Behaviour and design of steel structures to as4100 pdf

AS 4100—1998 (Incorporating Amendment No. 1)

Australian Standard ®

Steel structures

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This Australian Standard® was prepared by Committee BD-001, Steel Structures. It was

approved on behalf of the Council of Standards Australia on 17 April 1998.

This Standard was published on 5 June 1998.

The following are represented on Committee BD-001:

• Association of Consulting Engineers Australia • Australian Construction Services • Australian Institute of Steel Construction • AUSTROADS • Building Management Authority, W.A. • Bureau of Steel Manufacturers of Australia • CSIRO, Division of Building, Construction and Engineering • Confederation of Australian Industry • Institution of Engineers, Australia • Metal Trades Industry Association of Australia • New Zealand Heavy Engineering Research Association • Public Works Department, N.S.W. • Railways of Australia Committee • University of New South Wales • University of Queensland • University of Sydney • Welding Technology Institute of Australia

This Standard was issued in draft form for comment as DR 97347.

Standards Australia wishes to acknowledge the participation of the expert individuals that

contributed to the development of this Standard through their representation on the

Committee and through the public comment period.

Keeping Standards up-to-date Australian Standards® are living documents that reflect progress in science, technology and

systems. To maintain their currency, all Standards are periodically reviewed, and new editions

are published. Between editions, amendments may be issued.

Standards may also be withdrawn. It is important that readers assure themselves they are

using a current Standard, which should include any amendments that may have been

published since the Standard was published.

Detailed information about Australian Standards, drafts, amendments and new projects can

be found by visiting www.standards.org.au

Standards Australia welcomes suggestions for improvements, and encourages readers to

notify us immediately of any apparent inaccuracies or ambiguities. Contact us via email at

mail@standards.org.au, or write to Standards Australia, GPO Box 476, Sydney, NSW 2001.

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AS 4100—1998 (Incorporating Amendment No. 1 )

Australian Standard ®

Steel structures

Originated in part as SAA INT 351—1956. Previous edition AS 4100—1990.

Second edition 1998. Reissued incorporating Amendment No. 1 (February 2012).

COPYRIGHT

© Standards Australia Limited

All rights are reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or copied in any form or by

any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without the written

permission of the publisher, unless otherwise permitted under the Copyright Act 1968.

Published by SAI Global Limited under licence from Standards Australia Limited, GPO Box

476, Sydney, NSW 2001, Australia

ISBN 0 7337 1981 3

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AS 4100—1998 2

PREFACE

This Standard was prepared by the Standards Australia Committee BD-001, Steel Structures, to supersede AS 4100—1990.

This Standard incorporates Amendment No. 1 (February 2012). The changes required by

the Amendment are indicated in the text by a marginal bar and amendment number against

the clause, note, table, figure or part thereof affected.

The objective of this Standard is to provide designers of steel structures with specifications for steel structural members used for load-carrying purposes in buildings and other structures.

This new edition of the Standard incorporates Amendments No. 1—1992, No. 2—1993, No. 3—1995 and draft Amendment No. 4 issued for public comment as DR 97347. Draft Amendment No. 4 was not published separately as a green slip.

Amendment No. 1—1992 includes the following major changes:

(a) Strength of steels complying with AS 1163 and AS/NZS 1594. (Table 2.1.)

(b) Shear buckling capacity for stiffened web. (Clause 5.11.5.2.)

(c) Bearing buckling capacity. (Clause 5.13.4.)

Amendment No. 2—1993 includes the following major changes:

(a) Shear and bending interaction method. (Clause 5.12.3.)

(b) Minimum area for the design of intermediate transverse web stiffeners. (Clause 5.15.3.)

(c) Section capacity of members subject to combined actions. (Clause 8.3.)

(d) Strength assessment of a butt weld. (Clause 9.7.2.7.)

(e) Fatigue. (Section 11.)

Amendment No. 3—1993 includes the following major changes:

(a) Compressive bearing action on the edge of a web. (Clause 5.13.)

(b) Section capacity of members subject to combined actions. (Clause 8.3.)

(c) In-plane and out-of-plane capacity of compression members. (Clauses 8.4.2.2 and 8.4.41.)

(d) Strength assessment of a butt weld. (Clause 9.7.2.7.)

(e) Earthquake. (Section 13.)

Amendment No. 4 includes the following major changes:

(a) Strengths of steels complying with AS/NZS 3678, AS/NZS 3679.1 and AS/NZS 3679.2. (Table 2.1.)

(b) Minimum edge distance of fasteners. (Clause 9.6.2.)

(c) Permissible service temperatures according to steel type and thickness. (Table 10.4.1.)

(d) Steel type relationship to steel grade. (Table 10.4.4.)

(e) Welding of concentrically braced frames for structures of earthquake Design Category D and E. (Clause 13.3.4.2.)

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3 AS 4100—1998

Amendment No. 1—2012 to the 1998 edition includes the following major changes:

(a) Revisions to AS/NZS 1163, AS/NZS 3678, AS/NZS 3679.1 and AS/NZS 3679.2 reflected by amendments to Sections 2 and 10.

(b) Revisions to AS/NZS 1554.1, AS/NZS 1554.4 and AS/NZS 1554.5 reflected by amendments to Sections 9 and 10.

(c) Section 13 brought into line with revisions to AS 1170.4.

(d) Quenched and tempered steels included by adding ‘AS 3597’ to listed material Standards in Section 2.

(e) Typographical errors corrected.

The terms ‘normative’ and ‘informative’ have been used in this Standard to define the application of the appendix to which they apply. A ‘normative’ appendix is an integral part of a Standard, whereas an ‘informative’ appendix is only for information and guidance.

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AS 4100—1998 4

CONTENTS

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SECTION 1 SCOPE AND GENERAL 1.1 SCOPE AND APPLICATION ..................................................................................... 8 1.2 REFERENCED DOCUMENTS ................................................................................... 8 1.3 DEFINITIONS ............................................................................................................. 8 1.4 NOTATION ............................................................................................................... 12 1.5 USE OF ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS OR METHODS ........................................ 24 1.6 DESIGN .................................................................................................................... 24 1.7 CONSTRUCTION ..................................................................................................... 24

SECTION 2 MATERIALS 2.1 YIELD STRESS AND TENSILE STRENGTH USED IN DESIGN .......................... 25 2.2 STRUCTURAL STEEL ............................................................................................. 25 2.3 FASTENERS ............................................................................................................. 25 2.4 STEEL CASTINGS ................................................................................................... 27

SECTION 3 GENERAL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS 3.1 DESIGN .................................................................................................................... 30 3.2 LOADS AND OTHER ACTIONS ............................................................................. 30 3.3 STABILITY LIMIT STATE ...................................................................................... 31 3.4 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE ...................................................................................... 31 3.5 SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE .......................................................................... 32 3.6 STRENGTH AND SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATES BY LOAD TESTING ...... 33 3.7 BRITTLE FRACTURE .............................................................................................. 34 3.8 FATIGUE .................................................................................................................. 34 3.9 FIRE .......................................................................................................................... 34 3.10 EARTHQUAKE ........................................................................................................ 34 3.11 OTHER DESIGN REQUIREMENTS ........................................................................ 34

SECTION 4 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 4.1 METHODS OF DETERMINING ACTION EFFECTS ............................................. 35 4.2 FORMS OF CONSTRUCTION ASSUMED FOR STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS ...... 35 4.3 ASSUMPTIONS FOR ANALYSIS ........................................................................... 36 4.4 ELASTIC ANALYSIS ............................................................................................... 37 4.5 PLASTIC ANALYSIS ............................................................................................... 42 4.6 MEMBER BUCKLING ANALYSIS ......................................................................... 43 4.7 FRAME BUCKLING ANALYSIS ............................................................................ 47

SECTION 5 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO BENDING 5.1 DESIGN FOR BENDING MOMENT ....................................................................... 49 5.2 SECTION MOMENT CAPACITY FOR BENDING ABOUT A PRINCIPAL

AXIS .......................................................................................................................... 50 5.3 MEMBER CAPACITY OF SEGMENTS WITH FULL LATERAL RESTRAINT ... 52 5.4 RESTRAINTS ........................................................................................................... 54 5.5 CRITICAL FLANGE ................................................................................................. 58 5.6 MEMBER CAPACITY OF SEGMENTS WITHOUT FULL LATERAL

RESTRAINT ............................................................................................................. 58 5.7 BENDING IN A NON-PRINCIPAL PLANE ............................................................ 65 5.8 SEPARATORS AND DIAPHRAGMS ...................................................................... 65 5.9 DESIGN OF WEBS ................................................................................................... 66 A

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5.10 ARRANGEMENT OF WEBS ................................................................................... 66 5.11 SHEAR CAPACITY OF WEBS ................................................................................ 68 5.12 INTERACTION OF SHEAR AND BENDING ......................................................... 71 5.13 COMPRESSIVE BEARING ACTION ON THE EDGE OF A WEB ........................ 72 5.14 DESIGN OF LOAD BEARING STIFFENERS ......................................................... 77 5.15 DESIGN OF INTERMEDIATE TRANSVERSE WEB STIFFENERS ...................... 78 5.16 DESIGN OF LONGITUDINAL WEB STIFFENERS ............................................... 80

SECTION 6 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO AXIAL COMPRESSION 6.1 DESIGN FOR AXIAL COMPRESSION ................................................................... 81 6.2 NOMINAL SECTION CAPACITY ........................................................................... 81 6.3 NOMINAL MEMBER CAPACITY .......................................................................... 83 6.4 LACED AND BATTENED COMPRESSION MEMBERS ....................................... 87 6.5 COMPRESSION MEMBERS BACK TO BACK ...................................................... 90 6.6 RESTRAINTS ........................................................................................................... 91

SECTION 7 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO AXIAL TENSION 7.1 DESIGN FOR AXIAL TENSION ............................................................................. 93 7.2 NOMINAL SECTION CAPACITY ........................................................................... 93 7.3 DISTRIBUTION OF FORCES .................................................................................. 93 7.4 TENSION MEMBERS WITH TWO OR MORE MAIN COMPONENTS ................ 94 7.5 MEMBERS WITH PIN CONNECTIONS ................................................................. 96

SECTION 8 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO COMBINED ACTIONS 8.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 97 8.2 DESIGN ACTIONS ................................................................................................... 97 8.3 SECTION CAPACITY .............................................................................................. 98 8.4 MEMBER CAPACITY .............................................................................................. 99

SECTION 9 CONNECTIONS 9.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................... 107 9.2 DEFINITIONS ......................................................................................................... 111 9.3 DESIGN OF BOLTS ............................................................................................... 112 9.4 ASSESSMENT OF THE STRENGTH OF A BOLT GROUP ................................. 115 9.5 DESIGN OF A PIN CONNECTION ....................................................................... 116 9.6 DESIGN DETAILS FOR BOLTS AND PINS ......................................................... 117 9.7 DESIGN OF WELDS .............................................................................................. 118 9.8 ASSESSMENT OF THE STRENGTH OF A WELD GROUP ................................ 130 9.9 PACKING IN CONSTRUCTION ........................................................................... 131

SECTION 10 BRITTLE FRACTURE 10.1 METHODS .............................................................................................................. 132 10.2 NOTCH-DUCTILE RANGE METHOD .................................................................. 132 10.3 DESIGN SERVICE TEMPERATURE .................................................................... 132 10.4 MATERIAL SELECTION ....................................................................................... 133 10.5 FRACTURE ASSESSMENT ................................................................................... 137

SECTION 11 FATIGUE 11.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................... 138 11.2 FATIGUE LOADING ............................................................................................. 141 11.3 DESIGN SPECTRUM ............................................................................................. 141 11.4 EXEMPTION FROM ASSESSMENT ..................................................................... 142 11.5 DETAIL CATEGORY ............................................................................................. 142 A

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11.6 FATIGUE STRENGTH ........................................................................................... 154 11.7 EXEMPTION FROM FURTHER ASSESSMENT .................................................. 155 11.8 FATIGUE ASSESSMENT ...................................................................................... 156 11.9 PUNCHING LIMITATION ..................................................................................... 156

SECTION 12 FIRE 12.1 REQUIREMENTS ................................................................................................... 157 12.2 DEFINITIONS ......................................................................................................... 157 12.3 DETERMINATION OF PERIOD OF STRUCTURAL ADEQUACY ..................... 158 12.4 VARIATION OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL WITH

TEMPERATURE .................................................................................................... 158 12.5 DETERMINATION OF LIMITING STEEL TEMPERATURE .............................. 159 12.6 DETERMINATION OF TIME AT WHICH LIMITING TEMPERATURE IS

ATTAINED FOR PROTECTED MEMBERS ......................................................... 159 12.7 DETERMINATION OF TIME AT WHICH LIMITING TEMPERATURE IS

ATTAINED FOR UNPROTECTED MEMBERS .................................................... 161 12.8 DETERMINATION OF PSA FROM A SINGLE TEST .......................................... 162 12.9 THREE-SIDED FIRE EXPOSURE CONDITION ................................................... 162 12.10 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS .............................................................................. 163

SECTION 13 EARTHQUAKE 13.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................... 165 13.2 DEFINITIONS ......................................................................................................... 165 13.3 DESIGN AND DETAILING REQUIREMENTS .................................................... 165

SECTION 14 FABRICATION 14.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................... 168 14.2 MATERIAL ............................................................................................................. 168 14.3 FABRICATION PROCEDURES ............................................................................ 168 14.4 TOLERANCES........................................................................................................ 172

SECTION 15 ERECTION 15.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................... 177 15.2 ERECTION PROCEDURES ................................................................................... 177 15.3 TOLERANCES........................................................................................................ 181 15.4 INSPECTION OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS ........................................................ 185 15.5 GROUTING AT SUPPORTS .................................................................................. 185

SECTION 16 MODIFICATION OF EXISTING STRUCTURES 16.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................... 186 16.2 MATERIALS........................................................................................................... 186 16.3 CLEANING ............................................................................................................. 186 16.4 SPECIAL PROVISIONS ......................................................................................... 186

SECTION 17 TESTING OF STRUCTURES OR ELEMENTS 17.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................... 187 17.2 DEFINITIONS ......................................................................................................... 187 17.3 TEST REQUIREMENTS......................................................................................... 187 17.4 PROOF TESTING ................................................................................................... 187 17.5 PROTOTYPE TESTING ......................................................................................... 188 17.6 REPORT OF TESTS ............................................................................................... 189

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7 AS 4100—1998

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APPENDICES A REFERENCED DOCUMENTS ............................................................................... 190 B SUGGESTED DEFLECTION LIMITS ................................................................... 193 C CORROSION PROTECTION ................................................................................. 195 D ADVANCED STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS ............................................................ 197 E SECOND ORDER ELASTIC ANALYSIS .............................................................. 198 F MOMENT AMPLIFICATION FOR A SWAY MEMBER ...................................... 199 G BRACED MEMBER BUCKLING IN FRAMES ..................................................... 200 H ELASTIC RESISTANCE TO LATERAL BUCKLING .......................................... 202 I STRENGTH OF STIFFENED WEB PANELS UNDER COMBINED ACTIONS .. 208 J STANDARD TEST FOR EVALUATION OF SLIP FACTOR ............................... 210 K INSPECTION OF BOLT TENSION USING A TORQUE WRENCH .................... 215

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AS 4100—1998 8

© Standards Australia www.standards.org.au

STANDARDS AUSTRALIA

Australian Standard

Steel structures

S E C T I O N 1 S C O P E A N D G E N E R A L

1.1 SCOPE AND APPLICATION

1.1.1 Scope

This Standard sets out minimum requirements for the design, fabrication, erection, and modification of steelwork in structures in accordance with the limit states design method.

This Standard applies to buildings, structures and cranes constructed of steel.

‘Text deleted’

This Standard does not apply to the following structures and materials:

(a) Steel elements less than 3 mm thick, with the exception of sections complying with AS/NZS 1163 and packers.

(b) Steel members for which the value of the yield stress used in design (fy) exceeds 690 MPa.

(c) Cold-formed members, other than those complying with AS/NZS 1163, which shall be designed in accordance with AS/NZS 4600.

(d) Composite steel-concrete members, which shall be designed in accordance with AS 2327.

(e) Road, railway and pedestrian bridges, which shall be designed in accordance with AS 5100.1, AS 5100.2 and AS 5100.6.

NOTE: The general principles of design, fabrication, erection, and modification embodied in this

Standard may be applied to steel-framed structures or members not specifically mentioned herein.

1.1.2 ‘Text deleted’

1.2 REFERENCED DOCUMENTS

The documents referred to in this Standard are listed in Appendix A.

1.3 DEFINITIONS

For the purpose of this Standard, the definitions below apply. Definitions peculiar to a particular Clause or Section are also given in that Clause or Section.

Action—the cause of stress or deformations in a structure.

Action effect or load effect—the internal force or bending moment due to actions or loads.

Authority—a body having statutory powers to control the design and erection of a structure.

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Bearing-type connection—Connection effected using either snug-tight bolts, or high- strength bolts tightened to induce a specified minimum bolt tension, in which the design action is transferred by shear in the bolts and bearing on the connected parts at the strength limit state.

Bearing-wall system—see AS 1170.4.

Braced frame—see AS 1170.4.

Braced frame, concentric—see AS 1170.4.

Braced frame, eccentric—see AS 1170.4.

Braced member—one for which the transverse displacement of one end of the member relative to the other is effectively prevented.

‘Text deleted’

Capacity factor—a factor used to multiply the nominal capacity to obtain the design capacity.

Complete penetration butt weld—a butt weld in which fusion exists between the weld and parent metal throughout the complete depth of the joint.

‘Text deleted’

Constant stress range fatigue limit—highest constant stress range for each detail category at which fatigue cracks are not expected to propagate (see Figure 11.6.1).

Cut-off limit—for each detail category, the highest variable stress range which does not require consideration when carrying out cumulative damage calculations (see Figures 11.6.1 and 11.6.2).

Design action effect or design load effect—the action or load effect computed from the design actions or design loads.

‘Text deleted’

Design action or design load—the combination of the nominal actions or loads and the load factors specified in AS/NZS 1170.0, AS/NZS 1170.1, AS/NZS 1170.2, AS/NZS 1170.3, AS 1170.4 or other standards referenced in Clause 3.2.1.

Design capacity—the product of the nominal capacity and the capacity factor.

Design life—period over which a structure or structural element is required to perform its function without repair.

Design resistance effect—the resistance effect computed from the loads and design capacities contributing towards the stability limit state resistance.

Design spectrum—sum of the stress spectra from all of the nominal loading events expected during the design life.

Detail category—designation given to a particular detail to indicate which of the S-N curves is to be used in the fatigue assessment.

Discontinuity—an absence of material, causing a stress concentration.

‘Text deleted’

‘Text deleted’

Ductility (of structure)—see AS 1170.4.

‘Text deleted’

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‘Text deleted’

‘Text deleted’

Exposed surface area to mass ratio—the ratio of the surface area exposed to the fire to the mass of steel.

Fatigue—damage caused by repeated fluctuations of stress leading to gradual cracking of a structural element.

Fatigue loading—set of nominal loading events described by the distribution of the loads, their magnitudes and the numbers of applications of each nominal loading event.

Fatigue strength—the stress range defined in Clause 11.6 for each detail category (see Figures 11.6.1 and 11.6.2) varying with the number of stress cycles.

Fire exposure condition—

(a) three-sided fire exposure condition—steel member incorporated in or in contact with a concrete or masonry floor or wall.

(b) four-sided fire exposure condition—a steel member exposed to fire on all sides.

Fire protection system—the fire protection material and its method of attachment to the steel member.

Fire-resistance level (FRL)—the fire-resistance grading period for structural adequacy only, in minutes, which is required to be attained in the standard fire test.

Friction-type connection—connection effected using high-strength bolts tightened to induce a specified minimum bolt tension such that the resultant clamping action transfers the design shear forces at the serviceability limit state acting in the plane of the common contact surfaces by the friction developed between the contact surfaces.

Full tensioning—a method of installing and tensioning a bolt in accordance with Clauses 15.2.4 and 15.2.5.

Geometrical slenderness ratio—the geometrical slenderness ratio (le/r), taken as the effective length (le), specified in Clause 6.3.2, divided by the radius of gyration (r) computed for the gross section about the relevant axis.

Incomplete penetration butt weld—a butt weld in which the depth of penetration is less than the complete depth of the joint.

In-plane loading—loading for which the design forces and bending moments are in the plane of the connection, so that the design action effects induced in the connection components are shear forces only.

‘Text deleted’

Length (of a compression member)—the actual length (l) of an axially loaded compression member, taken as the length centre-to-centre of intersections with supporting members, or the cantilevered length in the case of a free-standing member.

Limit state—any limiting condition beyond which the structure ceases to fulfil its intended function.

Load—an externally applied force.

Miner’s summation—cumulative damage calculation based on the Palmgren-Miner summation or equivalent.

‘Text deleted’

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Moment-resisting frame—see AS 1170.4.

Moment-resisting frame, intermediate—see AS 1170.4.

Moment-resisting frame, ordinary—see AS 1170.4.

Moment-resisting frame, special—see AS 1170.4.

Nominal action or load—an action or load, as specified in Clause 3.2.1 or 3.2.2.

Nominal capacity—the capacity of a member or connection computed using the parameters specified in this Standard.

Nominal loading event—the loading sequence for the structure or structural element.

Non-slip fasteners—fasteners which do not allow slip to occur between connected plates or members at the serviceability limit state so that the original alignment and relative positions are maintained.

‘Text deleted’

Out-of-plane loading—loading for which the design forces or bending moments result in design action effects normal to the plane of the connection.

Period of structural adequacy (PSA) (fire)—the time (t), in minutes, for the member to reach the limit state of structural adequacy in the standard fire test.

Pin—an unthreaded fastener manufactured out of round bar.

Plastic hinge—a yielding zone with significant inelastic rotation which forms in a member when the plastic moment is reached.

Prequalified weld preparation—a joint preparation prequalified in terms of AS/NZS 1554.1.

Proof testing—the application of test loads to a structure, sub-structure, member or connection to ascertain the structural characteristics of only that one unit under test.

Prototype (fire)—a test specimen representing a steel member and its fire protection system which is subjected to the standard fire test.

Prototype testing—the application of test loads to one or more structures, sub-structures, members or connections to ascertain the structural characteristics of that class of structures, sub-structures, members or connections which are nominally identical to the units tested.

Prying force—additional tensile force developed as a result of the flexing of a connection component in a connection subjected to tensile force. External tension force reduces the contact pressure between the component and the base, and bending in part of the component develops a prying force near the edge of the connection component.

Quenched and tempered steel—high strength steel manufactured by heating, quenching, tempering and levelling steel plate.

Segment (in a member subjected to bending)—the length between adjacent cross-sections which are fully or partially restrained, or the length between an unrestrained end and the adjacent cross-section which is fully or partially restrained.

Serviceability limit state—a limit state of acceptable in-service condition.

Shear wall—a wall designed to resist lateral forces parallel to the plane of the wall.

S-N curve—curve defining the limiting relationship between the number of stress cycles and stress range for a detail category.

Snug tight—the tightness of a bolt achieved by a few impacts of an impact wrench or by the full effort of a person using a standard podger spanner.

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Space frame—see AS 1170.4.

‘Text deleted’

Stability limit state—a limit state corresponding to the loss of static equilibrium of a structure considered as a rigid body.

Standard fire test—the fire-resistance test specified in AS 1530.4.

Stickability—the ability of the fire protection system to remain in place as the member deflects under load during a fire test.

Strength limit state—a limit state of collapse or loss of structural integrity.

Stress cycle—one cycle of stress defined by stress cycle counting.

Stress cycle counting method—any rational method used to identify individual stress cycles from the stress history.

Stress range—algebraic difference between two extremes of stress.

Stress spectrum—histogram of the stress cycles produced by a nominal loading event.

Structural adequacy (fire)—the ability of the member exposed to the standard fire test to carry the test load specified in AS 1530.4.

Structural ductility factor—see AS 1170.4.

Structural performance factor—see AS 1170.4.

Sway member—one for which the transverse displacement of one end of the member relative to the other is not effectively prevented.

Tensile strength—the minimum ultimate strength in tension specified for the grade of steel in the appropriate Australian Standard.

Yield stress—the minimum yield stress in tension specified for the grade of steel in the appropriate Australian Standard.

1.4 NOTATION

Symbols used in this Standard are listed below.

Where non-dimensional ratios are involved, both the numerator and denominator are expressed in identical units.

The dimensional units for length and stress in all expressions or equations are to be taken as millimetres (mm) and megapascals (MPa) respectively, unless specifically noted otherwise.

A superscripted ‘*’ placed after a symbol denotes a design action effect due to the design load for the strength limit state.

A = area of cross-section

Ac = minor diameter area of a bolt, as defined in AS 1275

Ae = effective sectional area of a hollow section in shear; or

= effective area of a compression member

Aep = area of an end post

Afc = flange area at critical cross-section

Afg = gross area of a flange

Afm = flange area at minimum cross-section; or

= lesser of the flange effective areas

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Afn = net area of a flange

Ag = gross area of a cross-section

Agv = gross area subject to shear at rupture

An = net area of a cross-section

Ant = net area subject to tension at rupture

Anv = net area subject to shear at rupture

Ao = nominal plain shank area of a bolt

Ap = cross-sectional area of a pin

As = tensile stress area of a bolt as defined in AS 1275; or

= area of a stiffener or stiffeners in contact with a flange; or

= area of an intermediate web stiffener

Aw = gross sectional area of a web; or

= effective shear area of a plug or slot weld

ae = minimum distance from the edge of a hole to the edge of a ply measured in the direction of the component of a force plus half the bolt diameter

ao = length of unthreaded portion of the bolt shank contained within the grip

at = length of threaded portion of the bolt contained within the grip

a0, a1 = out-of-square dimensions of flanges

a2, a3 = diagonal dimensions of a box section

b = width; or

= lesser dimension of a web panel; or

= clear width of an element outstand from the face of a supporting plate element; or

= clear width of a supported element between faces of supporting plate elements

bb, bbf, bbw, bo = bearing widths defined in Clause 5.13

bd = distance from the stiff bearing to the end of the member

be = effective width of a plate element

bes = stiffener outstand from the face of a web

bf = width of a flange

bfo = half the clear distance between the webs; or

= least of 3 dimensions defined in Clause 5.11.5.2

bs = stiff bearing length

bw = web depth

b1, b2 = greater and lesser leg lengths of an angle section

C3, C4, C4r = factors given in Table H3 and Paragraph H5

A1

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A1

A1

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ch = perpendicular distance to centroid of an angle section from the face of the loaded leg of the angle

cm = factor for unequal end moments

d = depth of a section; or

= depth of preparation for incomplete penetration butt weld; or

= maximum cross-sectional dimension of a built-up compression member

db = lateral distance between centroids of the welds or fasteners connecting battens to main components

dc = depth of a section at a critical cross-section

de = effective outside diameter of a circular hollow section; or

= factor defined in Appendix I

df = diameter of a fastener (bolt or pin); or

= distance between flange centroids

dm = depth of a section at minimum cross-section

do = overall section depth including out-of-square dimensions; or

= overall section depth of a segment; or

= outside diameter of a circular hollow section

dp = clear transverse dimension of a web panel; or

= depth of deepest web panel in a length

dx, dy = distances of the extreme fibres from the neutral axes

d1 = clear depth between flanges ignoring fillets or welds

d2 = twice the clear distance from the neutral axis to the compression flange

d3, d4 = depths of preparation for incomplete penetration butt welds

d5 = flat width of web of hollow sections

E = Young’s modulus of elasticity, 200 × 103 MPa

E(T), E(20) = E at T, 20 degrees Celsius respectively

e = eccentricity; or

= web off-centre dimension; or

= distance between an end plate and a load-bearing stiffener

ec, et = eccentricities of compression and tension angles (Clause 8.4.6)

F = action in general, force or load

F * = total design load on a member between supports

*

n F = design force normal to a web panel

* pF = design force parallel to a web panel

fc = fatigue strength corrected for thickness of material

ff = uncorrected fatigue strength

frn = detail category reference fatigue strength at nr cycles—normal stress

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frnc = corrected detail category reference fatigue strength—normal stress

frsc = corrected detail category reference fatigue strength—shear stress

frs = detail category reference fatigue strength at nr cycles—shear stress

fu = tensile strength used in design

fuc = minimum tensile strength of connection element

fuf = minimum tensile strength of a bolt

fup = tensile strength of a ply

fuw = nominal tensile strength of weld metal

fy = yield stress used in design

fyc = yield stress of connection element

fy(T), fy(20) = yield stresses of steel at T, 20 degrees Celsius respectively

fyp = yield stress of a pin used in design

fys = yield stress of a stiffener used in design

f3 = detail category fatigue strength at constant amplitude fatigue limit

f3c = corrected detail category fatigue strength at constant amplitude fatigue limit

f5 = detail category fatigue strength at cut-off limit

f5c = corrected detail category fatigue strength at cut-off limit *f = design stress range

*

i f = design stress range for loading event i

*

va f = average design shear stress in a web

*

vm f = maximum design shear stress in a web

*

w f = equivalent design stress on a web panel (Appendix I)

G = shear modulus of elasticity, 80 × 103 MPa; or

= nominal dead load

h = rectangular centroidal axis for angle parallel to the loaded leg

hb = vertical distance between tops of beams

he = effective thickness of fire protection material

hi = thickness of fire protection material

hs = storey height

I = second moment of area of a cross-section

Icy = second moment of area of compression flange about the section minor principal y-axis

Im = I of the member under consideration

Ir = I of a restraining member

Is = I of a pair of stiffeners or a single stiffener

Iw = warping constant for a cross-section

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Ix = I about the cross-section major principal x-axis

Iy = I about the cross-section minor principal y-axis

i = number of loading event (Section 11)

J = torsion constant for a cross-section

K = ( )[ ]2 w

2 / GJLEIπ

Kd = deflection amplification factor

k = coefficient used in Appendix J

kb = elastic buckling coefficient for a plate element

kbo = basic value of kb

kbs = a factor to account for the effect of eccentricity on the block shear capacity

ke = member effective length factor

kf = form factor for members subject to axial compression

kh = factor for different hole types

kl = effective length factor for load height

kp = factor for pin rotation

kr = effective length factor for restraint against lateral rotation; or

= effective length factor for a restraining member; or

= reduction factor to account for the length of a bolted or welded lap splice connection

ks = ratio used to calculate αp and αpm

ksm = exposed surface area to mass ratio

kt = effective length factor for twist restraints; or

= correction factor for distribution of forces in a tension member

kv = ratio of flat width of web (d5) to thickness (t) of hollow section

k0-k6 = regression coefficients (Section 12)

l = span; or

= member length; or

= member length from centre to centre of its intersections with supporting members; or

= segment or sub-segment length

lb = length between points of effective bracing or restraint

lc = distance between adjacent column centres

le = effective length of a compression member; or

= effective length of a laterally unrestrained member

r

l e

= geometrical slenderness ratio

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bn

e ⎟ ⎠

⎞ ⎜ ⎝

⎛

r

l

= slenderness ratio of a battened compression member about the axis normal to the plane of the battens

bp

e

⎟⎟ ⎠

⎞ ⎜⎜ ⎝

⎛

r

l

= slenderness ratio of a battened compression member about the axis parrallel to the plane of the battens

c

e ⎟ ⎠

⎞ ⎜ ⎝

⎛

r

l

= slenderness ratio of the main component in a laced or battened compression member

m

e ⎟ ⎠

⎞ ⎜ ⎝

⎛

r

l

= slenderness ratio of the whole battened compression member

lj = length of a bolted lap splice connection

lm = length of the member under consideration

lr = length of a restraining member; or

= length of a segment over which the cross-section is reduced

ls = distance between points of effective lateral support

lw = greatest internal dimension of an opening in a web; or

= length of a fillet weld in a welded lap splice connection

lz = distance between partial or full torsional restraints

Mb = nominal member moment capacity

Mbx = Mb about major principal x-axis

Mbxo = Mbx for a uniform distribution of moment

Mcx = lesser of Mix and Mox

Mf = nominal moment capacity of flanges alone

Mi = nominal in-plane member moment capacity

Mix = Mi about major principal x-axis

Miy = Mi about minor principal y-axis

Mo = nominal out-of-plane member moment capacity; or

= reference elastic buckling moment for a member subject to bending

Moa = amended elastic buckling moment for a member subject to bending

Mob = elastic buckling moment determined using an elastic buckling analysis

Mobr = Mob decreased for elastic torsional end restraint

Moo = reference elastic buckling moment obtained using le = l

Mos = Mob for a segment, fully restrained at both ends, unrestrained against lateral rotation and loaded at shear centre

Mox = nominal out-of-plane member moment capacity about major principal x-axis

Mp = nominal moment capacity of a pin

Mpr = nominal plastic moment capacity reduced for axial force

Mprx = Mpr about major principal x-axis Ac ce

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Mpry = Mpr about minor principal y-axis

Mrx = Ms about major principal x-axis reduced by axial force

Mry = Ms about minor principal y-axis reduced by axial force

Ms = nominal section moment capacity

Msx = Ms about major principal x-axis

Msy = Ms about minor principal y-axis

Mtx = lesser of Mrx and Mox

Mw = nominal section moment capacity of a web panel

M * = design bending moment

*

e M = second-order or amplified end bending moment

*

f M = design end bending moment

*

fb M = braced component of

*

f M obtained from a first-order elastic analysis of

a frame with sway prevented

*

fs M = sway component of *

f M obtained from ( *

f M – *

fb M )

*

h M = design bending moment on an angle, acting about the rectangular h-axis

parallel to the loaded leg

*

m M = maximum calculated design bending moment along the length of a

member or in a segment

*

w M = design bending moment acting on a web panel

*

x M = design bending moment about major principal x-axis

* yM

= design bending moment about minor principal y-axis

*

2 M , *

3 M , *

4 M = design bending moments at quarter and mid points of a segment

Nc = nominal member capacity in axial compression

Nch = Nc for angle buckling about h-axis, parallel to the loaded leg

Ncy = Nc for member buckling about minor principal y-axis

Nol = 2

2

l

EIπ

Nolr = 2 r

r

2

l

EIπ

Nom = elastic buckling load

Nomb = Nom for a braced member

Noms = Nom for a sway member

Noz = nominal elastic torsional buckling capacity of a member

Ns = nominal section capacity of a compression member; or

= nominal section capacity for axial load

Nt = nominal section capacity in tension