRelaTional meThod: CoRRELATioN DoES NoT EquAL CAuSATioN
Try IT! Correlation and Causation: Knowing the Difference 33
The Experimental Method: Answering Causal Questions 34 independenT and dependenT vaRiaBleS • inTeRnal validiTY in expeRimenTS • exTeRnal validiTY in expeRimenTS • field expeRimenTS • ReplicaTionS and meTa-analYSiS • BaSic veRSuS applied ReSeaRch
New Frontiers in Social Psychological Research 42 Culture and Social Psychology 43 The Evolutionary Approach 43 Social Neuroscience 44
Ethical Issues in Social Psychology 45 Summary 48 • Test Yourself 49
3 Social Cognition: How We Think About the Social World 51
On Automatic Pilot: Low-Effort Thinking 53 People as Everyday Theorists: Automatic Thinking with Schemas 54 Which Schemas Do We Use? Accessibility and Priming 56 Making Our Schemas Come True: The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 58
Types of Automatic Thinking 61 Automatic Goal Pursuit 62 Automatic Decision Making 63 Automatic Thinking and Metaphors About the Body and the Mind 63 Mental Strategies and Shortcuts: Judgmental Heuristics 65
how eaSilY doeS iT come To mind? The availaBiliTY heuRiSTic • how SimilaR iS a To B? The REpRESENTATivENESS hEuRiSTiC
Try IT! reasoning Quiz 69
peRSonaliTY TeSTS and The RepReSenTaTiveneSS hEuRiSTiC
Cultural Differences in Social Cognition 70 Cultural Determinants of Schemas 70 Holistic versus Analytic Thinking 71
Controlled Social Cognition: High-Effort Thinking 73 Controlled Thinking and Free Will 73
Try IT! Can you Predict your (or your Friend’s) Future? 76
Mentally Undoing the Past: Counterfactual Reasoning 76 Improving Human Thinking 77
Try IT! How Well Do you reason? 78
Watson Revisited 79 Summary 80 • Test Yourself 82
4 Social Perception: How We Come to Understand Other People 84
Nonverbal Communication 86 Try IT! Using your Voice as a Nonverbal Cue 87
Facial Expressions of Emotion 87 evoluTion and facial expReSSionS • whY iS decoding SomeTimeS difficulT?
Culture and the Channels of Nonverbal Communication 90
First Impressions: Quick but Long-Lasting 93 The Lingering Influence of Initial Impressions 94 Using First Impressions and Nonverbal Communication to Our Advantage 95
Contents
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vi Contents
Causal Attribution: Answering the “Why” Question 97 The Nature of the Attribution Process 97
Try IT! Listen as People Make Attributions 98
The Covariation Model: Internal versus External Attributions 98 The Fundamental Attribution Error: People as Personality Psychologists 101
ThE RoLE of pERCEpTuAL SALiENCE iN ThE fuNDAMENTAL aTTRiBuTion eRRoR • The Two-STep aTTRiBuTion pRoCESS
Self-Serving Attributions 106 The “Bias Blind Spot” 108
Culture and Social Perception 109 Holistic versus Analytic Thinking 110
SoCiAL NEuRoSCiENCE EviDENCE
Cultural Differences in the Fundamental Attribution Error 111 Culture and Other Attributional Biases 113 Summary 115 • Test Yourself 117
5 The Self: Understanding Ourselves in a Social Context 119
The Origins and Nature of the Self-Concept 120 Cultural Influences on the Self-Concept 122
Try IT! A Measure of Independence and Interdependence 123
Functions of the Self 124
Knowing Ourselves Through Introspection 125 Focusing on the Self: Self-Awareness Theory 125
Try IT! Measure your Private Self- Consciousness 127
Judging Why We Feel the Way We Do: Telling More Than We Can Know 127 The Consequences of Introspecting About Reasons 128
Knowing Ourselves by Observing Our Own Behavior 130 Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation 131 Mindsets and Motivation 134 Understanding Our Emotions: The Two-Factor Theory of Emotion 134 Finding the Wrong Cause: Misattribution of Arousal 137
Using Other People to Know Ourselves 139 Knowing Ourselves by Comparing Ourselves to Others 140 Knowing Ourselves by Adopting Other People’s Views 141 Knowing Our Future Feelings by Consulting Other People 143
Self-Control: The Executive Function of the Self 144
Impression Management: All the World’s a Stage 146 Ingratiation and Self-Handicapping 147 Culture, Impression Management, and Self-Enhancement 149
Self-Esteem: How We Feel About Ourselves 150 Summary 153 • Test Yourself 155
6 The Need to Justify Our Actions: The Costs and Benefits of Dissonance Reduction 157
The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance 158 When Cognitions Conflict 158
whY we oveReSTimaTe The pain of diSappoinTmenT
Dissonance and the Self-Concept 162 Decisions, Decisions, Decisions 163
diSToRTing ouR likeS and diSlikeS • The peRmanence of ThE DECiSioN
Try IT! The Advantage of Finality 165
cReaTing The illuSion of iRRevocaBiliTY • The deciSion To Behave immoRallY
Dissonance, Culture, and the Brain 167 diSSonance in The BRain • diSSonance acRoSS CuLTuRES
Self-Justification in Everyday Life 169 The Justification of Effort 169
Try IT! Justifying What you’ve Done 171
External versus Internal Justification 171
counTeRaTTiTudinal advocacY
Punishment and Self-Persuasion 173 The laSTing effecTS of Self-peRSuaSion • NoT JuST TANgibLE REWARDS oR puNiShMENTS
The Hypocrisy Paradigm 176 Justifying Good Deeds and Harmful Acts 177
The Ben fRanklin effecT: JuSTifYing acTS of kindneSS
Try IT! The Internal Consequences of Doing Good 179
dehumanizing The enemY: JuSTifYing cRuelTY
Some Final Thoughts on Dissonance: Learning from Our Mistakes 181
poliTicS and Self-JuSTificaTion • ovERCoMiNg DiSSoNANCE
Summary 185 • Test Yourself 186
7 Attitudes and Attitude Change: Influencing Thoughts and Feelings 188
The Nature and Origin of Attitudes 190 Where Do Attitudes Come From? 190
cogniTivelY BaSed aTTiTudeS • affecTivelY BaSed ATTiTuDES
Try IT! Affective and Cognitive Bases of Attitudes 192
BehavioRallY BaSed aTTiTudeS
Explicit versus Implicit Attitudes 193
When Do Attitudes Predict Behavior? 195 Predicting Spontaneous Behaviors 196 Predicting Deliberative Behaviors 196
Specific aTTiTudeS • SuBJecTive noRmS • peRceived bEhAvioRAL CoNTRoL
How Do Attitudes Change? 199 Changing Attitudes by Changing Behavior: Cognitive Dissonance Theory Revisited 199 Persuasive Communications and Attitude Change 200
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vii
ThE CENTRAL AND pERiphERAL RouTES To peRSuaSion • The moTivaTion To paY aTTenTion To The aRgumenTS • The aBiliTY To paY aTTenTion To The aRgumenTS • how To achieve LoNg-LASTiNg ATTiTuDE ChANgE
Emotion and Attitude Change 205 feaR-aRouSing communicaTionS • emoTionS aS a heuRiSTic • emoTion and diffeRenT TYpeS of ATTiTuDES
Attitude Change and the Body 209
The Power of Advertising 210 How Advertising Works 211 Subliminal Advertising: A Form of Mind Control? 212
DEbuNkiNg ThE CLAiMS AbouT SubLiMiNAL adveRTiSing • laBoRaToRY evidence foR SuBliminal iNfLuENCE
Try IT! Consumer Brand Attitudes 215
Advertising, Stereotypes, and Culture 215 gendeR STeReoTYpeS and expecTaTionS • CuLTuRE AND ADvERTiSiNg
Resisting Persuasive Messages 219
Attitude Inoculation 219 Being Alert to Product Placement 219 Resisting Peer Pressure 220 When Persuasion Attempts Backfire: Reactance Theory 221 Summary 223 • Test Yourself 224
8 Conformity: Influencing Behavior 226 Conformity: When and Why 228
Informational Social Influence: The Need to Know What’s “Right” 230
The Importance of Being Accurate 233 When Informational Conformity Backfires 234 When Will People Conform to Informational Social Influence? 235
when The SiTuaTion iS amBiguouS • when The SiTuaTion iS a cRiSiS • when oTheR people aRe expeRTS
Normative Social Influence: The Need to Be Accepted 236
Conformity and Social Approval: The Asch Line-Judgment Studies 238 The Importance of Being Accurate, Revisited 241 The Consequences of Resisting Normative Social Influence 243
Try IT! Unveiling Normative Social Influence by Breaking the rules 244
When Will People Conform to Normative Social Influence? 244
when The gRoup gRowS laRgeR • when The gRoup iS impoRTanT • when one haS no allieS in The gRoup • WhEN ThE gRoup’S CuLTuRE iS CoLLECTiviSTiC
Minority Influence: When the Few Influence the Many 248
Strategies for Using Social Influence 249 The Role of Injunctive and Descriptive Norms 250
Using Norms to Change Behavior: Beware the “Boomerang Effect” 252 Other Tactics of Social Influence 253
Obedience to Authority 256 The Role of Normative Social Influence 259 The Role of Informational Social Influence 260 Other Reasons Why We Obey 261
confoRming To The wRong noRm • Self-JuSTificaTion • The loSS of peRSonal ReSponSiBiliTY
The Obedience Studies, Then and Now 263 iT’S NoT AbouT AggRESSioN
Summary 266 • Test Yourself 267
9 Group Processes: Influence in Social Groups 269
What Is a Group? 270 Why Do People Join Groups? 270 The Composition and Functions of Groups 271
Social noRmS • Social RoleS • gRoup coheSiveneSS • gRoup diveRSiTY
Individual Behavior in a Group Setting 275 Social Facilitation: When the Presence of Others Energizes Us 276
Simple veRSuS difficulT TaSkS • aRouSal and The dominanT ReSponSe • whY The pReSence of oThERS CAuSES ARouSAL
Social Loafing: When the Presence of Others Relaxes Us 279 Gender and Cultural Differences in Social Loafing: Who Slacks Off the Most? 280 Deindividuation: Getting Lost in the Crowd 281
DEiNDiviDuATioN MAkES pEopLE fEEL LESS accounTaBle • deindividuaTion incReaSeS oBedience To gRoup noRmS • deindividuaTion oNLiNE
Group Decisions: Are Two (or More) Heads Better Than One? 283
Process Loss: When Group Interactions Inhibit Good Problem Solving 284
failuRe To ShaRe unique infoRmaTion • gRoupThink: manY headS, one mind
Group Polarization: Going to Extremes 287 Leadership in Groups 289
leadeRShip and peRSonaliTY • leadeRShip STYleS • The RighT peRSon in The RighT SiTuaTion • gendeR and leadeRShip • culTuRe AND LEADERShip
Conflict and Cooperation 293 Social Dilemmas 293
Try IT! The Prisoner’s Dilemma 295
iNCREASiNg CoopERATioN iN ThE pRiSoNER’S DiLEMMA
Using Threats to Resolve Conflict 296
EffECTS of CoMMuNiCATioN
Negotiation and Bargaining 298 Summary 300 • Test Yourself 301
Contents vii
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10 Interpersonal Attraction: From First Impressions to Close Relationships 303
What Predicts Attraction? 305 The Person Next Door: The Propinquity Effect 306
Try IT! Mapping the Effect of Propinquity in your Life 306
Similarity 308 opinionS and peRSonaliTY • inTeReSTS and expeRienceS • appeaRance • geneTicS • Some final commenTS aBouT SimilaRiTY
Reciprocal Liking 310 Physical Attractiveness 311
whaT iS aTTRacTive? • culTuRal STandaRdS of BeauTY • The poweR of familiaRiTY • ASSuMpTioNS AbouT ATTRACTivE pEopLE
Evolution and Mate Selection 316 evoluTion and Sex diffeRenceS • alTeRnaTe pERSpECTivES oN SEx DiffERENCES
Making Connections in the Age of Technology 320 Attraction 2.0: Mate Preference in an Online Era 321 The Promise and Pitfalls of Online Dating 323
Love and Close Relationships 325 Defining Love: Companionship and Passion 325
Try IT! Passionate Love Scale 327
Culture and Love 327 Attachment Styles in Intimate Relationships 329 This Is Your Brain . . . in Love 331 Theories of Relationship Satisfaction: Social Exchange and Equity 332
Social exchange TheoRY • equiTY TheoRY
Ending Intimate Relationships 338 The Process of Breaking Up 338 The Experience of Breaking Up 339 Summary 341 • Test Yourself 342
11 Prosocial Behavior: Why Do People Help? 344
Basic Motives Underlying Prosocial Behavior: Why Do People Help? 345
Evolutionary Psychology: Instincts and Genes 346 kin SelecTion • The RecipRociTY noRm
Try IT! The Dictator Game 347
gRoup SELECTioN
Social Exchange: The Costs and Rewards of Helping 348 Empathy and Altruism: The Pure Motive for Helping 349
Personal Qualities and Prosocial Behavior: Why Do Some People Help More Than Others? 353
Individual Differences: The Altruistic Personality 354 Try IT! Empathic Concern 354
Gender Differences in Prosocial Behavior 355
Cultural Differences in Prosocial Behavior 355 Religion and Prosocial Behavior 357 The Effects of Mood on Prosocial Behavior 357
effecTS of poSiTive moodS: feel good, do good • fEEL bAD, Do gooD
Situational Determinants of Prosocial Behavior: When Will People Help? 359
Environment: Rural versus Urban 359 Residential Mobility 360 The Number of Bystanders: The Bystander Effect 361
noTicing an evenT • inTeRpReTing The evenT aS an emeRgencY • aSSuming ReSponSiBiliTY • knowing how To help • deciding To implemenT The help
Effects of the Media: Video Games and Music Lyrics 366
How Can Helping Be Increased? 368 Increasing the Likelihood That Bystanders Will Intervene 368 Increasing Volunteerism 370 Positive Psychology, Human Virtues, and Prosocial Behavior 371 Summary 372 • Test Yourself 373
12 Aggression: Why Do We Hurt Other People? Can We Prevent It? 375
Is Aggression Innate, Learned, or Optional? 376 The Evolutionary View 377
AggRESSioN iN oThER ANiMALS
Culture and Aggression 378 ChANgES iN AggRESSioN ACRoSS TiME and culTuReS • culTuReS of honoR
Gender and Aggression 381 phYSical aggReSSion • RELATioNAL AggRESSioN
Try IT! Do Women and Men Differ in Their Experiences with Aggression? 383
Learning to Behave Aggressively 383 Some Physiological Influences 385
The effecTS of alcohol • The effecTS of pAiN AND hEAT
Social Situations and Aggression 387 Frustration and Aggression 388 Provocation and Reciprocation 389
Try IT! Insults and Aggression 390
Weapons as Aggressive Cues 390 Putting the Elements Together: The Case of Sexual Assault 391
moTivaTionS foR Rape • Sexual ScRipTS and The pRoBlem of conSenT • puTTing ThE ELEMENTS TogEThER
Violence and the Media 394 Studying the Effects of Media Violence 394
expeRimenTal STudieS • longiTudinal STudieS
The Problem of Determining Cause and Effect 397
viii Contents
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How to Decrease Aggression 399 Does Punishing Aggression Reduce Aggression? 399
uSiNg puNiShMENT oN vioLENT ADuLTS
Catharsis and Aggression 401 ThE EffECTS of AggRESSivE ACTS oN SubSEquENT aggReSSion • Blaming The vicTim of ouR AggRESSioN
What Are We Supposed to Do with Our Anger? 403 vENTiNg vERSuS SELf-AWARENESS
Try IT! Controlling your Anger 404
TRAiNiNg iN CoMMuNiCATioN AND pRobLEM-SoLviNg SkillS • counTeRing dehumanizaTion BY Building empaThY
Disrupting the Rejection-Rage Cycle 406 Summary 408 • Test Yourself 411
13 Prejudice: Causes, Consequences, and Cures 413
Defining Prejudice 414 The Cognitive Component: Stereotypes 415
fRom caTegoRieS To STeReoTYpeS
Try IT! Stereotypes and Aggression 417
whaT’S wRong wiTh poSiTive STeReoTYpeS? • STeReoTYpeS of gendeR
The Affective Component: Emotions 420
Try IT! Identifying your Prejudices 421
The Behavioral Component: Discrimination 421 Racial diScRiminaTion • gendeR diScRiminaTion • ThE ACTivATioN of pREJuDiCE
Detecting Hidden Prejudices 427 Ways of Identifying Suppressed Prejudices 427 Ways of Identifying Implicit Prejudices 428
The Effects of Prejudice on the Victim 430 The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 430 Stereotype Threat 431
Causes of Prejudice 434 Pressures to Conform: Normative Rules 434 Social Identity Theory: Us versus Them 436
eThnocenTRiSm • in-gRoup BiaS • ouT-gRoup homogeneiTY • Blaming The vicTim • JuSTifYing feelingS of enTiTlemenT and SupeRioRiTY
Realistic Conflict Theory 440 ECoNoMiC AND poLiTiCAL CoMpETiTioN
Reducing Prejudice 442 The Contact Hypothesis 443 When Contact Reduces Prejudice 445
WhERE DESEgREgATioN WENT WRoNg
Cooperation and Interdependence: The Jigsaw Classroom 447
whY doeS JigSaw woRk?
Try IT! Jigsaw-Type Group Study 449
ThE gRADuAL SpREAD of CoopERATivE AND iNTERDEpENDENT LEARNiNg
Summary 451 • Test Yourself 453
Social Psychology in Action 1 Using Social Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable and Happy Future 455
Applied Research in Social Psychology 458 Capitalizing on the Experimental Method 459
ASSESSiNg ThE EffECTivENESS of inTeRvenTionS • poTenTial RiSkS of Social iNTERvENTioNS
Social Psychology to the Rescue 461
Using Social Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable Future 461
Conveying and Changing Social Norms 462
Try IT! reducing Littering with Descriptive Norms 463
Keeping Track of Consumption 464 Introducing a Little Competitiveness 465 Inducing Hypocrisy 465 Removing Small Barriers to Achieve Big Changes 467
Happiness and a Sustainable Lifestyle 469 What Makes People Happy? 469
SaTiSfYing RelaTionShipS • flow: Becoming engaged in SomeThing You enJoY • accumulaTe expeRienceS, noT ThingS • helping oTheRS
Try IT! Applying the research to your Own Life 472
Do People Know What Makes Them Happy? 472 Summary 473 • Test Yourself 474
Social Psychology in Action 2 Social Psychology and Health 476
Stress and Human Health 477 Resilience 478 Effects of Negative Life Events 479
Try IT! The College Life Stress Inventory 480
LiMiTS of STRESS iNvENToRiES
Perceived Stress and Health 481 Feeling in Charge: The Importance of Perceived Control 482
iNCREASiNg pERCEivED CoNTRoL iN nuRSing homeS • diSeaSe, conTRol, and WELL-bEiNg
Coping with Stress 486 Gender Differences in Coping with Stress 487 Social Support: Getting Help from Others 487
Try IT! Social Support 488
Reframing: Finding Meaning in Traumatic Events 489
Prevention: Promoting Healthier Behavior 491 Summary 493 • Test Yourself 494
Contents ix
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Social Psychology in Action 3 Social Psychology and the Law 496
Eyewitness Testimony 498 Why Are Eyewitnesses Often Wrong? 498
acquiSiTion • SToRage • ReTRieval
Judging Whether Eyewitnesses Are Mistaken 503 ReSponding quicklY • The pRoBlem wiTh veRBalizaTion • poST-idenTificaTion fEEDbACk
Try IT! The Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony 506
The Recovered Memory Debate 506
Juries: Group Processes in Action 509 How Jurors Process Information During the Trial 509 Confessions: Are They Always What They Seem? 510 Deliberations in the Jury Room 512 Summary 513 • Test Yourself 514
Glossary 516