As new capital budgeting projects arise we must estimate

Introduction to Capital Budgeting Pamela Peterson, Florida State University

O U T L I N E

I. Introduction II. The investment problem

III. Capital budgeting IV. Classifying investment projects V. Cash flow from investments

VI. Operating cash flows VII. Putting it all together

VIII. Practice problems and questions

I. Introduction

As long as a firm exists, it will invest in assets. Indeed, a firm invests in assets to continue to exist, and moreover, to grow. By investing to grow, a firm is at the same time investing to maximize the owners' wealth. To maximize the wealth of a firm's owners, its managers must regularly evaluate investment opportunities and determine which ones provide a return commensurate with their risk. Let's look at Firms A, B, and C, each having identical assets and investment opportunities, but that:

o Firm A's management does not take advantage of its investment opportunities and simply pays all of its earnings to its owners;

o Firm B's management only makes those investments necessary to replace any deteriorating plant and equipment, paying out any left-over earnings to its owners; and

o Firm C's management invests in all those opportunities that provide a return better than what the owners could have earned had they had the same amount of invested funds to invest themselves.

In the case of Firm A, the owners' investment in the firm is not what it could be as long as the firm has investment opportunities that are better than those available to owners. By not even making investments to replace deteriorating plant and equipment, Firm A will eventually shrink until it has no more assets.

In the case of Firm B, its management is not taking advantage of all profitable investments -- investments that provide a higher return than the return required by its owners. This means that there are foregone opportunities and owners' wealth is not maximized.

But in the case of Firm C, management is making all profitable investments, maximizing owners' wealth. Firm C will continue to grow as long as there are profitable investment opportunities and its management takes advantage of them. And Firm C represents most large corporations: continually making investments and growing over time.

II. The investment problem

Capital Investments

Firms continually invest funds in assets and these assets produce income and cash flows that the firm can then either reinvest in more assets or pay to its owners. These assets represent the firm's capital.

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Capital is the firm's total assets and is comprised of all tangible and intangible assets. These assets include physical assets (such as land, buildings, equipment, and machinery), as well as assets that represent property rights (such as accounts receivable, notes, stocks, and bonds). When we refer to capital investment, we are referring to the firm's investment in its assets.

The term "capital" also has come to mean the funds used to finance the firm's assets. In this sense, capital consists of notes, bonds, stock, and short-term financing. We use the term "capital structure" to refer to the mix of these different sources of capital used to finance a firm's assets.

The term "capital" in financial management, a firm's resources and the funds committed to these resources, does not mean the same thing in other fields. In accounting, the term "capital" means the owners' equity, the difference between the amount of a firm's assets and its liabilities. In economics, the term "capital" means the physical (real) of the firm, and therefore excludes the assets that represent property rights. In law the term "capital" refers to the amount of owners' equity required by statute for the protection of creditors. This amounts to the "stated capital", which often is the par value of the firm's stock.

The firm's capital investment decision may be comprised of a number of distinct decisions, each referred to as a project. A capital project is a set of assets that are contingent on one another and are considered together. Suppose a firm is considering the production of a new product. It must make a decision of whether or not to produce this new product. This capital project entails acquiring land, building facilities, and purchasing production equipment. And this project may also require the firm to increase its investment in its working capital -- inventory, cash, or accounts receivable. Working capital is the collection of assets needed for day-to-day operations that support a firm's long-term investments.

The investment decisions of the firm are decisions concerning a firm's capital investment. When we refer to a particular decision that financial managers must make, we are referring to a decision pertaining to a capital project.

Investment Decisions and Owners' Wealth Maximization

Let's see what we must evaluate in our investment decisions to maximize the wealth of owners of the firm we manage. We already know the value of the firm today is the present value of all its future cash flows. But we need to understand better where these future cash flows come from. They come from:

1. assets that are already in place, which are the assets accumulated as a result of all past investment decisions, and

2. future investment opportunities.

Future cash flows are discounted at a rate that represents investors' assessments of the uncertainty that these cash flows will flow in the amounts and when expected. To evaluate the value of the firm, we need to evaluate the risk of these future cash flows.

A project's business risk is reflected in the discount rate, which is the rate of return required to compensate the suppliers of capital (bondholders and owners) for the amount of risk they bear. From investors' perspective, the discount rate is the required rate of return (RRR). From the firm's perspective, the discount rate is the cost of capital -- what it costs the firm to raise a dollar of new capital.

Suppose a firm invests in a new project.

o If the project generates cash flows that just compensate the suppliers of capital for the risk they bear on this project (that is, it earns the cost of capital), the value of the firm does not change.

o If the project generates cash flows greater than needed to compensate them for the risk they take on, it earns more than the cost of capital, increasing the value of the firm.

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o If the project generates cash flows less than needed, it earns less than the cost of capital, decreasing the value of the firm.

How do we know whether the cash flows are more than or less than needed to compensate for the risk that they will indeed flow? If we discount all the cash flows at the cost of capital, we can assess how this project affects the present value of the firm. If the expected change in the value of the firm from an investment is:

o positive, the project returns more than the cost of capital; o negative, the project returns less than the cost of capital; o zero, the project returns the cost of capital.

Capital budgeting is the process of identifying and selecting investments in long-lived assets, where long-lived means assets expected to produce benefits over more than one year. In this reading, we first look at the capital budgeting process in general. After looking at the broad picture of how investment decisions are made, we look at how projects may be classified. This classification helps us identify of the cash flows we need to consider in our decisions. We then look at the mechanics of estimating future cash flows using estimates of future revenues, expenses, and depreciation. We summarize our analysis of cash flows with examples analyzing two different investment projects.

III. Capital Budgeting

A firm must continually evaluate possible investments. Investment decisions regarding long-lived assets are a part of the on-going capital budgeting process. Ideas about what projects to invest in are generated through facts gathered at lower management levels, where they are evaluated and screened. The suggested investments that pass this first level filter up through successive management levels toward top management or the board of directors, who make the decisions about which one will get how much capital. The stages in the typical capital budgeting process are described in Exhibit 1.

Before a firm begins thinking about capital budgeting, it must first determine its corporate strategy -- its broad set of objectives for future investment. For example, Anheuser-Busch Companies, Inc,'s objective is "... to extend its position as the world's leading brewer of quality products; increase its share of the domestic beer market to 50% by the mid-1990's; and increase its presence in the international beer market."

Consider the corporate strategy of Mattel, Inc., manufacturer of toys such as Barbie and Disney toys. Mattel's strategy in the 1990's is to become a full-line toy company and grow through expansion into the international toy market. In 1990, 1991, and 1992, Mattel entered into the activity toy, games, and plush toy markets, and, through acquisitions in Mexico, France and Japan, increased its presence in the international toy market. How does a firm achieve its corporate strategy? By making investments in long-lived assets that will maximize owners' wealth. Selecting these projects is what capital budgeting is all about.

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Exhibit 1: The Five Stages in the Capital Budgeting Process

1. INVESTMENT SCREENING AND SELECTION.

Projects consistent with the corporate strategy are identified. But projects don't simply walk into corporate headquarters. The firm must have some system for seeking or generating investment opportunities. Identifying investment opportunities is not necessarily the task of the financial manager. This task typically lies with the production, marketing, and research and development management of the firm.

2. THE CAPITAL BUDGET PROPOSAL.

A capital budget is proposed for the projects surviving the screening and selection process. The budget lists the recommended projects and the dollar amount of investment needed for each. This proposal may start as an estimate of expected revenues and costs, but as the project analysis is refined, data from marketing, purchasing, engineering, accounting, and finance functions are collected and put together.

3. BUDGETING APPROVAL AND AUTHORIZATION.

Projects included in the capital budget are authorized, allowing further fact gathering and analysis, and approved, allowing expenditures for the projects. In some firms, the projects are authorized and approved at the same time. In others, a project must first be authorized, requiring more research before it can be formally approved.Formal authorization and approval procedures are typically used on larger expenditures; smaller expenditures are at the discretion of management.

4. PROJECT TRACKING.

After a project is approved, work on it begins. The manager reports periodically on its expenditures, as well as on any revenues associated with it. This is referred to as project tracking, the communication link between the decision makers and the operating management of the firm. For example: tracking can identify cost over-runs; it can also identify that more marketing research is needed to better focus on the target market.

5. POST-COMPLETION AUDIT.

Following a period of time, perhaps two or three years after approval, projects are reviewed to see whether they should be continued. This re- evaluation is referred to as a post-completion audit. Thorough post- completion audits are not usually performed on every project since that would be too time consuming. Rather, they are performed on selected projects, usually the largest projects in a given year's budget for the firm or for each division. Post-completion audits enable the firm's management to see how well the cash flows realized correspond with the cash flows forecasted several years earlier.

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IV. Classifying Investment Projects

According to Their Economic Life

An investment generally provides benefits over a limited period of time, referred to as its economic life. The economic life or useful life of an asset is determined by:

o physical deterioration; o obsolescence; or o the degree of competition in the market for a product.

The economic life is an estimate of the length of time that the asset will provide benefits to the firm. After its useful life, the revenues generated by the asset tend to decline rapidly and its expenses tend to increase.

Typically, an investment requires an expenditure up-front -- immediately -- and provides benefits in the form of cash flows received in the future. If benefits are received only within the current period -- within one year of making the investment -- we refer to the investment as a short-term investment. If these benefits are received beyond the current period, we refer to the investment as a long-term investment and refer to the expenditure as a capital expenditure.

Any project representing an investment may comprise one or more assets. For example, a new product may require investment in production equipment, a building, and transportation equipment -- all making up the bundle of assets comprising the project we are evaluating. Short-term investment decisions involve, primarily, investments in current assets: cash, marketable securities, accounts receivable, and inventory. The objective of investing in short-term assets is the same as long-term assets: maximizing owners' wealth. Nevertheless, we consider them separately for two practical reasons:

3. Decisions about long-term assets are based on projections of cash flows far into the future and require us to consider the time value of money.

4. Long-term assets do not figure into the daily operating needs of the firm.

Decisions regarding short-term investments, or current assets, are concerned with day-to-day operations. And a firm needs some level of current assets to act as a cushion in case of unusually poor operating periods, when cash flows from operations are less than expected.

According to Their Risk

Suppose you are faced with two investments, A and B, each promising a $100 cash inflow ten years from today. If A is riskier than B, what are they worth to you today? If you do not like risk, you would consider A less valuable than B because the chance of getting the $100 in ten years is less for A than for B. Therefore, valuing a project requires considering the risk associated with its future cash flows.

The project's risk of return can be classified according to the nature of the project represented by the investment:

o Replacement projects: investments in the replacement of existing equipment or facilities. o Expansion projects: investments in projects that broaden existing product lines and existing

markets. o New products and markets: projects that involve introducing a new product or entering into a

new market. o Mandated projects: projects required by government laws or agency rules.

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Replacement projects include the maintenance of existing assets to continue the current level of operating activity. Projects that reduce costs, such as replacing older technology with newer technology or improving the efficiency of equipment or personnel, are also considered replacement projects.

To evaluate replacement projects we need to compare the value of the firm with the replacement asset to the value of the firm without that same replacement asset. What we're really doing in this comparison is looking at opportunity costs: what cash flows would have been if the firm had stayed with the old asset.

There's little risk in the cash flows from replacement projects. The firm is simply replacing equipment or buildings already operating and producing cash flows. And the firm typically has experience in managing similar new equipment.

Expansion projects are intended to enlarge a firm's established product or market. There is little risk associated with expansion projects. The reason: A firm with a history of experience in a product or market can estimate future cash flows with more certainty when considering expansion than when introducing a new product outside its existing product line. Investment projects that involve introducing new products or entering into new markets are riskier than the replacement and expansion projects. That's because the firm has little or no management experience in the new product or market. Hence, there is more uncertainty about the future cash flows from investments in new product or new market projects. A firm is forced or coerced into its mandated projects. These are government mandated projects typically found in "heavy" industries, such as utilities, transportation, and chemicals, all industries requiring a large portion of their assets in production activities. Government agencies, such as the Occupational Health and Safety Agency (OSHA) or the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), may impose requirements that firms install specific equipment or alter their activities (such as how they dispose of waste).

According to Their Dependence on Other Projects

In addition to considering the future cash flows generated by project, a firm must consider how it affects the assets already in place -- the results of previous project decisions -- as well as other projects that may be undertaken. Projects can be classified as follows according to the degree of dependence with other projects: independent projects, mutually exclusive projects, contingent projects, and complementary projects.

An independent project is one whose cash flows are not related to the cash flows of any other project. In other words, accepting or rejecting an independent project does not affect the acceptance or rejection of other projects. An independent project can be evaluated strictly on the effect it will have on the value of a firm without having to consider how it affects the firm's other investment opportunities, and vice versa. Projects are mutually exclusive if the acceptance of one precludes the acceptance of other projects. There are some situations where it is technically impossible to take on more than one project. For example, suppose a manufacturer is considering whether to replace its production facilities with more modern equipment. The firm may solicit bids among the different manufacturers of this equipment. The decision consists of comparing two choices:

9. Keeping its existing production facilities, or 10. Replacing the facilities with the modern equipment of one manufacturer.

Because the firm cannot use more than one production facility, it must evaluate each bid and determine the most attractive one. The alternative production facilities are mutually exclusive projects: the firm can accept only one bid. The alternatives of keeping existing facilities or replacing them are also mutually exclusive projects. The firm cannot keep the existing facilities and replace them!

Contingent projects are dependent on the acceptance of another project. Suppose a greeting card company develops a new character, Pippy, and is considering starting a line of Pippy cards. If Pippy catches on, the firm will consider producing a line of Pippy T-shirts -- but only if the Pippy character

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becomes popular. The T-shirt project is a contingent project. It is contingent on the company (1) taking on the Pippy project and (2) Pippy's success.

Another form of dependence is found in complementary projects. Projects are complementary projects if the investment in one enhances the cash flows of one or more other projects. Consider a manufacturer of personal computer equipment and software. If it develops new software that enhances the abilities of a computer mouse, the introduction of this new software may enhance its mouse sales as well.

V. Cash flow from investments

Incremental Cash Flows

A firm invests only to make its owners "better off", meaning increasing the value of their ownership interest. A firm will have cash flows in the future from its past investment decisions. When it invests in new assets, it expects the future cash flows to be greater than without this new investment. Otherwise it doesn't make sense to make this investment. The difference between the cash flows of the firm with the investment project and the cash flows of the firm without the investment project -- both over the same period of time -- is referred to as the project's incremental cash flows.

To evaluate an investment, we'll have to look at how it will change the future cash flows of the firm. We will be examining how much the value of the firm changes as a result of the investment. The change in a firm's value as a result of a new investment is the difference between its benefits and its costs:

Project's change in the value of the firm = Project's benefits - Project's costs.

A more useful way of evaluating the change in the value is the breakdown the project's cash flows into two components

1. The present value of the cash flows from the project's operating activities (revenues and operating expenses), referred to as the project's operating cash flows (OCF) ; and

2. The present value of the investment cash flows, which are the expenditures needed to acquire the project's assets and any cash flows from disposing the project's assets.

or,

Change in the value of the firm =

Present value of the change in operating cash flows provided by the project +

Present value of investment cash flows

The present value of a project's operating cash flows is typically positive (indicating predominantly cash inflows) and the present value of the investment cash flows is typically negative (indicating predominantly cash outflows).

Investment Cash Flows

When we consider the cash flows of an investment we must also consider all the cash flows associated with acquiring and disposing of assets in the investment. An investment may comprise:

o one asset or many assets; o an asset purchased and another sold; and o cash outlays that occur at the beginning of the project or spread over several years.

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Let's first become familiar with cash flows related to acquiring assets; then we'll look at cash flows related to disposing assets.

Asset Acquisition

In acquiring any asset, there are three cash flows to consider:

1. Cost of the asset, 2. Set-up expenditures, including shipping and installation; and 3. Any tax credit.

The tax credit may be an investment tax credit or a special credit -- such as a credit for a pollution control device -- depending on the tax law. Cash flow associated with acquiring an asset is:

Cash flow from acquiring assets = Cost + Set-up expenditures - Tax credit.

Suppose the firm buys equipment that costs $100,000 and it costs $10,000 to install it. If the firm is eligible for a 10% tax credit on this equipment (that is, 10% of the total cost of buying and installing the equipment) the change in the firm's cash flow from acquiring the asset of $99,000:

Cash flow from acquiring assets = $100,000 + $10,000 - 0.10($100,000+10,000)

Cash flow from acquiring assets = $100,000 + $10,000 - $11,000

Cash flow from acquiring assets = $99,000.

The cash outflow is $99,000 when this asset is acquired: $110,000 out to buy and install the equipment and $11,000 in from the reduction in taxes. What about expenditures made in the past for assets or research that would be used in the project we're evaluating? Suppose the firm spent $1,000,000 over the past three years developing a new type of toothpaste. Should the firm consider this $1,000,000 spent on research and development when deciding whether to produce this new project we are considering? No! These expenses have already been made and do not affect how the new product changes the future cash flows of the firm. We refer to this $1,000,000 as a sunk cost and do not consider it in the analysis of our new project. Whether or not the firm goes ahead with this new product, this $1,000,000 has been spent. A sunk cost is any cost that has already been incurred that does not affect future cash flows of the firm.

Let's consider another example. Suppose the firm owns a building that is currently empty. Let's say the firm suddenly has an opportunity to use it for the production of a new product. Is the cost of the building relevant to the new product decision? The cost of the building itself is a sunk cost since it was an expenditure made as part of some previous investment decision. The cost of the building does not affect the decision to go ahead with the new product.

Suppose the firm was using the building in some way producing cash (say, renting it) and the new project is going to take over the entire building. The cash flows given up represent opportunity costs that must be included in the analysis of the new project. However, these forgone cash flows are not asset acquisition cash flows. Because they represent operating cash flows that could have occurred but will not because of the new project, they must be considered part of the project's future operating cash flows. Further, if we incur costs in renovating the building to manufacture the new product, the renovation costs are relevant and should be included in our asset acquisition cash flows.

Asset Disposition

Many new investments require getting rid of old assets. At the end of the useful life of an asset, the firm may be able to sell it or may have to pay someone to haul it away. If the firm is making a decision that

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involves replacing an existing asset, the cash flow from disposing of the old asset must be figured in since it is a cash flow relevant to the acquisition of the new asset.

If the firm disposes of an asset, whether at the end of its useful life or when it is replaced, two types of cash flows must be considered:

1. what you receive or pay in disposing of the asset; and 2. any tax consequences resulting from the disposal.

Cash flow from disposing assets = Proceeds or payment from disposing assets - Taxes from disposing assets.

The proceeds are what you expect to sell the asset for if you can get someone to buy it. If the firm must pay for the disposal of the asset, this cost is a cash outflow.

Consider the investment in a gas station. The current owner may want to leave the business (retire, whatever), selling the station to another gas station proprietor. But if a buyer cannot be found because of lack of gas buyers in the area, the current owner may be required to remove the underground gasoline storage tanks to prevent environmental damage. Thus, a cost is incurred at the end of the asset's life.

The tax consequences are a bit more complicated. Taxes depend on: (1) the expected sales price, and (2) the book value of the asset for tax purposes at the time of disposition.

If a firm sells the asset for more than its book value but less than its original cost, the difference between the sales price and the book value is a gain, taxable at ordinary tax rates. If a firm sells the asset for more that its original cost, then the gain is broken into two parts:

1. Capital gain: the difference between the sales price and the original cost; and 2. Recapture of depreciation: the difference between the original cost and the book value.

The capital gain is the benefit from the appreciation in the value of the asset and may be taxed at special rates, depending on the tax law at the time of sale. The recapture of depreciation represents the amount by which the firm has over-depreciated the asset during its life. This means that more depreciation has been deducted from income (reducing taxes) than necessary to reflect the usage of the asset. The recapture portion is taxed at the ordinary tax rates, since this excess depreciation taken all these years has reduced taxable income.

If a firm sells an asset for less than its book value, the result is a capital loss. In this case, the asset's value has decreased by more than the amount taken for depreciation for tax purposes. A capital loss is given special tax treatment:

o If there are capital gains in the same tax year as the capital loss, they are combined, so that the capital loss reduces the taxes paid on capital gains, and

o If there are no capital gains to offset against the capital loss, the capital loss is used to reduce ordinary taxable income.

The benefit from a loss on the sale of an asset is the amount by which taxes are reduced. The reduction in taxable income is referred to as a tax-shield, since the loss shields some income from taxation. If the firm has a loss of $1,000 on the sale of an asset and has a tax rate of 40%, this means that its taxable income is $1,000 less and its taxes are $400 less than they would have been without the sale of the asset.

Suppose you are evaluating an asset that costs $10,000 that you expect to sell in five years. Suppose further that the book value of the asset for tax purposes will be $3,000 after five years and that the firm's tax rate is 40%. What are the expected cash flows from disposing this asset? If you expect the firm to

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sell the asset for $8,000 in five years, $10,000 - 3,000 = $7,000 of the asset's cost will be depreciated, yet the asset lost only $10,000 - 8,000 = $2,000 in value. Therefore, the firm has over-depreciated the asset by $5,000. Since this over-depreciation represents deductions to be taken on the firm's tax returns over the five years that don't reflect the actual depreciation in value (the asset doesn't lose $7,000 in value, only $2,000), this $5,000 is taxed at ordinary tax rates. If the firm's tax rate is 40%, the tax = 40% x $5,000 = $2,000.

The cash flow from disposition is the sum of the direct cash flow (someone pays us for the asset or the firm pays someone to dispose of it) and the tax consequences. In this example, the cash flow is the $8,000 we expect someone to pay the firm for the asset, less the $2,000 in taxes we expect the firm to pay, or $6,000 cash inflow.

Suppose instead that you expect the firm to sell this asset in five years for $12,000. Again, the asset is over-depreciated by $7,000. In fact, the asset is not expected to depreciate, but rather appreciate over the five years. The $7,000 in depreciation is recaptured after five years and taxed at ordinary rates: 40% of $7,000, or $2,800. The $2,000 capital gain is the appreciation in the value of the asset and may be taxed at special rates. If the tax rate on capital gain income is 30%, you expect the firm to pay 30% of $2,000, or $600 in taxes on this gain. Selling the asset in five years for $12,000 therefore results in an expected cash inflow of $12,000 - 2,800 - 600 = $8,600.

Suppose you expect the firm to sell the asset in five years for $1,000. If the firm can reduce its ordinary taxable income by the amount of the capital loss, $3,000 - 1,000 = $2,000, our tax bill be 40% of $2,000, or $800 because of this loss. We refer to this reduction in the taxes as a tax-shield, since the loss "shields" $2,000 of income from taxes Combining the $800 tax reduction with the cash flow from selling the asset, the $1,000, gives the firm a cash inflow of $1,800.

Let's also not forget about disposing of any existing assets. Suppose the firm bought equipment ten years ago and at that time expected to be able to sell fifteen years later for $10,000. If the firm decides today to replace this equipment, it must consider what it is giving up by not disposing of an asset as planned. If the firm does not replace the equipment today, it would continue to depreciate it for five more years and then sell it for $10,000; if the firm replaces the equipment today, it would not have five more years' depreciation on the replaced equipment and it would not have $10,000 in five years (but perhaps some other amount today). This $10,000 in five years, less any taxes, is a forgone cash flow that we must figure into the investment cash flows. Also, the depreciation the firm would have had on the replaced asset must be considered in analyzing the replacement asset's operating cash flows.

VI. Operating Cash Flows

In the simplest form of investment, there will be a cash outflow when the asset is acquired and there may be either a cash inflow or an outflow at the end of its economic life. In most cases these are not the only cash flows -- the investment may result in changes in revenues, expenditures, taxes, and working capital. These are operating cash flows since they result directly from the operating activities -- the day- to-day activities of the firm.

What we are after here are estimates of operating cash flows. We cannot know for certain what these cash flows will be in the future, but we must attempt to estimate them. What is the basis for these estimates? We base them on marketing research, engineering analyses, operations research, analysis of our competitors -- and our managerial experience.

Change in Revenues

Suppose we are a food processor considering a new investment in a line of frozen dinner products. If we introduce a new ready-to-eat dinner product that is not frozen, our marketing research will indicate how much we should expect to sell. But where do these new product sales come from? Some may come from consumers who do not already buy frozen dinner products. But some of the not-frozen dinner

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product sales may come from consumers who choose to buy the not-frozen dinners product instead of frozen dinners. It would be nice if these consumers are giving up buying our competitors' frozen dinners. Yet some of them may be giving up buying our frozen dinners. So, when we introduce a new product, we are really interested in how it changes the sales of the entire firm (that is, the incremental sales), rather than the sales of the new product alone. We also need to consider any foregone revenues -- opportunity costs -- related to our investment. Suppose out firm owns a building currently being rented to another firm. If we are considering terminating that rental agreement so we can use the building for a new project, we need to consider the foregone rent -- what we would have earned from the building. Therefore, the revenues from the new project are really only the additional revenues -- the revenues from the new project minus the revenue we could have earned from renting the building.

So, when a firm undertakes a new project, the financial managers want to know how it changes the firm's total revenues, not merely the new product's revenues.

Change in Expenses

When a firm takes on a new project, all the costs associated with it will change the firm's expenses. If the investment involves changing the sales of an existing product, we need an estimate the change in unit sales. Once we have an estimate in how sales may change, we can develop an estimate of the additional costs of producing the additional number of units by consulting with production management. And, we will want an estimate of how the product's inventory may change when production and sales of the product change.

If the investment involves changes in the costs of production, we compare the costs without this investment with the costs with this investment. For example, if the investment is the replacement of an assembly line machine with a more efficient machine, we need to estimate the change in the firm's overall production costs such as electricity, labor, materials, and management costs.

A new investment may change not only production costs but also operating costs, such as rental payments and administration costs. Changes in operating costs as a result of a new investment must be considered as part of the changes in the firm's expenses. Increasing cash expenses are cash outflows, and decreasing cash expense are cash inflows.

Change in Taxes

Taxes figure into the operating cash flows in two ways. First, if revenues and expenses change, taxable income and, therefore, taxes change. That means we need to estimate the change in taxable income resulting from the changes in revenues and expenses resulting from a new project to determine the effect of taxes on the firm. Second, the deduction for depreciation reduces taxes. Depreciation itself is not a cash flow. But depreciation reduces the taxes that must be paid, shielding income from taxation. The tax-shield from depreciation is like a cash inflow.

Suppose a firm is considering a new product that is expected to generate additional sales of $200,000 and increase expenses by $150,000. If the firm's tax rate is 40%. considering only the change in sales and expenses, taxes go up by $50,000 x 40% or $20,000. This means that the firm is expected to pay $20,000 more in taxes because of the increase in revenues and expenses.

Let's change this around and consider that the product will generate $200,000 in revenues and $250,000 in expenses. Considering only the change in revenues and expenses, if the tax rate is 40%, taxes go down by $50,000 x 40%, or $20,000. This means that we reduce our taxes by $20,000, which is like having a cash inflow of $20,000 from taxes. Now, consider depreciation. When a firm buys an asset that produces income, the tax laws allow it to depreciate the asset, reducing taxable income by a specified percentage of the asset's cost each year. By reducing taxable income, the firm is reducing its taxes. The reduction in taxes is like a cash inflow since it reduces the firm's cash outflow to the government.

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Suppose a firm has taxable income of $50,000 before depreciation and a flat tax rate of 40%. If the firm is allowed to deduct depreciation of $10,000, how has this changed the taxes it pays?

Without depreciation With depreciation Taxable income $50,000 $40,000 Tax rate 0.40 0.40 Taxes $20,000 $16,000

Depreciation reduces the firm's tax-related cash outflow by $20,000 - 16,000 = $4,000 or, equivalently, by $10,000 x 40% = $4,000. A reduction is an outflow (taxes in this case) is an inflow. We refer to the effect depreciation has on taxes as the depreciation tax-shield.

A Note on Depreciation

Depreciation itself is not a cash flow. But in determining cash flows, we are concerned with the effect depreciation has on our taxes -- and we all know that taxes are a cash outflow. Since depreciation reduces taxable income, depreciation reduces the tax outflow, which amounts to a cash inflow.

For tax purposes, firms are permitted to use accelerated depreciation (specifically the rates specified under the Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System (MACRS)) or straight-line. An accelerated method is preferred in most situations since it results in larger deductions sooner in the asset's life than using straight-line depreciation. Therefore, accelerated depreciation, if available, is preferable to straight-line due to the time value of money.

Under the present tax code, assets are depreciated to a zero book value. Salvage value -- what we expect the asset to be worth at the end of its life -- is not considered in calculating depreciation. So is salvage value totally irrelevant to the analysis? No. Salvage value is our best guess today of what the asset will be worth at the end of its useful life some time in the future. Salvage value is our estimate of how much we can get when we dispose of the asset. Just remember you can't use it to figure depreciation for tax purposes.

Let's look at another depreciation example, this time considering the effects of replacing an asset has on the depreciation tax-shield cash flow. Suppose you are replacing a machine that you bought five years ago for $75,000. You were depreciating this old machine using straight-line depreciation over ten years, or $7,500 depreciation per year. If you replace it with a new machine that costs $50,000 and is depreciated over five years, or $10,000 each year, how does the change in depreciation affect the cash flows if the firm's tax rate is 30%? We can calculate the effect two ways:

1. We can compare the depreciation and related tax-shield from the old and the new machines. The depreciation tax-shield on the old machine is 30% of $7,500, or $2,250. The depreciation tax-shield on the new machine is 30% of $10,000, or $3,000. Therefore, the change in the cash flow from depreciation is $3,000 - 2,250 = $750.

2. We can calculate the change in depreciation and calculate the tax-shield related to the change in depreciation. The change in depreciation is $10,000 - 7,500 = $2,500. The change in the depreciation tax-shield is 30% of $2,500, or $750.

Change in Working Capital

Working capital consists of short-term assets, also referred to as current assets, that support the day-to- day operating activity of the business. Net working capital is the difference between current assets and current liabilities. Net working capital is what would be left over if the firm had to pay off its current obligations using its current assets. The adjustment we make for changes in net working capital is attributable to two sources:

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1. a change in current asset accounts for transactions or precautionary needs; and 2. the use of the accrual method of accounting.

An investment may increase the firm's level of operations, resulting in an increase in the net working capital needed (also considered transactions needs). If the investment is to produce a new product, the firm may have to invest more in inventory (raw materials, work-in-process, and finished goods). If to increase sales means extending more credit, then the firm's accounts receivable will increase. If the investment requires maintaining a higher cash balance to handle the increased level of transactions, the firm will need more cash. If the investment makes the firm's production facilities more efficient, it may be able to reduce the level of inventory.

Because of an increase in the level of transactions, the firm may want to keep more cash and inventory on hand for precautionary purposes. That is because as the level of operations increase, the effect of any fluctuations in demand for goods and services may increase, requiring the firm to keep additional cash and inventory "just in case". The firm may increase working capital as a precaution because if there is greater variability of cash and inventory, a greater safety cushion will be needed. On the other hand, if a project enables the firm to be more efficient or lowers costs, it may lower its investment in cash, marketable securities, or inventory, releasing funds for investment elsewhere in the firm.

We also use the change in working capital to adjust accounting income (revenues less expenses) to a cash basis because cash flow is ultimately what we are valuing, not accounting numbers. But since we generally have only the accounting numbers to work from, we use this information, making adjustments to arrive at cash.

To see how this works, let's look at the cash flow from sales. Not every dollar of sales is collected in the year of sale. Customers may pay some time after the sale. Using information from the accounts receivable department about how payments are collected, we can determine the change in the cash flows from revenues. Suppose we expect sales in the first year to increase by $20,000 per month and it typically takes customers thirty days to pay. The change in cash flows from sales in the first year is $20,000 x 11 = $220,000 -- not $20,000 x 12 = $240,000. The way we adjust for this difference between what is sold and what is collected in cash is to keep track of the change in working capital, which is the change in accounts receivable in this case. An increase in working capital is used to adjust revenues downward to calculate cash flow:

Change in revenues $240,000 Less: Increase in accounts receivable 20,000 Change in cash inflow from sales $220,000

On the other side of the balance sheet, if the firm is increasing its purchases of raw materials and incurring more production costs, such as labor, the firm may increase its level of short-term liabilities, such as accounts payable and salary and wages payable.

Suppose expenses for materials and supplies are forecasted at $10,000 per month for the first year and it takes the firm thirty days to pay. Expenses for the first year are $10,000 x 12 = $120,000, yet cash outflow for these expenses is only $10,000 x 11 = $110,000 since the firm does not pay the last month's expenses until the following year. Accounts payable increases by $10,000, representing one month's of expenses. The increase in net working capital (increase in accounts payable increases current liabilities increases net working capital) reduces the cost of goods sold to give us the cash outflow from expenses:

Cost of goods sold $120,000 Less: increase in accounts payable 10,000 Change in cash flow from expenses $110,000

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A new project may result in either:

o an increase in net working capital; o a decrease in net working capital; or o no change in net working capital.

Further, working capital may change at the beginning of the project and at any point during the life of the project. For example, as a new product is introduced, sales may be terrific in the first few years, requiring an increase in cash, accounts receivable, and inventory to support these increased sales. But all of this requires an increase in working capital -- a cash outflow.

But later sales may fall off as competitors enter the market. As sales and production fall off, the need for the increased cash, accounts receivable and inventory falls off also. As cash, accounts receivable, and inventory are reduced, there is a cash inflow in the form of the reduction in the funds that become available for other uses within the firm.

A change in net working capital can be thought of specifically as part of the initial investment -- the amount necessary to get the project going. Or it can be considered generally as part of operating activity -- the day-to-day business of the firm. So where do we classify the cash flow associated with net working capital? With the asset acquisition and disposition represented in the new project or with the operating cash flows?

If a project requires a change in the firm's net working capital accounts that persists for the duration of the project -- say, an increase in inventory levels starting at the time of the investment -- we tend to classify the change as part of the acquisition costs at the beginning of the project and as part of disposition proceeds at the end of project. If, on the other hand, the change in net working capital is due to the fact that accrual accounting does not coincide with cash flows, we tend to classify the change is part of the operating cash flows.

Classifying Working Capital Changes

In many applications, we can arbitrarily classify the change in working capital as either investment cash flows or operating cash flows. And the classification doesn't really matter since it's the bottom line, the net cash flows, that matter. How we classify the change in working capital doesn't affect a project's attractiveness.

However, we will take care in the examples in this text to classify the change in working capital according to whether it is related to operating or investment cash flows so you can see how to make the appropriate adjustments.

VII. Putting it All Together

Here's what we need to put together to calculate the change in the firm's operating cash flows related to a new investment we are considering:

o Changes in revenues and expenses; o Cash flow from changes in taxes from changes in revenues and expenses; o Cash flow from changes in cash flows from depreciation tax-shields; and o Changes in net working capital.

There are many ways of compiling the component cash flow changes to arrive at the change in operating cash flow. We will start by first calculating taxable income, making adjustments for changes in taxes, non-cash expenses, and net working capital to arrive at operating cash flow.

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Suppose you are evaluating a project that is expected to increase sales by $200,000 and expenses by $150,000. Accounts receivable are expected to increase by $20,000 and accounts payable are expected to increase by $5,000, but no changes in cash or inventory are expected. Further, suppose the project's assets will have a $10,000 depreciation expense for tax purposes. If the tax rate is 40%, what is the operating cash flow from this project?

Change in sales $200,000 Less change in expenses 150,000 Less change in depreciation 10,000 Change in taxable income $ 40,000 Less taxes 16,000 Change in income after taxes $ 24,000 Add depreciation 10,000 Less increase in working capital 15,000 Change in operating cash flow $ 19,000

So that we can mathematically represent how to calculate the change in operating cash flows for a project, let's use the symbol "∆" to indicate "change in":

∆OCF = change in operating cash flow; ∆R = change in revenues; ∆E = change in expenses; ∆D = change in depreciation; t = tax rate; and ∆NWC = change in working capital

The change in the operating cash flow is:

∆OCF = (∆R - ∆E - ∆D) (1 - t) + ∆D - ∆NWC

We can also write this as:

∆OCF = (∆R - ∆E) (1 - t) + ∆Dt - ∆NWC

Applying these equations to the previous example,

∆OCF = (∆R - ∆E - ∆D) (1 - t) + ∆D - ∆NWC

∆OCF = ($200,000 - 150,000 - 10,000)(1 - 0.40) + $10,000 - $15,000

∆OCF = $19,000

or, using the rearrangement of the equation,

∆OCF = (∆R - ∆E) (1 - t) + ∆Dt - ∆NWC

∆OCF = ($200,000 - 150,000) (1 - 0.40) + $10,000 (0.40) - $15,000

∆OCF = $19,000.

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Let's look at one more example for the calculation of operating cash flows. Suppose you are evaluating modern equipment which you expect will reduce expenses by $100,000 during the first year. And, since the new equipment is more efficient, you can reduce the level of inventory by $20,000 during the first year. The old machine cost $200,000 and was depreciated using straight-line over ten years, with five years remaining. The new machine cost $300,000 and will be depreciated using straight-line over ten years. If the firm's tax rate is 30%, what is the expected operating cash flow in the first year? Let's identify the components:

∆R = $0 The new machine does not affect revenues

∆E = -$100,000 The new machine reduces expenses that will reduce taxes and increase cash flows

∆D = +$10,000 The new machine increases the depreciation expense from $20,000 to $30,000

∆NWC = -$20,000 The firm can reduce its investment in inventory releasing funds to be invested elsewhere

t = 30%

The operating cash flow from the first year is therefore:

∆OCF = (∆R - ∆E - ∆D) (1 - t) + ∆D - ∆NWC

∆OCF = (+$100,000 - 10,000) (1 - 0.30) + $10,000 - -$20,000

∆OCF = $63,000 + $10,000 + $20,000

∆OCF = $93,000.

Net Cash Flows

By now we should know that an investment's cash flows consist of: (1) cash flows related to acquiring and disposing the assets represented in the investment, and (2) how it affects cash flows related to operations. To evaluate of any investment project, we must consider both to determine whether or not the firm is better off with or without it.

The sum of the cash flows from asset acquisition and disposition and from operations is referred to as net cash flows (NCF). And this sum is calculated for each period. In each period, we add the cash flow from asset acquisition and disposition and the cash flow from operations. For a given period,

Net cash flow = Investment cash flow + Change in operating cash flow (i.e., ∆OCF).

The analysis of the cash flows of investment projects can become quite complex. But by working through any problem systematically, line-by-line, you will be able to sort out the information and focus on those items that determine cash flows.

Simplifications

To actually analyze a project's cash flows, we need to make several simplifications:

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o We assume that cash flows into or out of the firm at certain points in time, typically at the end of the year, although we realize a project's cash flows into and out of the firm at irregular intervals.

o We assume that the assets are purchased and put to work immediately. o By combining inflows and outflows in each period, we are assuming that all inflows and

outflows in a given period have the same risk.

Because there are so many flows to consider, we focus on flows within a period (say a year), assuming they all occur at the end of the period. We assume this to reduce the number of things we have to keep track of. Whether or not this assumption matters depends: (1) the difference between the actual time of cash flow and when we assume it flows at the end of the period (that is, a flow on January 2 is 364 days from December 31, but a flow on December 30 is only one day from December 31), and (2) the opportunity cost of funds. Also, assuming that cash flows occur at specific points in time simplifies the financial mathematics we use in valuing these cash flows.

Keeping track of the different cash flows of an investment project can be taxing. Developing a checklist of things to consider can help you wade through the analysis of a project's cash flows.

Want to know more? Check out ...

o Evaluating Investment Opportunities A brief overview of capital budgeting. o Capital Budgeting Monograph A detailed lecture on capital budgeting: the process, cash flow,

techniques and the cost of capital. o The Capital Budgeting Process An overview of capital budgeting.

VIII. Practice problems and questions

1. If a firm invests $5 million in research and development of a new product, is this $5 million considered in the decision to of whether or not to go ahead and produce and market this new product?

No. The $5 million is a sunk cost: whether or not the firm goes ahead with the new product, the $5 million has been spent.

2. Suppose Congress increases the rate of depreciation from the 200 declining balance (under the MACRS) to a 300 declining balance system. What affect will this change have on the cash flows associated with a capital project?

An increase in the rate of depreciation will cause the cash flows from depreciation (the depreciation tax- shield) to become larger in the earlier years of a project's life and smaller in the latter years of its depreciable life.

3. If a firm sells a depreciable asset for more than its book value, what are the tax consequences of this sale? What are the cash flow consequences?

If the asset is sold for less than its original cost, the difference between its sale price and its book value is taxed as ordinary income. If the asset is sold for more than its original cost, the difference between its sales price and the original cost is taxed as a capital gain (usually at rates lower than for ordinary income) and the difference between its original cost and its book value is taxed as ordinary income. The cash flow from the sale include the cash inflow from the sale itself and the cash outflow for taxes.

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4. TEE Company is considering the purchase of new equipment to replace their existing equipment. The old equipment was purchased five years ago for $200,000 and has a $0 book value. TEE can sell the old equipment for $100,000. The new equipment costs $200,000 and they expect to sell it in five years for $50,000, when it has a book value of $40,000. TEE has a tax rate of 40%. What are the cash flows related to TEE's acquisition and disposition of equipment in this replacement decision?

Year 0:

Purchase new equipment: Cash flow (acquire new equipment) -$200,000

Sell old equipment: Cash flow from sale +$100,000

Tax of sale (40% of $100,000) - 40,000 Net cash flow from sale of old + 60,000 Cash flow, Year 0 -$140,000

Year 5:

Sale of new equipment: Cash flow from sale +$50,000

Tax on sale 40% of $10,000 - 4,000 Net cash flow from sale of new +$46,000

5. EWE Company is considering the purchase of new equipment to replace their existing equipment. The old equipment was purchased five years ago for $200,000 and has a $100,000 book value. EWE can sell the old equipment for $50,000. The new equipment costs $200,000 and they expect to sell it in five years for $50,000, when it has a book value of $60,000. If it had kept the old equipment, it would have a book value of $0 in five years and would have no resale value or cost of dismantling. EWE has a tax rate of 40%. What are the cash flows related to EWE's acquisition and disposition of equipment in this replacement decision?

Cash flow in Year 0: -$130,000

Cost of the new equipment = -$200,000 Sale of the old equipment = +$50,000 Tax benefit from $50,000 loss on sale = 0.4 ($50,000) = +$20,000

Note: loss on sale of old equipment = $50,000 - $100,000 = -$50,000

Cash flow in Year 5: +$54,000

Cash flow from sale of new equipment = +$50,000 Tax benefit from $10,000 loss on sale = 0.4 ($10,000) = +$4,000

6. Consider the investment in a new machine that is expected to have the following:

If the firm's tax rate is 30%, what is the expected incremental cash flow each year for this new machine?

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Year Change in revenues Change in expenses

Change in depreciation

Change in working capital

Incremental cash flow

1 +$100,000 +$ 75,000 +$20,000 +$20,000 +$3,500 2 + 200,000 + 90,000 + 40,000 + 10,000 +79,000 3 + 300,000 + 100,000 + 30,000 - 10,000 +159,000 4 + 200,000 + 50,000 + 10,000 - 10,000 +118,000 5 + 100,000 + 25,000 0 - 10,000 +62,500

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Capital Budgeting Techniques: Part 1

O U T L I N E

I. Introduction II. Evaluation techniques: The basics

III. Payback period IV. Discounted payback period V. Net present value

VI. Profitability index VII. Summary

VIII. Practice questions and problems

I. Introduction

The value of a firm today is the present value of all its future cash flows. These future cash flows come from assets are already in place and from future investment opportunities. These future cash flows are discounted at a rate that represents investors' assessments of the uncertainty that they will flow in the amounts and when expected:

The objective of the financial manager is to maximize the value of the firm. In a corporation, the shareholders are the residual owners of the firm, so decisions that maximize the value of the firm also maximize shareholders' wealth.

The financial manager makes decisions regarding long-lived assets in the process referred to as capital budgeting. The capital budgeting decisions for a project requires analysis of:

o its future cash flows, o the degree of uncertainty associated with these future cash flows, and o the value of these future cash flows considering their uncertainty.

We looked at how to estimate cash flows in a previous reading where we were concerned with a project's incremental cash flows, comprising changes in operating cash flows (change in revenues, expenses, and taxes), and changes in investment cash flows (the firm's incremental cash flows from the acquisition and disposition of the project's assets).

And we know the concept behind uncertainty: the more uncertain a future cash flow, the less it is worth today. The degree of uncertainty, or risk, is reflected in a project's cost of capital. The cost of capital is what the firm must pay for the funds to finance its investment. The cost of capital may be an explicit cost (for example, the interest paid on debt) or an implicit cost (for example, the expected price appreciation of its shares of common stock).

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In this reading, we focus on evaluating the future cash flows. Given estimates of incremental cash flows for a project and given a cost of capital that reflects the project's risk, we look at alternative techniques that are used to select projects.