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Project Management

The Managerial Process Eighth Edition

Erik W. Larson

Clifford F. Gray Oregon State University

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PROJECT MANAGEMENT: THE MANAGERIAL PROCESS, EIGHTH EDITION

Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2021 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2018, 2014, and 2011. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Gray, Clifford F., author. | Larson, Erik W., 1952- author. Title: Project management : the managerial process / Erik W. Larson, Clifford F. Gray, Oregon State University. Description: Eighth edition. | New York, NY : McGraw-Hill Education, [2021] | Clifford F. Gray appears as the first named author in earlier editions. | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “Our motivation in writing this text continues to be to provide a realistic, socio-technical view of project management. In the past, textbooks on project management focused almost exclusively on the tools and processes used to manage projects and not the human dimension”– Provided by publisher. Identifiers: LCCN 2019028390 (print) | LCCN 2019028391 (ebook) | ISBN 9781260238860 (paperback) | ISBN 1260238865 (paperback) | ISBN 9781260242379 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Project management. | Time management. | Risk management. Classification: LCC HD69.P75 G72 2021 (print) | LCC HD69.P75 (ebook) | DDC 658.4/04–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019028390 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019028391

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.

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vii

Erik W. Larson ERIK W. LARSON is professor emeritus of project management at the College of Business, Oregon State University. He teaches executive, graduate, and undergraduate courses on project management and leadership. His research and consulting activities focus on project management. He has published numerous articles on matrix manage- ment, product development, and project partnering. He has been honored with teach- ing awards from both the Oregon State University MBA program and the University of Oregon Executive MBA program. He has been a member of the Project Manage- ment Institute since 1984. In 1995 he worked as a Fulbright scholar with faculty at the Krakow Academy of Economics on modernizing Polish business education. He was a visiting professor at Chulalongkorn University in Bangkok, Thailand, and at Baden-Wuerttemberg Cooperative State University in Bad Mergentheim, Germany. He received a B.A. in psychology from Claremont McKenna College and a Ph.D. in management from State University of New York at Buffalo. He is a certified Project Management Professional (PMP) and Scrum master.

Clifford F. Gray CLIFFORD F. GRAY is professor emeritus of management at the College of Business, Oregon State University. He has personally taught more than 100 executive develop- ment seminars and workshops. Cliff has been a member of the Project Management Institute since 1976 and was one of the founders of the Portland, Oregon, chapter. He was a visiting professor at Kasetsart University in Bangkok, Thailand, in 2005. He was the president of Project Management International, Inc. (a training and consulting firm specializing in project management) 1977–2005. He received his B.A. in economics and management from Millikin University, M.B.A. from Indiana University, and doc- torate in operations management from the College of Business, University of Oregon. He is a certified Scrum master.

About the Authors

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viii

“Man’s mind, once stretched by a new idea, never regains its original dimensions.”

Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.

To my family, who have always encircled me with love and encouragement—my parents (Samuel and Charlotte), my wife (Mary), my sons and their wives (Kevin and Dawn, Robert and Sally), and their children (Ryan, Carly, Connor and Lauren).

C.F.G.

“The reasonable man adapts himself to the world; the unreasonable one persists in trying to adapt the world to himself. Therefore all progress depends on the unreasonable man.” Bernard Shaw, Man and Superman

To Ann, whose love and support have brought out the best in me. To our girls Mary, Rachel, and Tor-Tor for the joy and pride they give me. And to our grandkids, Mr. B, Livvy, Jasper Jones!, Baby Ya Ya, Juniper Berry, and Callie, whose future depends upon effective project management. Finally, to my muse, Neil—walk on!

E.W.L

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ix

Our motivation in writing this text continues to be to provide a realistic, socio-technical view of project management. In the past, textbooks on project management focused almost exclusively on the tools and processes used to manage projects and not the human dimension. This baffled us, since people, not tools, complete projects! While we firmly believe that mastering tools and processes is essential to successful project man- agement, we also believe that the effectiveness of these tools and methods is shaped and determined by the prevailing culture of the organization and interpersonal dynamics of the people involved. Thus, we try to provide a holistic view that focuses on both the technical and social dimensions and how they interact to determine the fate of projects.

Audience

This text is written for a wide audience. It covers concepts and skills that are used by managers to propose, plan, secure resources, budget, and lead project teams to success- ful completions of their projects. The text should prove useful to students and prospec- tive project managers in helping them understand why organizations have developed a formal project management process to gain a competitive advantage. Readers will find the concepts and techniques discussed in enough detail to be immediately useful in new-project situations. Practicing project managers will find the text to be a valuable guide and reference when dealing with typical problems that arise in the course of a project. Managers will also find the text useful in understanding the role of projects in the missions of their organizations. Analysts will find the text useful in helping to explain the data needed for project implementation as well as the operations of inher- ited or purchased software.

Members of the Project Management Institute will find the text is well structured to meet the needs of those wishing to prepare for PMP (Project Management Profes- sional) or CAPM (Certified Associate in Project Management) certification exams. The text has in-depth coverage of the most critical topics found in PMI’s Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK). People at all levels in the organization assigned to work on projects will find the text useful not only in providing them with a rationale for the use of project management processes but also because of the insights they will gain into how to enhance their contributions to project success.

Our emphasis is not only on how the management process works but also, and more importantly, on why it works. The concepts, principles, and techniques are univer- sally applicable. That is, the text does not specialize by industry type or project scope. Instead, the text is written for the individual who will be required to manage a variety of projects in a variety of organizational settings. In the case of some small projects, a few of the steps of the techniques can be omitted, but the conceptual framework applies to all organizations in which projects are important to survival. The approach can be used in pure project organizations such as construction, research organizations, and engineering consultancy firms. At the same time, this approach will benefit orga- nizations that carry out many small projects while the daily effort of delivering prod- ucts or services continues.

Preface

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Content

In this and other editions we continue to try to resist the forces that engender scope creep and focus only on essential tools and concepts that are being used in the real world. We have been guided by feedback from reviewers, practitioners, teachers, and students. Some changes are minor and incremental, designed to clarify and reduce con- fusion. Other changes are significant. They represent new developments in the field or better ways of teaching project management principles. Below are major changes to the eighth edition.

∙ All material has been reviewed and revised based on the latest edition of Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK), Sixth Edition, 2017.

∙ Discussion questions for most Snapshots from Practice are now at the end of each chapter.

∙ Many of the Snapshots from Practice have been expanded to more fully cover the examples.

∙ Agile Project Management is introduced in Chapter 1 and discussed when appropri- ate in subsequent chapters, with Chapter 15 providing a more complete coverage of the methodology.

∙ A new set of exercises have been developed for Chapter 5. ∙ New student exercises and cases have been added to chapters. ∙ The Snapshot from Practice boxes feature a number of new examples of project

management in action. ∙ The Instructor’s Manual contains a listing of current YouTube videos that corre-

spond to key concepts and Snapshots from Practice.

Overall the text addresses the major questions and challenges the authors have encountered over their 60 combined years of teaching project management and con- sulting with practicing project managers in domestic and foreign environments. These questions include the following: How should projects be prioritized? What factors con- tribute to project failure or success? How do project managers orchestrate the complex network of relationships involving vendors, subcontractors, project team members, senior management, functional managers, and customers that affect project success? What project management system can be set up to gain some measure of control? How are projects managed when the customers are not sure what they want? How do project managers work with people from foreign cultures?

Project managers must deal with all these concerns to be effective. All of these issues and problems represent linkages to a socio-technical project management per- spective. The chapter content of the text has been placed within an overall framework that integrates these topics in a holistic manner. Cases and snapshots are included from the experiences of practicing managers. The future for project managers is exciting. Careers will be built on successfully managing projects.

Student Learning Aids

Student resources include study outlines, online quizzes, PowerPoint slides, videos, Microsoft Project Video Tutorials, and web links. These can be found in Connect.

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Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Scott Bailey for building the end-of-chapter exercises for Con- nect; Pinyarat Sirisomboonsuk for revising the PowerPoint slides; Ronny Richardson for updating the Instructor’s Manual; Angelo Serra for updating the Test Bank; and Pinyarat Sirisomboonsuk for providing new Snapshot from Practice questions.

Next, it is important to note that the text includes contributions from numerous students, colleagues, friends, and managers gleaned from professional conversations. We want them to know we sincerely appreciate their counsel and suggestions. Almost every exercise, case, and example in the text is drawn from a real-world project. Spe- cial thanks to managers who graciously shared their current project as ideas for exer- cises, subjects for cases, and examples for the text. John A. Drexler, Jim Moran, John Sloan, Pat Taylor, and John Wold, whose work is printed, are gratefully acknowledged. Special gratitude is due Robert Breitbarth of Interact Management, who shared invalu- able insights on prioritizing projects. University students and managers deserve spe- cial accolades for identifying problems with earlier drafts of the text and exercises.

We are indebted to the reviewers of past editions who shared our commitment to elevating the instruction of project management. We thank you for your many thought- ful suggestions and for making our book better. Of course, we accept responsibility for the final version of the text.

Paul S. Allen, Rice University Victor Allen, Lawrence Technological University Kwasi Amoako-Gyampah, University of North Carolina–Greensboro Gregory Anderson, Weber State University Mark Angolia, East Carolina University Brian M. Ashford, North Carolina State University Dana Bachman, Colorado Christian University Robin Bagent, College of Southern Idaho Scott Bailey, Troy University Nabil Bedewi, Georgetown University Anandhi Bharadwaj, Emory University James Blair, Washington University–St. Louis Mary Jean Blink, Mount St. Joseph University S. Narayan Bodapati, Southern Illinois University at Edwardsville Warren J. Boe, University of Iowa Thomas Calderon, University of Akron Alan Cannon, University of Texas–Arlington Susan Cholette, San Francisco State Denis F. Cioffi, George Washington University Robert Cope, Southeastern Louisiana University

Kenneth DaRin, Clarkson University Ron Darnell, Amberton University Burton Dean, San Jose State University Joseph D. DeVoss, DeVry University David Duby, Liberty University Michael Ensby, Clarkson University Charles Franz, University of Missouri, Columbia Larry Frazier, City University of Seattle Raouf Ghattas, DeVry University Edward J. Glantz, Pennsylvania State University Michael Godfrey, University of Wisconsin–Oshkosh Jay Goldberg, Marquette University Robert Groff, Westwood College Raffael Guidone, New York City College of Technology Brian Gurney, Montana State University–Billings Owen P. Hall, Pepperdine University Chaodong Han, Towson University Bruce C. Hartman, University of Arizona Mark Huber, University of Georgia Richard Irving, York University Marshall Issen, Clarkson University

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In addition, we would like to thank our colleagues in the College of Business at Oregon State University for their support and help in completing this project. In par- ticular, we recognize Lacey McNeely, Prem Mathew, and Jeewon Chou for their help- ful advice and suggestions. We also wish to thank the many students who helped us at different stages of this project, most notably Neil Young, Saajan Patel, Katherine Knox, Dat Nguyen, and David Dempsey. Mary Gray deserves special credit for editing and working under tight deadlines on earlier editions. Special thanks go to Pinyarat (“Minkster”) Sirisomboonsuk for her help in preparing the last five editions.

Finally, we want to extend our thanks to all the people at McGraw-Hill Education for their efforts and support. First, we would like to thank Noelle Bathurst and Sarah Wood, for providing editorial direction, guidance, and management of the book’s development for the eighth edition. And we would also like to thank Sandy Wille, Sandy Ludovissy, Egzon Shaqiri, Beth Cray, and Angela Norris for managing the final production, design, supplement, and media phases of the eighth edition.

Erik W. Larson

Clifford F. Gray

Robert T. Jones, DePaul University Susan Kendall, Arapahoe Community College George Kenyon, Lamar University Robert Key, University of Phoenix Elias Konwufine, Keiser University Dennis Krumwiede, Idaho State University Rafael Landaeta, Old Dominion University Eldon Larsen, Marshall University Eric T. Larson, Rutgers University Philip Lee, Lone Star College–University Park Charles Lesko, East Carolina University Richard L. Luebbe, Miami University of Ohio Linh Luong, City University of Seattle Steve Machon, DeVry University–Tinley Park Andrew Manikas, University of Louisville William Matthews, William Patterson University Lacey McNeely, Oregon State University Carol Miller, Community College of Denver William Moylan, Lawrence Technological College of Business Ravi Narayanaswamy, University of South Carolina–Aiken Muhammad Obeidat, Southern Polytechnic State University Edward Pascal, University of Ottawa James H. Patterson, Indiana University Steve Peng, California State University–East Bay

Nicholas C. Petruzzi, University of Illinois–Urbana/ Champaign Abirami Radhakrishnan, Morgan State University Emad Rahim, Bellevue University Tom Robbins, East Carolina University Art Rogers, City University Linda Rose, Westwood College Pauline Schilpzand, Oregon State University Teresa Shaft, University of Oklahoma Russell T. Shaver, Kennesaw State University William R. Sherrard, San Diego State University Erin Sims, DeVry University–Pomona Donald Smith, Texas A&M University Kenneth Solheim, DeVry University–Federal Way Christy Strbiak, U.S. Air Force Academy Peter Sutanto, Prairie View A&M University Jon Tomlinson, University of Northwestern Ohio Oya Tukel, Cleveland State University David A. Vaughan, City University Mahmoud Watad, William Paterson University Fen Wang, Central Washington University Cynthia Wessel, Lindenwood University Larry R. White, Eastern Illinois University Ronald W. Witzel, Keller Graduate School of Management G. Peter Zhang, Georgia State University

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xiii

Established Learning Objectives Learning objectives are listed both at the beginning of each chapter and are called out as marginal elements throughout the narrative in each chapter.

Guided Tour First Pages

28

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Organization Strategy and Project Selection

OUTLINE

2.1 Why Project Managers Need to Understand Strategy

2.2 The Strategic Management Process: An Overview

2.3 The Need for a Project Priority System

2.4 Project Classification

2.5 Phase Gate Model

2.6 Selection Criteria

2.7 Applying a Selection Model

2.8 Managing the Portfolio System

Summary

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter you should be able to:

2-1 Explain why it is important for project managers to understand their organization’s strategy.

2-2 Identify the significant role projects contribute to the strategic direction of the organization.

2-3 Understand the need for a project priority system.

2-4 Distinguish among three kinds of projects.

2-5 Describe how the phase gate model applies to project management.

2-6 Apply financial and nonfinancial criteria to assess the value of projects.

2-7 Understand how multi-criteria models can be used to select projects.

2-8 Apply an objective priority system to project selection.

2-9 Understand the need to manage the project portfolio.

C H A P T E R T W O

2

First Pages

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30 Chapter 2 Organization Strategy and Project Selection

global competition, and financial uncertainty. These conditions make strategy/project alignment even more essential for success.

The larger and more diverse an organization, the more difficult it is to create and maintain a strong link between strategy and projects. How can an organization ensure this link? The answer requires integration of projects with the strategic plan. Integration assumes the existence of a strategic plan and a process for prioritizing projects by their contribution to the plan. A key factor to ensure the success of inte- grating the plan with projects is an open and transparent selection process for all participants to review.

This chapter presents an overview of the importance of strategic planning and the process for developing a strategic plan. Typical problems encountered when strategy and projects are not linked are noted. A generic methodology that ensures integration by creating strong linkages of project selection and priority to the strategic plan is then discussed. The intended outcomes are clear organization focus, best use of scarce organization resources (people, equipment, capital), and improved communication across projects and departments.

2.1 Why Project Managers Need to Understand Strategy

Project management historically has been preoccupied solely with the planning and execution of projects. Strategy was considered to be under the purview of senior management. This is old-school thinking. New-school thinking recognizes that proj- ect management is at the apex of strategy and operations. Shenhar speaks to this issue when he states, “It is time to expand the traditional role of the project manager from an operational to a more strategic perspective. In the modern evolving organi- zation, project managers will be focused on business aspects, and their role will expand from getting the job done to achieving the business results and winning in the marketplace.”1

There are two main reasons project managers need to understand their organiza- tion’s mission and strategy. The first reason is so they can make appropriate deci- sions and adjustments. For example, how a project manager would respond to a suggestion to modify the design of a product to enhance performance will vary depending upon whether his company strives to be a product leader through inno- vation or to achieve operational excellence through low-cost solutions. Similarly, how a project manager would respond to delays may vary depending upon strategic concerns. A project manager will authorize overtime if her firm places a premium on getting to the market first. Another project manager will accept the delay if speed is not essential.

The second reason project managers need to understand their organization’s strat- egy is so they can be effective project advocates. Project managers have to be able to demonstrate to senior management how their project contributes to their firm’s mission in order to garner their continued support. Project managers need to be able to explain to stakeholders why certain project objectives and priorities are critical in order to secure buy-in on contentious trade-off decisions. Finally, project managers need to explain why the project is important to motivate and empower the project team (Brown, Hyer, & Ettenson, 2013).

Explain why it is impor- tant for project manag- ers to understand their organization’s strategy.

2-1LO

1 Shenhar, A., and Dov Dvie, Reinventing Project Management (Boston: Harvard Business School, 2007), p. 5.

End-of-Chapter Content Both static and algorithmic end-of-chapter content, including Review Questions and Exercises, are assignable in Connect.

SmartBook The SmartBook has been updated with new highlights and probes for optimal student learning.

Snapshots The Snapshot from Practice boxes have been updated to include a number of new exam- ples of project management in action. New discussion questions based on the Snapshots have been added to the end-of-chapter mate- rial and are assignable in Connect.

New and Updated Cases Included at the end of each chapter are between one and five cases that demonstrate key ideas from the text and help students understand how project management comes into play in the real world. Cases have been reviewed and updated across the eighth edition.

Instructor and Student Resources Instructors and students can access all of the supplementary resources for the eighth edition within Connect or directly at www.mhhe.com/larson8e.

First Pages

Chapter 3 Organization: Structure and Culture 87

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On entering the 24-hour Googleplex located in Mountain View, California, you feel that you are walking through a new-age college campus rather than the corporate office of a billion-dollar

business. The interconnected low-rise buildings with colorful, glass-encased offices feature upscale trap- pings—free gourmet meals three times a day, free use of an outdoor wave pool, indoor gym and large child care facility, private shuttle bus service to and from San Francisco and other residential areas—that are the envy of workers across the Bay area. These perks and others reflect Google’s culture of keeping people happy and thinking in unconventional ways.

The importance of corporate culture is no more evi- dent than in the fact that the head of Human Resources, Stacy Savides Sullivan, also has the title of chief culture officer. Her task is to try to preserve the innovative cul- ture of a start-up as Google quickly evolves into a mam- moth international corporation. Sullivan characterizes Google culture as “team-oriented, very collaborative and encouraging people to think nontraditionally, dif- ferent from where they ever worked before—work with integrity and for the good of the company and for the good of the world, which is tied to our overall mission of making information accessible to the world.” Google goes to great lengths to screen new employees to make sure not only that they have outstanding technical capa- bilities but also that they are going to fit Google’s cul- ture. Sullivan goes on to define a Google-y employee as somebody who is “flexible, adaptable, and not focusing on titles and hierarchy, and just gets stuff done.”

Google’s culture is rich with customs and traditions not found in corporate America. For example, project teams typically have daily “stand-up” meetings seven minutes after the hour. Why seven minutes after the hour?

Because Google co-founder Sergey Brin once estimated that it took seven minutes to walk across the Google campus. Everybody stands to make sure no one gets too comfortable and no time is wasted during the rapid-fire update. As one manager noted, “The whole concept of the stand-up is to talk through what everyone’s doing, so if someone is working on what you’re working on, you can discover and collaborate not duplicate.”

Another custom is “dogfooding.” This is when a project team releases the functional prototype of a future product to Google employees for them to test drive. There is a strong norm within Google to test new products and provide feedback to the developers. The project team receives feedback from thousands of Google-ys. The internal focus group can log bugs or simply comment on design or functionality. Fellow Google-ys do not hold back on their feedback and are quick to point out things they don’t like. This often leads to significant product improvements.

S N A P S H O T F R O M P R A C T I C E 3 . 4 Google-y*

Jade/Blend Images

*“Building a ‘Googley’ Workforce,” Washington Post, October 21, 2006; E. Mills, “Meet Google’s Culture Czar,” CNET News. com, April 27, 2007; H. Walters, “How Google Got Its New Look,” BusinessWeek, May 10, 2010.

espoused by top management. How pervasive these subcultures and countercultures are affects the strength of the culture of the organization and the extent to which culture influences members’ actions and responses.

Identifying Cultural Characteristics Deciphering an organization’s culture is a highly interpretative, subjective process that requires assessment of both current and past history. The student of culture cannot simply rely on what people report about their culture. The physical environment in which people work, as well as how people act and respond to different events that occur, must be examined. Figure 3.6 contains a worksheet for diagnosing the culture of an organization. Although by no means exhaustive, the checklist often yields clues about the norms, customs, and values of an organization.

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xiv

You will find the content of this text highly practical, relevant, and current. The con- cepts discussed are relatively simple and intuitive. As you study each chapter we sug- gest you try to grasp not only how things work but also why things work. You are encouraged to use the text as a handbook as you move through the three levels of competency:

I know.

I can do.

I can adapt to new situations.

The field of project management is growing in importance and at an exponen- tial rate. It is nearly impossible to imagine a future management career that does not include management of projects. Resumes of managers will soon be primarily a description of their participation in and contributions to projects.

Good luck on your journey through the text and on your future projects.

Chapter-by-Chapter Revisions for the Eighth Edition

Chapter 1: Modern Project Management

∙ New Snapshot: Project Management in Action 2019. ∙ New Snapshot: London Calling: Seattle Seahawks versus Oakland Raiders. ∙ New case: A Day in the Life—2019. ∙ New section on Agile Project Management.

Chapter 2: Organization Strategy and Project Selection

∙ Chapter text refined and streamlined. ∙ New section describing the phase gate model for selecting projects.

Chapter 3: Organization: Structure and Culture

∙ New section on project management offices (PMOs). ∙ New Snapshot: 2018 PMO of the Year.

Chapter 4: Defining the Project

∙ Consistent with PMBOK 6th edition, the scope checklist includes product scope description, justification/business case, and acceptance criteria.

∙ Discussion of scope creep expanded. ∙ New case: Celebration of Color 5K.

Note to Student

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Chapter 5: Estimating Project Times and Costs

∙ Snapshot from Practice on reducing estimating errors incorporated in the text. ∙ Snapshot from Practice: London 2012 Olympics expanded. ∙ A new set of six exercises.

Chapter 6: Developing a Project Schedule

∙ Chapter 6 retitled Developing a Project Schedule to better reflect content. ∙ New case: Ventura Baseball Stadium.

Chapter 7: Managing Risk

∙ New Snapshot: Terminal Five—London Heathrow Airport. ∙ Consistent with PMBOK 6e, “escalate” added to risk and opportunity responses

and “budget” reserves replaced by “contingency” reserves.

Chapter 8 Scheduling Resources and Costs

∙ Two new exercises. ∙ New case: Tham Luang Cave Rescue.

Chapter 9: Reducing Project Duration

∙ Snapshot 9.1: Smartphone Wars updated. ∙ New case: Ventura Baseball Stadium (B).

Chapter 10: Being an Effective Project Manager

∙ Effective Communicator has replaced Skillful Politician as one of the 8 traits asso- ciated with being an effective project manager.

∙ Research Highlight 10.1: Give and Take expanded.

Chapter 11: Managing Project Teams

∙ A new review question and exercises added.

Chapter 12: Outsourcing: Managing Interorganizational Relations

∙ Snapshot 12.4: U.S. Department of Defense Value Engineering Awards updated. ∙ New exercise added.

Chapter 13 Progress and Performance Measurement and Evaluation

∙ Expanded discussion of the need for earned value management. ∙ New case: Ventura Stadium Status Report.

Chapter 14: Project Closure

∙ New case: Halo for Heroes II.

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Chapter 15: Agile Project Management

∙ Chapter revised to include discussions of Extreme programming, Kanban, and hybrid models.

∙ New Snapshot: League of Legends. ∙ New case: Graham Nash.

Chapter 16: International Projects

∙ Snapshots from Practice: The Filming of Apocalypse Now and River of Doubt expanded.

∙ New case: Mr. Wui Goes to America.

MCGRAW-HILL CUSTOMER CARE CONTACT INFORMATION At McGraw-Hill, we understand that getting the most from new technology can be challenging. That’s why our services don’t stop after you purchase our products. You can e-mail our Product Specialists 24 hours a day to get product-training online. Or you can search our knowledge bank of Frequently Asked Questions on our sup- port website. For Customer Support, call 800-331-5094 or visit www.mhhe.com/ support. One of our Technical Support Analysts will be able to assist you in a timely fashion.

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xvii

13. Progress and Performance Measurement and Evaluation 474

14. Project Closure 532

15. Agile Project Management 562

16. International Projects 590

APPENDIX One Solutions to Selected Exercises 626 Two Computer Project Exercises 639

GLOSSARY 656 ACRONYMS 663 PROJECT MANAGEMENT EQUATIONS 664 CROSS REFERENCE OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT 665 SOCIO-TECHNICAL APPROACH TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT 666 INDEX 667

Preface ix

1. Modern Project Management 2

2. Organization Strategy and Project Selection 28

3. Organization: Structure and Culture 68

4. Defining the Project 104

5. Estimating Project Times and Costs 134

6. Developing a Project Schedule 168

7. Managing Risk 212

8. Scheduling Resources and Costs 258

9. Reducing Project Duration 318

10. Being an Effective Project Manager 354

11. Managing Project Teams 390

12. Outsourcing: Managing Interorganizational Relations 434

Brief Contents

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xviii

2.8 Managing the Portfolio System 52 Senior Management Input 52

Governance Team Responsibilities 52

Balancing the Portfolio for Risks and Types

of Projects 52

Summary 54

Chapter 3 Organization: Structure and Culture 68 3.1 Project Management Structures 70

Organizing Projects within the Functional

Organization 70

Organizing Projects as Dedicated Teams 73

Organizing Projects within a Matrix

Arrangement 77

Different Matrix Forms 78

3.2 Project Management Office (PMO) 81 3.3 What Is the Right Project Management

Structure? 83 Organization Considerations 83

Project Considerations 83

3.4 Organizational Culture 84 What Is Organizational Culture? 85

Identifying Cultural Characteristics 87

3.5 Implications of Organizational Culture for Organizing Projects 89

Summary 92

Chapter 4 Defining the Project 104 4.1 Step 1: Defining the Project Scope 106

Employing a Project Scope Checklist 107

4.2 Step 2: Establishing Project Priorities 111 4.3 Step 3: Creating the Work Breakdown

Structure 113 Major Groupings in a WBS 113

How a WBS Helps the Project Manager 113

A Simple WBS Development 114

4.4 Step 4: Integrating the WBS with the Organization 118

4.5 Step 5: Coding the WBS for the Information System 118

4.6 Process Breakdown Structure 121

Preface ix

Chapter 1 Modern Project Management 2 1.1 What Is a Project? 6

What a Project Is Not 7

Program versus Project 7

The Project Life Cycle 9

The Project Manager 10

Being Part of a Project Team 11

1.2 Agile Project Management 12 1.3 Current Drivers of Project Management 15

Compression of the Product Life Cycle 15

Knowledge Explosion 15

Triple Bottom Line (Planet, People, Profit) 15

Increased Customer Focus 15

Small Projects Represent Big Problems 16

1.4 Project Management Today: A Socio-Technical Approach 17

Summary 18

Chapter 2 Organization Strategy and Project Selection 28 2.1 Why Project Managers Need to

Understand Strategy 30 2.2 The Strategic Management Process:

An Overview 31 Four Activities of the Strategic Management

Process 31

2.3 The Need for a Project Priority System 36 Problem 1: The Implementation Gap 36

Problem 2: Organization Politics 37

Problem 3: Resource Conflicts and Multitasking 38

2.4 Project Classification 38 2.5 Phase Gate Model 39 2.6 Selection Criteria 41

Financial Criteria 41

Nonfinancial Criteria 43

Two Multi-Criteria Selection Models 43

2.7 Applying a Selection Model 46 Project Classification 46

Sources and Solicitation of Project Proposals 47

Ranking Proposals and Selection of Projects 49

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4.7 Responsibility Matrices 122 4.8 Project Communication Plan 124 Summary 126

Chapter 5 Estimating Project Times and Costs 134 5.1 Factors Influencing the Quality of

Estimates 136 Planning Horizon 136

Project Complexity 136

People 136

Project Structure and Organization 137

Padding Estimates 137

Organizational Culture 137

Other Factors 137

5.2 Estimating Guidelines for Times, Costs, and Resources 138

5.3 Top-Down versus Bottom-Up Estimating 139

5.4 Methods for Estimating Project Times and Costs 142

Top-Down Approaches for Estimating

Project Times and Costs 142

Bottom-Up Approaches for Estimating

Project Times and Costs 146

A Hybrid: Phase Estimating 147

5.5 Level of Detail 149 5.6 Types of Costs 150

Direct Costs 151

Direct Project Overhead Costs 151

General and Administrative (G&A)

Overhead Costs 151

5.7 Refining Estimates 152 5.8 Creating a Database for Estimating 154 5.9 Mega Prosjects: A Special Case 155 Summary 158 Appendix 5.1: Learning Curves for Estimating 164

Chapter 6 Developing a Project Schedule 168 6.1 Developing the Project Network 169 6.2 From Work Package to Network 170 6.3 Constructing a Project Network 172

Terminology 172

Basic Rules to Follow in Developing Project

Networks 172

6.4 Activity-on-Node (AON) Fundamentals 173

6.5 Network Computation Process 176 Forward Pass—Earliest Times 177

Backward Pass—Latest Times 179

Determining Slack (or Float) 180

6.6 Using the Forward and Backward Pass Information 183

6.7 Level of Detail for Activities 184 6.8 Practical Considerations 184

Network Logic Errors 184

Activity Numbering 184

Use of Computers to Develop Networks 185

Calendar Dates 185

Multiple Starts and Multiple Projects 185

6.9 Extended Network Techniques to Come Closer to Reality 188

Laddering 188

Use of Lags to Reduce Schedule Detail and

Project Duration 188

An Example Using Lag Relationships—the

Forward and Backward Pass 192

Hammock Activities 193

Summary 194

Chapter 7 Managing Risk 212 7.1 Risk Management Process 214 7.2 Step 1: Risk Identification 216 7.3 Step 2: Risk Assessment 219

Probability Analysis 222

7.4 Step 3: Risk Response Development 223 Mitigating Risk 223

Avoiding Risk 225

Transferring Risk 225

Escalating Risk 225

Retaining Risk 225

7.5 Contingency Planning 226 Technical Risks 227

Schedule Risks 229

Cost Risks 229

Funding Risks 229

7.6 Opportunity Management 230 7.7 Contingency Funding and Time Buffers 231

Contingency Reserves 231

Management Reserves 232

Time Buffers 232

7.8 Step 4: Risk Response Control 233 7.9 Change Control Management 234 Summary 237 Appendix 7.1: PERT and PERT Simulation 248

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Chapter 8 Scheduling Resources and Costs 258 8.1 Overview of the Resource Scheduling

Problem 260 8.2 Types of Resource Constraints 262 8.3 Classification of a Scheduling Problem 263 8.4 Resource Allocation Methods 263

Assumptions 263

Time-Constrained Projects: Smoothing

Resource Demand 264

Resource-Constrained Projects 265

8.5 Computer Demonstration of Resource- Constrained Scheduling 270

The Impacts of Resource-Constrained

Scheduling 274

8.6 Splitting Activities 277 8.7 Benefits of Scheduling Resources 278 8.8 Assigning Project Work 279 8.9 Multiproject Resource Schedules 280 8.10 Using the Resource Schedule to Develop a

Project Cost Baseline 281 Why a Time-Phased Budget Baseline Is Needed 281

Creating a Time-Phased Budget 282

Summary 287 Appendix 8.1: The Critical-Chain Approach 308

Chapter 9 Reducing Project Duration 318 9.1 Rationale for Reducing Project Duration 320 9.2 Options for Accelerating Project Completion 321

Options When Resources Are Not Constrained 322

Options When Resources Are Constrained 324

9.3 Project Cost-Duration Graph 327 Explanation of Project Costs 327

9.4 Constructing a Project Cost-Duration Graph 328 Determining the Activities to Shorten 328

A Simplified Example 330

9.5 Practical Considerations 332 Using the Project Cost-Duration Graph 332

Crash Times 333

Linearity Assumption 333

Choice of Activities to Crash Revisited 333

Time Reduction Decisions and Sensitivity 334

9.6 What If Cost, Not Time, Is the Issue? 335 Reduce Project Scope 336

Have Owner Take on More Responsibility 336

Outsource Project Activities or Even the

Entire Project 336

Brainstorm Cost Savings Options 336

Summary 337

Chapter 10 Being an Effective Project Manager 354 10.1 Managing versus Leading a Project 356 10.2 Engaging Project Stakeholders 357 10.3 Influence as Exchange 361

Task-Related Currencies 362

Position-Related Currencies 363

Inspiration-Related Currencies 363

Relationship-Related Currencies 363

Personal-Related Currencies 364

10.4 Social Network Building 364 Mapping Stakeholder Dependencies 364

Management by Wandering Around

(MBWA) 366

Managing Upward Relations 367

Leading by Example 369

10.5 Ethics and Project Management 372 10.6 Building Trust: The Key to Exercising

Influence 373 10.7 Qualities of an Effective Project Manager 375 Summary 378

Chapter 11 Managing Project Teams 390 11.1 The Five-Stage Team Development Model 393 11.2 Situational Factors Affecting Team

Development 395 11.3 Building High-Performance Project Teams 397

Recruiting Project Members 397

Conducting Project Meetings 399

Establishing Team Norms 401

Establishing a Team Identity 403

Creating a Shared Vision 404

Managing Project Reward Systems 406

Orchestrating the Decision-Making Process 408

Managing Conflict within the Project 410

Rejuvenating the Project Team 413

11.4 Managing Virtual Project Teams 415 11.5 Project Team Pitfalls 419

Groupthink 419

Bureaucratic Bypass Syndrome 419

Team Spirit Becomes Team Infatuation 419

Going Native 420

Summary 421

Chapter 12 Outsourcing: Managing Interorganizational Relations 434 12.1 Outsourcing Project Work 436

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12.2 Request for Proposal (RFP) 440 Selection of Contractor from Bid Proposals 441

12.3 Best Practices in Outsourcing Project Work 442

Well-Defined Requirements and Procedures 442

Extensive Training and Team-Building

Activities 444

Well-Established Conflict Management Processes

in Place 445

Frequent Review and Status Updates 447

Co-location When Needed 448

Fair and Incentive-Laden Contracts 449

Long-Term Outsourcing Relationships 449

12.4 The Art of Negotiating 450 1. Separate the People from the Problem 451

2. Focus on Interests, Not Positions 452

3. Invent Options for Mutual Gain 453

4. When Possible, Use Objective Criteria 454

Dealing with Unreasonable People 454

12.5 A Note on Managing Customer Relations 455 Summary 458 Appendix 12.1: Contract Management 467

Chapter 13 Progress and Performance Measurement and Evaluation 474 13.1 Structure of a Project Monitoring Information

System 476 What Data Are Collected? 476

Collecting Data and Analysis 476

Reports and Reporting 476

13.2 The Project Control Process 477 Step 1: Setting a Baseline Plan 477

Step 2: Measuring Progress and Performance 477

Step 3: Comparing Plan against Actual 477

Step 4: Taking Action 478

13.3 Monitoring Time Performance 478 Tracking Gantt Chart 478

Control Chart 479

Milestone Schedules 479

13.4 Earned Value Management (EVM) 480 The Need for Earned Value Management 480

Percent Complete Rule 484

What Costs Are Included in Baselines? 484

Methods of Variance Analysis 485

13.5 Developing a Status Report: A Hypothetical Example 487

Assumptions 487

Baseline Development 487

Development of the Status Report 488

13.6 Indexes to Monitor Progress 492 Performance Indexes 493

Project Percent Complete Indexes 494

Software for Project Cost/Schedule Systems 494

Additional Earned Value Rules 495

13.7 Forecasting Final Project Cost 496 13.8 Other Control Issues 498

Technical Performance Measurement 498

Scope Creep 500

Baseline Changes 500

The Costs and Problems of Data Acquisition 502

Summary 503 Appendix 13.1: The Application of Additional Earned Value Rules 522 Appendix 13.2: Obtaining Project Performance

Information from MS Project 2010 or 2016 528

Chapter 14 Project Closure 532 14.1 Types of Project Closure 534 14.2 Wrap-up Closure Activities 536 14.3 Project Audits 539

The Project Audit Process 540

Project Retrospectives 543

14.4 Project Audits: The Big Picture 543 Level 1: Ad Hoc Project Management 546

Level 2: Formal Application of Project

Management 546

Level 3: Institutionalization of Project

Management 547

Level 4: Management of Project Management

System 547

Level 5: Optimization of Project Management

System 548

14.5 Post-implementation Evaluation 548 Team Evaluation 548

Individual, Team Member, and Project Manager

Performance Reviews 550

Summary 552 Appendix 14.1: Project Closeout Checklist 555

Chapter 15 Agile Project Management 562 15.1 Traditional versus Agile Methods 564 15.2 Agile PM 566 15.3 Agile PM in Action: Scrum 569

Roles and Responsibilities 570

Scrum Meetings 572

Product and Sprint Backlogs 573

Sprint and Release Burndown Charts 575

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15.4 Extreme Programming and Kanban 576 Kanban 577

15.5 Applying Agile PM to Large Projects 578 15.6 Limitations and Concerns 580 15.7 Hybrid Models 580 Summary 581

Chapter 16 International Projects 590 16.1 Environmental Factors 592

Legal/Political Factors 593

Security 593

Geography 594

Economic Factors 594

Infrastructure 596

Culture 597

16.2 Project Site Selection 599 16.3 Cross-Cultural Considerations:

A Closer Look 600 Adjustments 601

Working in Mexico 602

Working in France 605

Working in Saudi Arabia 606

Working in China 608

Working in the United States 609

Summary Comments about Working in Different

Cultures 611

Culture Shock 611

16.4 Selection and Training for International Projects 614

Summary 617

Appendix One: Solutions to Selected Exercises 626

Appendix Two: Computer Project Exercises 639

Glossary 656 Acronyms 663 Project Management Equations 664 Cross Reference of Project Management 665 Socio-Technical Approach to Project Management 666 Index 667

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Project Management

The Managerial Process

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Modern Project Management

OUTLINE

1.1 What Is a Project?

1.2 Agile Project Management

1.3 Current Drivers of Project Management

1.4 Project Management Today: A Socio-Technical Approach

Summary

Text Overview

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter you should be able to:

1-1 Understand why project management (PM) is crucial in today’s world.

1-2 Distinguish a project from routine operations.

1-3 Identify the different stages of a project life cycle.

1-4 Describe how Agile PM is different from traditional PM.

1-5 Understand that managing projects involves balancing the technical and sociocultural dimensions of the project.

C H A P T E R O N E

1

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All of mankind’s greatest accomplishments—from building the great

pyramids to discovering a cure for polio to putting a man on the moon—

began as a project.

This is a good time to be reading a book about project management. Business leaders and experts have recognized that project management is critical to sustainable economic growth. New jobs and competitive advantage are achieved by constant inno- vation, developing new products and services, and improving both productivity and quality of work. This is the world of project management. Project management pro- vides people with a powerful set of tools that improves their ability to plan, implement, and manage activities to accomplish specific objectives. But project management is more than just a set of tools; it is a results-oriented management style that places a premium on building collaborative relationships among a diverse cast of characters. Exciting opportunities await people skilled in project management.

The project approach has long been the style of doing business in the construc- tion industry, U.S. Department of Defense contracts, and Hollywood, as well as big consulting firms. Now project management has spread to all avenues of work.

Understand why project management (PM) is crucial in today’s world.

1-1LO

Project networks

6

Managing risk 7

Monitoring progress

13

Teams 11

Outsourcing 12

Project manager

10

Strategy 2

Introduction 1

Organization 3

Schedule resources & costs

8

15 Agile

PM

16

Project closure

14

Estimate 5

Reducing duration

9

Define project

4

Internationalprojects

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Today, project teams carry out everything from port expansions to hospital restructur- ing to upgrading information systems. They are creating next-generation fuel-efficient vehicles, developing sustainable sources of energy, and exploring the farthest reaches of outer space. The impact of project management is most profound in high-tech industries, where the new folk heroes are young professionals whose Herculean efforts lead to the constant flow of new hardware and software products.

Project management is not limited to the private sector. Project management is also a vehicle for doing good deeds and solving social problems. Endeavors such as provid- ing emergency aid to areas hit by natural disasters, devising a strategy for reducing crime and drug abuse within a city, or organizing a community effort to renovate a public playground would and do benefit from the application of modern project management techniques.

Perhaps the best indicator of demand for project management can be seen in the rapid expansion of the Project Management Institute (PMI), a professional organiza- tion for project managers. PMI membership has grown from 93,000 in 2002 to more than 565,000 in 2019. See Snapshot from Practice 1.1: The Project Management Insti- tute for information regarding professional certification in project management.

It’s nearly impossible to pick up a newspaper or business periodical and not find something about projects. This is no surprise! Approximately $2.5 trillion (about 25 percent of the U.S. gross national product) is spent on projects each year in the United States alone. Other countries are increasingly spending more on projects. Millions of people around the world consider project management the major task in their profession.

The Project Management Institute (PMI) was founded in 1969 as an inter- national society for project managers. Today PMI has members from more than 180 countries and more than

565,000 members. PMI professionals come from virtu- ally every major industry, including aerospace, automo- tive, business management, construction, engineering, financial services, information technology, pharmaceu- ticals, healthcare, and telecommunications.

PMI provides certification as a Project Manage- ment Professional (PMP)—someone who has docu- mented sufficient project experience, agreed to follow the PMI code of professional conduct, and demon- strated mastery of the field of project management by passing a comprehensive examination based on the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK), which is in its 6th edition. The number of people earning PMP status has grown dramatically in recent years. In 1996 there were fewer than 3,000 certified Project Management Professionals. By 2019 there were more than 910,000 PMPs.

Just as the CPA exam is a standard for accountants, passing the PMP exam may become the standard for

S N A P S H O T F R O M P R A C T I C E 1 . 1 The Project Management Institute*

project managers. Some companies are requiring that all their project managers be PMP certified. Moreover, many job postings are restricted to PMPs. Job seekers, in general, are finding that being PMP certified is an advantage in the marketplace.

PMI added a certification as a Certified Associate in Project Management (CAPM). CAPM is designed for project team members and entry-level project manag- ers, as well as qualified undergraduate and graduate students who want a credential to recognize their mastery of the project management body of knowl- edge. CAPM does not require the extensive project management experience associated with the PMP. In fact, students often qualify for taking the CAPM exam by taking a course on project management. For more details on PMP and CAPM, google PMI to find the current website for the Project Management Institute.

This text provides a solid foundation for passing either exam. However, we personally found it neces- sary to study a good PMP/CAPM exam “prep book” to pass the exam. This is recommended, given the format and nature of the exam.

*PMI Today, March 2019, p. 4.

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Most of the people who excel at managing projects never have the title of project manager. They include accountants, lawyers, administrators, scientists, contractors, coaches, public health officials, teachers, and community advocates whose suc- cess depends upon being able to lead and manage project work. For some, the very nature of their work is project driven. Projects may be cases for lawyers, audits for accountants, events for artists, and renovations for contractors. For others, projects may be a small but critical part of their work. For example, a high school teacher who teaches four classes a day is responsible for coaching a group of students to compete in a national debate competition. A store manager who oversees daily operations is charged with developing an employee retention program. A sales account executive is given the additional assignment of team lead to launch daily deals into a new city. A public health official who manages a clinic is also responsible for organizing a Homeless Youth Connect event. For these and others, project management is not a title but a critical job requirement. It is hard to think of a profession or a career path that would not benefit from being good at managing projects.

Not only is project management critical to most careers, but also the skill set is trans- ferable across most businesses and professions. Project management fundamentals are universal. The same project management methodology that is used to develop a new product can be adapted to create new services, organize events, refurbish aging opera- tions, and so forth. In a world where it is estimated that each person is likely to experi- ence three to four career changes, managing projects is a talent worthy of development.

The significance of project management can also be seen in the classroom. Twenty years ago major universities offered one or two classes in project manage- ment, primarily for engineers. Today most universities offer multiple sections of

senior citizens that combines principles of yoga and aerobics.

3. Marketing: Execute a sales program for a new home air purifier.

4. Industrial engineering: Manage a team to cre- ate a value chain report for every aspect of a key product from design to customer delivery.

5. Chemistry: Develop a quality control program for an organization’s drug production facilities.

6. Management: Implement a new store layout design. 7. Pre-med neurology student: Join a project team

linking mind mapping to an imbedded prosthetic that will allow blind people to function near normally.

8. Sports communication: Join the athletics staff at Montana State University to promote women’s basketball.

1. Business information: Join a project team charged with install- ing a new data security system.

2. Physical education: Design and develop a new fitness program for

9. Systems engineer: Become a project team member of a project to develop data mining of medi- cal papers and studies related to drug efficacy.

10. Accounting: Work on an audit of a major client. 11. Public health: Research and design a medical

marijuana educational program.

12. English: Create a web-based user manual for a new electronics product.

S N A P S H O T F R O M P R A C T I C E 1 . 2 A Dozen Examples of Projects Given to Recent College Graduates

John Fedele/Blend Images LLC

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project management classes, with the core group of engineers being supplemented by business students majoring in marketing, management information systems (MIS), and finance, as well as students from other disciplines such as oceanography, health sciences, computer sciences, and liberal arts. These students are finding that their exposure to project management is providing them with distinct advantages when it comes time to look for jobs. More and more employers are looking for graduates with project management skills. See Snapshot from Practice 1.2: A Dozen Examples of Projects Given to Recent College Graduates for examples of projects given to recent college graduates. The logical starting point for developing these skills is understand- ing the uniqueness of a project and of project managers.

1.1 What Is a Project?

What do the following headlines have in common?

Millions Watch World Cup Finals Citywide WiFi System Set to Go Live Hospitals Respond to New Healthcare Reforms Apple’s New iPhone Hits the Market City Receives Stimulus Funds to Expand Light Rail System

All of these events are projects.

Distinguish a project from routine operations.

1-2LO

The Project Management Institute provides the following definition of a project: A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service, or result.

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Like most organizational efforts, the major goal of a project is to satisfy a customer’s need. Beyond this fundamental similarity, the characteristics of a project help differentiate it from other endeavors of the organization. The major characteris- tics of a project are as follows:

1. An established objective. 2. A defined lifespan with a beginning and an end. 3. Usually, the involvement of several departments and professionals. 4. Typically, doing something that has never been done before. 5. Specific time, cost, and performance requirements.

First, projects have a defined objective—whether it is constructing a 12-story apart- ment complex by January 1 or releasing version 2.0 of a specific software package as quickly as possible. This singular purpose is often lacking in daily organizational life in which workers perform repetitive operations each day.

Second, because there is a specified objective, projects have a defined endpoint, which is contrary to the ongoing duties and responsibilities of traditional jobs. Instead of staying in one job, individuals often move from project to project, working with different groups of people. For example, after helping to install a security system, an IT engineer may be assigned to develop a database for a different client.

Third, unlike much organizational work that is segmented according to functional specialty, projects typically require the combined efforts of a variety of specialists. Instead of working in separate offices under separate managers, project participants, whether they be engineers, financial analysts, marketing professionals, or quality control specialists, work together under the guidance of a project manager to complete a project.

The fourth characteristic of a project is that it is nonroutine and has some unique elements. This is not an either/or issue but a matter of degree. Obviously, accomplish- ing something that has never been done before, such as building an electric automobile or landing two mechanical rovers on Mars, requires solving previously unsolved prob- lems and using breakthrough technology. On the other hand, even basic construction projects that involve established sets of routines and procedures require some degree of customization that makes them unique. See Snapshot from Practice 1.3: London Calling: Seattle Seahawks versus Oakland Raiders for an unusual change in routine.

Finally, specific time, cost, and performance requirements bind projects. Projects are evaluated according to accomplishment, cost, and time spent. These triple constraints impose a higher degree of accountability than typically found in most jobs. These three also highlight one of the primary functions of project management, which is balancing the trade-offs among time, cost, and performance while ultimately satisfying the customer.

What a Project Is Not Projects should not be confused with everyday work. A project is not routine, repetitive work! Ordinary daily work typically requires doing the same or similar work over and over, while a project is done only once; a new product or service exists when the proj- ect is completed. Examine the list in Table 1.1 that compares routine, repetitive work and projects. Recognizing the difference is important because too often resources can be used up on daily operations, which may not contribute to longer-range organization strategies that require innovative new products.

Program versus Project In practice the terms project and program cause confusion. They are often used synon- ymously. A program is a group of related projects designed to accomplish a common

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On October 7, 2018, the National Foot- ball League (NFL) Seattle Seahawks walked off the field having played their best game of the season, only to fall short to the undefeated Los Angeles

Rams, 33–31. Next on the schedule was an away game with the Oakland Raiders. Instead of heading about 670 miles south to Oakland, California, however, the Seahawks flew nearly 5,000 miles to London, England, eight time zones away, to spread the gospel of the NFL.

Sending an NFL team overseas during the season is no easy task. Advanced planning is critical. Players need passports. Accommodations have to be found and trans- portation arranged. The equipment staff sends supplies months in advance. All total, the Seahawks ended up shipping 21,000 pounds of gear and products, including 1,150 rolls of athletic tape, 2 tons of medical supplies, 350 power adapters, and 500 pairs of shoes!

Two of the biggest challenges the “Hawks” faced were jet lag and distractions. Many of the players and staff had never been overseas. London would be a strange, exciting experience. With this in mind, head coach Pete Carroll decided to fly early to London on Wednesday, October 10. This would allow players to better adjust their sleep patterns while providing some free time to explore London.

WEDNESDAY, OCTOBER 10 The Seahawks boarded a chartered jet that included 45 sleeping pods in first class for the veteran players. Coach Carroll and his staff sat in the first row of business class. Rookies and members of the practice squad sat behind them. Regardless of class, everyone got the same menu: beef filet, Cajun chicken, or herb-roasted salmon.

Typically, on flights to the east, Sam Ramsden, the team’s director of health and player performance, tells players to stay awake so they will be tired and sleep well when they arrive. For the London trip, though, Ramsden reversed the program: he told players to sleep as much as possible on the flight so when they arrived in London on Thursday afternoon, they would have enough energy to stay up until 9 or 10 p.m. and then get a full night’s rest. “We try to protect their circadian rhythms as much as possible,” Ramsden said. Circadian rhythm (also known as body clock) is a natu- ral, internal system that’s designed to regulate feelings of sleepiness and wakefulness over a 24-hour period.

Ramsden’s staff gave each player special sleep kits that included blackout eye masks. Some players took melatonin or Ambien, while others used headphones that played the sounds of wind and rushing water to induce sleep.

S N A P S H O T F R O M P R A C T I C E 1 . 3 London Calling: Seattle Seahawks versus Oakland Raiders*

THURSDAY, OCTOBER 11 The Seahawks landed on Thursday about 1:30 p.m. (5:30 a.m. Seattle time). Buses took them to a golf course resort north of London.

At night, the players let off some steam at a Topgolf facility. Here organized into groups of four, they tried to hit golf balls into giant holes to score points. Jeers rang out every time they were wildly off target.

FRIDAY, OCTOBER 12 After several hours of meetings and a practice, play- ers were free to explore London. They scattered to the various corners of London. On returning to the resort before the 11:00 p.m. curfew, a few of the players complained about the warm English beer.

The Oakland Raiders arrived in London at 1:00 p.m., 53 hours before game time.

SATURDAY, OCTOBER 13 Coach Carroll likes to take his players to the stadium the day before a road game so they can visualize conditions ahead of time. At 1:30 p.m., the Seahawks drove to Wembley, where they saw their fully Seahawk- equipped locker room and the field, the most famous soccer pitch in England. The field appeared slick, so the equipment manager had longer screw-in cleats available for the players. The Hawks returned to their resort for their normal pregame evening routine.

GAMEDAY, OCTOBER 14 During the course of the game, the TV announcers commented several times that the Raiders seemed sluggish, while the Seahawks were sharp and focused. The Seahawks dominated the game, winning 27–3.

David Lee/Shutterstock

*Bell, G., “Seahawks Arrive in London. Why Twins Shaquill and Shaquem Griffin Did Not Travel Here Equally,” thenewstribune .com, October 11, 2018. Belson, K., “Four Thousand Miles for the W,” nytimes.com, October 20, 2018; Accessed 10/22/18.

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Routine, Repetitive Work Projects

Taking class notes Writing a term paper Daily entering sales receipts into the accounting ledger

Setting up a sales kiosk for a professional accounting meeting

Responding to a supply-chain request Developing a supply-chain information system Practicing scales on the piano Writing a new piano piece Routine manufacture of an Apple iPod Designing an iPod that is approximately 2 × 4 inches,

interfaces with PC, and stores 10,000 songs Attaching tags on a manufactured product Wire-tag projects for GE and Walmart

TABLE 1.1 Comparison of Routine Work with Projects

goal over an extended period of time. Each project within a program has a project manager. The major differences lie in scale and time span.

Program management is the process of managing a group of ongoing, interdepen- dent, related projects in a coordinated way to achieve strategic objectives. For exam- ple, a pharmaceutical organization could have a program for curing cancer. The cancer program includes and coordinates all cancer projects that continue over an extended time horizon (Gray, 2011). Coordinating all cancer projects under the oversight of a cancer team provides benefits not available from managing them individually. This cancer team also oversees the selection and prioritizing of cancer projects that are included in their special “Cancer” portfolio. Although each project retains its own goals and scope, the project manager and team are also motivated by the higher program goal. Program goals are closely related to broad strategic organization goals.

The Project Life Cycle Another way of illustrating the unique nature of project work is in terms of the project life cycle. The life cycle recognizes that projects have a limited lifespan and that there are predictable changes in level of effort and focus over the life of the project. There are a number of different life-cycle models in project management literature. Many are unique to a specific industry or type of project. For example, a new-software development project may consist of five phases: definition, design, code, integration/ test, and maintenance. A generic cycle is depicted in Figure 1.1.

The project life cycle typically passes sequentially through four stages: defining, planning, executing, and closing. The starting point begins the moment the project is given the go-ahead. Project effort starts slowly, builds to a peak, and then declines to delivery of the project to the customer.

1. Defining stage. Specifications of the project are defined; project objectives are established; teams are formed; major responsibilities are assigned.

2. Planning stage. The level of effort increases, and plans are developed to deter- mine what the project will entail, when it will be scheduled, whom it will benefit, what quality level should be maintained, and what the budget will be.

3. Executing stage. A major portion of the project work takes place—both physical and mental. The physical product is produced (e.g., a bridge, a report, a software program). Time, cost, and specification measures are used for control. Is the project on schedule, on budget, and meeting specifications? What are the forecasts of each of these measures? What revisions/changes are necessary?

4. Closing stage. Closing includes three activities: delivering the project product to the customer, redeploying project resources, and conducting a post-project review.

Identify the different stages of a project life cycle.

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FIGURE 1.1 Project Life Cycle

Le ve

l o f e

� or

t

1. Goals 2. Specifications 3. Tasks 4. Responsibilities

1. Schedules 2. Budgets 3. Resources 4. Risks 5. Sta�ng

1. Status reports 2. Changes 3. Quality 4. Forecasts

1. Train customer 2. Transfer documents 3. Release resources 4. Evaluation 5. Lessons learned

Defining

Defining

Start Time End

Planning

Planning

Executing

Executing

Closing

Closing

Delivery of the project might include customer training and transferring documents. Redeployment usually involves releasing project equipment/materials to other proj- ects and finding new assignments for team members. Post-project reviews include not only assessing performance but also capturing lessons learned.

In practice, the project life cycle is used by some project groups to depict the timing of major tasks over the life of the project. For example, the design team might plan a major commitment of resources in the defining stage, while the quality team would expect their major effort to increase in the latter stages of the project life cycle. Because most organizations have a portfolio of projects going on concurrently, each at a different stage of each project’s life cycle, careful planning and management at the organization and project levels are imperative.

The Project Manager At first glance project managers perform the same functions as other managers. That is, they plan, schedule, motivate, and control. However, what makes them unique is that they manage temporary, nonrepetitive activities to complete a fixed-life proj- ect. Unlike functional managers, who take over existing operations, project managers create a project team and organization where none existed before. They must decide what and how things should be done instead of simply managing set processes. They must meet the challenges of each phase of the project life cycle and even oversee the dissolution of their operation when the project is completed.

Project managers must work with a diverse troupe of characters to complete projects. They are typically the direct link to the customer and must manage the tension between customer expectations and what is feasible and reasonable. Project managers

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provide direction, coordination, and integration to the project team, which is often made up of part-time participants loyal to their functional departments. They often must work with a cadre of outsiders—vendors, suppliers, and subcontractors—who do not necessarily share their project allegience.

Project managers are ultimately responsible for performance (frequently with too little authority). They must ensure that appropriate trade-offs are made among the time, cost, and performance requirements of the project. At the same time, unlike their functional counterparts, project managers often possess only rudimentary technical knowledge to make such decisions. Instead, they must orchestrate the completion of the project by inducing the right people, at the right time, to address the right issues and make the right decisions.

While project management is not for the timid, working on projects can be an extremely rewarding experience. Life on projects is rarely boring; each day is differ- ent from the last. Since most projects are directed at solving some tangible problem or pursuing some useful opportunity, project managers find their work personally meaningful and satisfying. They enjoy the act of creating something new and innovative. Project managers and team members can feel immense pride in their accomplishment, whether it is a new bridge, a new product, or a needed service. Project managers are often stars in their organization and well compensated.

Good project managers are always in demand. Every industry is looking for effective people who can get the right things done on time. See Snapshot from Practice 1.4: Ron Parker for an example of someone who leveraged his ability to manage projects to build a successful career in the glass products industry. Clearly project management is a challenging and exciting profession. This text is intended to provide the necessary knowledge, perspective, and tools to enable students to accept the challenge.

Being Part of a Project Team Most people’s first exposure to project management occurs while working as part of a team assigned to complete a specific project. Sometimes this work is full time, but in most cases people work part time on one or more projects. They must learn how to juggle their day-to-day commitments with additional project responsibilities. They may join a team with a long history of working together, in which case roles and norms are firmly established. Alternatively their team may consist of strangers from different departments and organizations. As such, they endure the growing pains of a group evolving into a team. They need to be a positive force in helping the team coalesce into an effective project team.

Not only are there people issues, but project members are also expected to use project management tools and concepts. They develop or are given a project char- ter or scope statement that defines the objectives and parameters of the project. They work with others to create a project schedule and budget that will guide project execution. They need to understand project priorities so they can make independent decisions. They must know how to monitor and report project progress. Although much of this book is written from the perspective of a project manager, the tools, concepts, and methods are critical to everyone working on a project. Project members need to know how to avoid the dangers of scope creep, manage the critical path, engage in timely risk management, negotiate, and utilize virtual tools to communicate.

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1986 BS Business Administration— Oregon State University

1986–1990 Food Products Manufacturing

1990–1994 Wood Products Manufacturing 1994–Current Glass Products Manufacturing

Upon completion of my business degree at Oregon State University, I was recruited by a Fortune 100 food products company for a first-line production supervi- sor position. In that role, an opportunity came up for me to manage a project that involved rolling out a new statistical package-weight-control program throughout the factory. Successfully completing that project was instrumental in accelerating my career within the com- pany, advancing from supervisor to product manager in less than three years.

After four years in food products I accepted an offer to join a wood products manufacturing company. Initially my role in this company was human resource manager. My HR responsibilities included managing several proj- ects to improve safety and employee retention. Success- ful completion of these projects led to a promotion to plant manager. In the plant manager role, I was tasked with building and managing a new wood door manufac- turing factory. After successfully taking that factory to full production, I was promoted again, to corporate man- ager of continuous improvement. This “culture change”

S N A P S H O T F R O M P R A C T I C E 1 . 4 Ron Parker

project involved implementing total quality manage- ment throughout 13 different manufacturing factories as well as all the indirect and support functions within the corporation. Shortly after we successfully ingrained this new culture in the company, the owner passed away, leading me to look for other employment.

I was able to leverage my previous experience and success to convince the owner of a struggling glass fabrication company to hire me. In this new role as general manager, I was tasked with turning the com- pany around. This was my largest project yet. Turning a company around involves a myriad of smaller improve- ment projects spanning from facilities and equipment improvements to product line additions and deletions to sales and marketing strategy and everything in between. In four years we successfully turned the com- pany around to the extent that the owner was able to sell the company and comfortably retire.

Successfully turning that glass company around got the attention of a much larger competitor of ours, resulting in an offer of employment. This new offer involved the start-up of a $30M high-tech glass manufacturing facility in another state. We were able to take that facility from a dirt field to the highest- volume manufacturing facility of its kind in the world in just three years. After building and operating this factory at a world-class benchmark level for eight years, I came across a new and exciting oppor- tunity to help expand a strong glass fabrication

1.2 Agile Project Management

Traditional project management focuses on thorough planning up front. Planning requires predictability. For plans to be effective, managers have to have a good under- standing of what is to be accomplished and how to do it. For example, when it comes to building a bridge, engineers can draw upon proven technology and design princi- ples to plan and build the bridge. Not all projects enjoy such predictability. Figure 1.2 speaks to this issue.

Project uncertainty varies according to the extent the project scope is known and stable and the technology to be used is known and proven. Many projects, like the bridge project, product extensions, events, marketing campaigns, and so forth have well-established scopes and use proven technology, which provide the predictabil- ity for effective planning. However, when the project scope and/or technology is not fully known, things become much less predictable and plan-driven methods suffer. Such was the case for software development projects where it was estimated that in 1995 American firms and agencies spent $81 billion for canceled software projects (The Standish Group, 1995).

Describe how Agile PM is different from tradi- tional PM.

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company in Canada. I spent four years successfully transitioning this Canadian company from a medium- sized glass fabrication facility to one of the largest and most successful of its kind in North America.

After tiring of the “Great White North,” I found an opportunity to tackle the largest and most impactful project of my career. I’m currently VP of operations in a venture-funded, high-tech, start-up company. In this role, I’m overseeing the construction and start- up of the first full-scale, high-volume electrochromic glass fabrication factory in the world. This new project

involves building a company from the ground up and taking an exciting new technology from the lab to full-scale commercialization. Success in this role, although still far from being certain, will eventually revolutionize the glass industry through the intro- duction of a product that dramatically improves the energy efficiency and occupant comfort of buildings around the world.

Looking back on my career, it is apparent that my degree of success has largely been the result of taking on and successfully completing successively larger and increasingly impactful projects.

There’s a saying that’s always resonated with me: “If your only tool is a hammer, all your problems look like nails.” Good tools are hard to come by and heavy to carry around. I like my tool bag filled with gener- alist tools: things like communication skills, leader- ship, common sense, judgment, reasoning, logic, and a strong sense of urgency. I often wonder how much more I could have accomplished, had I actually studied project management and had more of that toolset in my bag. With a bag full of strong generalist tools, you can tackle any problem in any business. Project man- agement is clearly one of those skills where the better you are at it, the higher your chances of success in any business environment. Having the tools is only part of the equation, though. To be successful, you must also be willing to run at problems/opportunities when everyone else is running away from them.©Ron Parker

Enter Agile project management (Agile PM). Agile methodologies emerged out of frustration with using traditional project management processes to develop software. Software projects are notorious for having unstable scopes in which end user requirements are discovered not defined up front. Agile PM is now being used across industries to manage projects with high levels of uncer- tainty. Examples of people encountering high-uncertainty work include software systems engineers, product designers, explorers, doctors, lawyers, and many problem-solving engineers.1

Fundamentally, Agile PM employs an incremental, iterative process sometimes referred to as a “rolling wave” approach to complete projects (see Figure 1.3). Instead of trying to plan for everything up front, the scope of the project evolves. That is, the final project design/outcome is not known in great detail and is continuously developed through a series of incremental iterations (waves). Iterations typically last from one to four weeks. The goal of each iteration is to make tangible progress such as define a key

1 It should be noted that PMBOK also includes Incremental and Iterative as two additional approaches, which are beyond the scope of this text. Search pmi.org for further details.

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requirement, solve a technical problem, or create desired features to demonstrate to the customer. At the end of each iteration, progress is reviewed, adjustments are made, and a different iterative cycle begins. Each new iteration subsumes the work of the previ- ous iterations until the project is completed and the customer is satisfied.

Agile PM focuses on active collaboration between the project team and customer representatives, breaking projects into small functional pieces, and adapting to chang- ing requirements.

It is not simply a question of either/or. Agile methods are often used up front in the defining phase to establish specifications and requirements, and then traditional methods are used to plan, execute, and close the project. Agile methods may be used to address certain technical issues on a project while most of the project work is being managed in the traditional way.

The internal dynamics on Agile projects is quite different from the traditional PM approach. Agile works best in small teams of four to eight members. Instead of directing and integrating the work of others, the project manager serves as a facilita- tor and coach. The team manages itself, deciding who should do what and how it should be done.

Agile PM will be discussed in depth in Chapter 15 and where appropriate through- out the text.

FIGURE 1.3 Rolling Wave Development

Project initiation

Iteration 1 Iteration 2 Iteration 3 Iteration 4 Iteration 5

Closeout

Unknown

UnknownTechnology(How)

Project scope (What)

Known & stable

Predictable

Unpredictable

Unknown

FIGURE 1.2 Project Uncertainty

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1.3 Current Drivers of Project Management

Project management is no longer a special-need management. It is rapidly becoming a standard way of doing business. See Snapshot from Practice 1.5: Project Management in Action: 2019. An increasing percentage of the typical firm’s effort is being devoted to projects. The future promises an increase in the importance and role of projects in contributing to the strategic direction of organizations. Several reasons for this are discussed briefly in this section.

Compression of the Product Life Cycle One of the most significant driving forces behind the demand for project management is the shortening of the product life cycle. For example, today in high-tech indus- tries the product life cycle is averaging 6 months to 3 years. Only 30 years ago, life cycles of 10 to 15 years were not uncommon. Time-to-market for new products with short life cycles has become increasingly important. A common rule of thumb in the world of high-tech product development is that a 6-month project delay can result in a 33 percent loss in product revenue share. Speed, therefore, becomes a competitive advantage; more and more organizations are relying on cross-functional project teams to get new products and services to the market as quickly as possible.

Knowledge Explosion The growth in new knowledge has increased the complexity of projects because projects encompass the latest advances. For example, building a road 30 years ago was a somewhat simple process. Today, each area has increased in complex- ity, including materials, specifications, codes, aesthetics, equipment, and required specialists. Similarly, in today’s digital, electronic age it is becoming hard to find a new product that does not contain at least one microchip. The same is likely to be true soon for artificial intelligence (AI). Product complexity has increased the need to integrate divergent technologies. Project management has emerged as the key discipline for achieving this task.

Triple Bottom Line (Planet, People, Profit) The threat of global warming has brought sustainable business practices to the fore- front. Businesses can no longer simply focus on maximizing profit to the detriment of the environment and society. Efforts to reduce carbon imprint and utilize renewable resources are realized through effective project management. The impact of this move- ment toward sustainability can be seen in changes in the objectives and techniques used to complete projects. For example, achieving a high LEED certification award is often an objective on construction projects.2

Increased Customer Focus Increased competition has placed a premium on customer satisfaction. Customers no longer simply settle for generic products and services. They want customized products and services that cater to their specific needs. This mandate requires a much closer working relationship between the provider and the receiver. Account executives and

2 LEED certification was developed by Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) and is one of the most popular green building certification programs used worldwide.

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sales representatives are assuming more of a project manager’s role as they work with their organization to satisfy the unique needs and requests of clients.

Increased customer attention has also prompted the development of customized products and services. For example, 25 years ago buying a set of golf clubs was a relatively simple process: you picked out a set based on price and feel. Today there are golf clubs for tall players and short players, clubs for players who tend to slice the ball and clubs for those who hook the ball, high-tech clubs with the latest metallurgic discovery guaranteed to add distance, and so forth. Project management is critical both to developing customized products and services and to sustaining lucrative relation- ships with customers.

Small Projects Represent Big Problems The velocity of change required to remain competitive or simply keep up has created an organizational climate in which hundreds of projects are implemented concurrently. This climate has created a multiproject environment and a plethora of new problems.

Businesses and nonprofits thrive and survive based on their ability to manage projects that produce prod- ucts and services that meet market needs. Here is a small sample of

projects that are important to their companies’ futures.

INTUITIVE SURGICAL INC.: MONARCH PROJECT The Monarch platform is an AI-driven robot featuring two arms with a long, blue tube attached that allows a doctor to steer a camera and other surgical implements deep inside the body. Intuitive hopes to one day use robots to not only diagnose but also treat lung cancer.

WALT DISNEY/MARVEL STUDIOS: CAPTAIN MARVEL Captain Marvel is a superhero film based on Mar- vel Comics character Carol Danvers/Captain Marvel. The film stars Academy Award–winner Brie Larson in the title role. It is Marvel’s first female-led superhero movie and is seen by many as a response to D.C.’s popular Wonder Woman film.

PROJECT C.U.R.E.: CARGO Cargo projects deliver semi-trailer-sized cargo contain- ers carrying medication donations to underresourced hospitals, clinics, and community health centers in developing countries. Each 40-foot container delivers an average $4 million worth of medical supplies and equipment.

S N A P S H O T F R O M P R A C T I C E 1 . 5 Project Management in Action: 2019*

SIKORSKY-BOEING: DEFIANT PROJECT Boeing and Sikorsky have teamed up to develop a prototype for the next-generation military helicopter. The SB-1 Defiant is being built to travel faster, longer, and more quietly than other models. At stake is a billion-dollar-plus contract with the U.S. Department of Defense.

AUDI: E-TRON SUV E-tron is Audi’s first entry into the all-electric vehicle market. It is a fully equipped, luxury SUV with a 220- mile range. With a starting price of $74,800, it is meant to compete against Tesla’s electric SUV and Jaguar’s I-Pace, as well as establish Audi as a significant player in the growing all-electric market.

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC: TROPICAL FOREST RESTORATION In many parts of the tropics, deforestation results in areas dominated by colonizing ferns. The Dominican restoration project involves manually removing ferns and planting native trees and shrubs.

*Chafkin, M., “This Robot Can Detect Lung Cancer,” BusinessWeek, April 2, 2018; Coggan, D., “Production Under- way on Marvel Studios’ ‘Captain Marvel,’” Marvel.com, March 3, 2018; “C.U.R.E. Cargo,” projectcure.org. Accessed 2/15/19; Rockwood, K., “The Next Wave,” PM Network, June 2018, pp. 6–7; Society for Ecological Restoration, “Dominican Republic: Restoring Tropical Forest at Sites Dominated by Anthropogenic Fern Thickets,” ser-rrc.org. Accessed 2/25/19; “The Audi e-tron SUV Is an Electric Shot at Tesla,” techcrunch. com, September 9, 2018. Accessed 2/22/19.

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Sharing and prioritizing resources across a portfolio of projects is a major challenge for senior management. Many firms have no idea of the problems involved with inefficient management of small projects. Small projects typically carry the same or more risk as large projects. Small projects are perceived as having little impact on the bottom line because they do not demand large amounts of scarce resources and/or money. Because so many small projects are going on concurrently and because the perception of the inefficiency impact is small, measuring inefficiency is usually nonexistent. Unfortu- nately, many small projects soon add up to large sums of money. Many customers and millions of dollars are lost each year on small projects in product and service organiza- tions. Small projects can represent hidden costs not measured in the accounting system.

Organizations with many small projects going on concurrently face the most difficult project management problems. A key question becomes one of how to create an organizational environment that supports multiproject management. A pro- cess is needed to prioritize and develop a portfolio of small projects that supports the mission of the organization.

In summary, there are a variety of environmental forces interacting in today’s business world that contribute to the increased demand for good project management across all industries and sectors.

1.4 Project Management Today: A Socio-Technical Approach

Managing a project is a multidimensional process (see Figure 1.4). The first dimension is the technical side of the management process, which consists of the formal, disci- plined, purely logical parts of the process. This technical dimension includes plan- ning, scheduling, and controlling projects. Clear project scope statements are written to link the project and customer and to facilitate planning and control. Creation of the deliverables and work breakdown structures facilitates planning and monitoring the progress of the project. The work breakdown structure serves as a database that links

Understand that manag- ing projects involves bal- ancing the technical and sociocultural dimensions of the project.

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FIGURE 1.4 A Socio-Technical Approach to Project Management

Technical

Scope WBS Schedules Resource allocation Baseline budgets Status reports

Sociocultural

Leadership Problem solving Teamwork Negotiation Politics Customer expectations

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all levels in the organization, major deliverables, and all work—right down to the tasks in a work package. Effects of project changes are documented and traceable. Thus, any change in one part of the project is traceable to the source by the integrated linkages of the system. This integrated information approach can provide all project managers and the customer with decision information appropriate to their level and needs. A suc- cessful project manager will be well trained in the technical side of managing projects.

The second and opposing dimension is the sociocultural side of project manage- ment. In contrast to the orderly world of project planning, this dimension involves the much messier, often contradictory and paradoxical world of implementation. It centers on creating a temporary social system within a larger organizational environ- ment that combines the talents of a divergent set of professionals working to complete the project. Project managers must shape a project culture that stimulates teamwork and high levels of personal motivation as well as a capacity to quickly identify and resolve problems that threaten project work. Things rarely go as planned and project managers must be able to steer the project back on track or alter directions when necessary.

The sociocultural dimension also involves managing the interface between the proj- ect and external environment. Project managers have to assuage and shape the expec- tations of customers, sustain the political support of top management, and negotiate with their functional counterparts, monitor subcontractors, and so on. Overall, the manager must build a cooperative social network among a divergent set of allies with different standards, commitments, and perspectives.

Some suggest that the technical dimension represents the “science” of project management, while the sociocultural dimension represents the “art” of managing a project. To be successful, a manager must be a master of both. Unfortunately, some project managers become preoccupied with the planning and technical dimension of project management. Often their first real exposure to project management is through project management software, and they become infatuated with network charts, Gantt diagrams, and performance variances; they attempt to manage a project from a distance. Conversely there are other managers who manage projects by the “seat of their pants,” relying heavily on charisma and organizational politics to com- plete a project. Good project managers work with others to balance their attention to both the technical and sociocultural aspects of project management.

Summary Project management is a critical skill set in today’s world. A project is defined as a nonroutine, one-time effort limited by time, resources, and performance specifica- tions designed to meet customer needs. One of the distinguishing characteristics of project management is that it has both a beginning and an end and typically consists of four phases: defining, planning, executing, and closing. Successful implementation requires both technical and social skills. Project managers have to plan and budget projects as well as orchestrate the contributions of others.

Text Overview This text is written to provide the reader with a comprehensive, socio-technical under- standing of project management. The text focuses on both the science and the art of managing projects. Following this introductory chapter, Chapter 2 focuses on how organizations go about evaluating and selecting projects. Special attention is devoted

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to the importance of aligning project selection to the mission and strategy of the firm. The organizational environment in which projects are implemented is the focus of Chapter 3. The discussion of matrix management and other organizational forms is augmented by a discussion of the significant role the culture of an organization plays in the implementation of projects.

The next six chapters focus on developing a plan for the project; after all, project success begins with a good plan. Chapter 4 deals with defining the scope of the project and developing a work breakdown structure (WBS). The challenge of formulating cost and time estimates is the subject of Chapter 5. Chapter 6 focuses on utilizing the infor- mation from the WBS to create a project plan in the form of a timed and sequenced network of activities.

Risks are a potential threat to every project, and Chapter 7 examines how organiza- tions and managers identify and manage risks associated with project work. Resource allocation is added to the plan in Chapter 8, with special attention devoted to how resource limitations impact the project schedule. After a resource schedule is estab- lished, a project time-phased budget is developed. Finally, Chapter 9 examines strate- gies for reducing (“crashing”) project time either prior to the initiation of the project or in response to problems or new demands placed on the project. Throughout all these technical discussions, the sociocultural aspects are highlighted.

Chapters 10 through 12 focus on project implementation and the sociocultural side of project management. Chapter 10 focuses on the role of the project manager as a leader and stresses the importance of managing project stakeholders within the organization. Chapter 11 focuses on the core project team; it combines the latest information on team dynamics with leadership skills/techniques for developing a high-performance project team. Chapter 12 continues the theme of managing project stakeholders by discussing how to outsource project work and negotiate with contrac- tors, customers, and suppliers.

Chapter 13 focuses on the kinds of information managers use to monitor project progress, with special attention devoted to the key concept of earned value. The proj- ect life cycle is completed with Chapter 14, which covers closing out a project and the important assessment of performance and lessons learned. Agile project management, a much more flexible approach to managing projects with high degree of uncertainty, is the subject of Chapter 15. Finally, so many projects today are global; Chapter 16 focuses on working on projects across cultures.

Throughout this text you will be exposed to the major aspects of the project management system. However, a true understanding of project management comes not from knowing what a scope statement is, or the critical path, or partnering with contractors, but from comprehending how the different elements of the project management system interact to determine the fate of a project. If by the end of this text you come to appreciate and begin to master both the technical and sociocultural dimensions of project management, you should have a distinct competitive advantage over others aspiring to work in the field of project management.

Key Terms Agile project management (Agile PM), 13

Program, 7 Project, 6 Project life cycle, 9

Project Management Professional (PMP), 4

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1. Define a project. What are five characteristics that help differentiate projects from other functions carried out in the daily operations of the organization?

2. What are some of the key environmental forces that have changed the way projects are managed? What has been the effect of these forces on the management of projects?

3. Describe the four phases of the traditional project life cycle. Which phase do you think would be the most difficult one to complete?

4. What kinds of projects is Agile PM best suited for and why? 5. The technical and sociocultural dimensions of project management are two sides

of the same coin. Explain.

Review Questions

1. Review the front page of your local newspaper and try to identify all the projects contained in the articles. How many were you able to find?

2. Individually, identify what you consider to be humanity’s greatest achievements in the last five decades. Now share your list with three to five other students in the class and come up with an expanded list. Review these great achievements in terms of the definition of a project. What does your review suggest about the importance of project management?

3. Individually, identify projects assigned in previous terms. Were both sociocultural and technical elements factors in the success or difficulties in the projects?

4. Check out the Project Management Institute’s home page at www.pmi.org. a. Review general information about PMI as well as membership information. b. See if there is a local PMI chapter. If not, where is the closest one? c. Use the search function at the PMI home page to find information on Project

Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK). What are the major knowledge areas of PMBOK?

d. Explore other links that PMI provides. What do these links tell you about the nature and future of project management?

Exercises

Discussion Questions

ExercisesSNAPSHOT FROM PRACTICE

1.1 The Project Management Institute 1. If you were a student interested in pursuing a career in project management,

how important do you think being a CAPM would be? 2. How valuable do you think being certified PMP is?

1.3 London Calling: Seattle Seahawks versus Oakland Raiders 1. Why was it important to give players and staff a chance to explore London one

evening? 2. What are one or two lessons you learned from this Snapshot?

1.4 Ron Parker 1. Do you agree with Ron Parker’s statement “To be successful, you must also

be willing to run at problems/opportunities when everyone else is running away from them”?

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Benko, C., and F. W. McFarlan, Connecting the Dots (Boston: HBS Press, 2003). Cohen, D. J., and R. J. Graham, The Project Manager’s MBA (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2001). Darnell, R., “The Emerging Role of the Project Manager,” PM Network, 1997. Derby, C., and O. Zwikael, “The Secret of (Defining) Success,” PM Network, August 2012, pp. 20–22. Gray, Clifford, “Program Management, a Primer,” PM World Today, August 2011, pp. 1–7. Jonas, D., “Empowering Project Portfolio Managers: How Management Involvement Impacts Project Management Performance,” International Journal of Project Management, vol. 28, no. 8 (2010), pp. 818–31. Mortensen, M., and H. K. Gardner, “The Overcommitted Organization,” Harvard Business Review, September/October 2017, pp. 58–65. Peters, T., PM Network, January 2004, p. 19. PMI/Agile Alliance, Agile Practice Guide (Chicago: Independent Publishers Group, 2017). Project Management Institute, A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) (Newton Square, PA: PMI Publishing, 2017). Project Management Institute, Leadership in Project Management Annual (Newton Square, PA: PMI Publishing, 2006). Schwaber, K., Agile Project Management with Scrum (Redmond, WA: Microsoft Press, 2004). The Standish Group, CHAOS Summary 1995 (Dennis, MA: Standish, 1995). The Standish Group, CHAOS Summary 2009 (Dennis, MA: Standish, 2009). Stewart, T. A., “The Corporate Jungle Spawns a New Species: The Project Manager,” Fortune, September 1996, pp. 14–15.

References

Case 1.1

A Day in the Life—2019 Troi, the project manager of a large information systems project, arrives at her office early to get caught up with work before her co-workers and project team arrive. However, as she enters the office she meets Neil, one of her fellow project managers, who also wants to get an early start on the day. Neil has just completed a project overseas. They spend 10 minutes socializing and catching up on personal news.

Troi walks to her desk and opens her laptop. She was at her client’s site the day before until 7:30 p.m. and has not checked her e-mail or voice mail since 4:30 p.m. the previous day. She has 2 voicemails, 16 e-mails, and 10 posts on her team Slack channel.1 She spends 15 minutes reviewing her schedule and “to do” lists for the day before responding to messages that require immediate attention. 1 Slack is a communications program designed to manage the flow of information on a project. See slack.com.

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Troi spends the next 25 minutes going over project reports and preparing for the weekly standup meeting. Her manager who just arrived at the office, interrupts her. They spend 20 minutes discussing the project. He shares a rumor about a potential acquisition he’s heard about. She tells him she hasn’t heard anything but will keep him posted if she does.

The 9:00 a.m. project status meeting starts 15 minutes late because two of the team members have to finish a job for a client. Several people go to the cafeteria to get coffee and doughnuts while others discuss last night’s baseball game. The team members arrive, and the remaining 45 minutes of the progress review meeting surface project issues that have to be addressed and assigned for action.

After the meeting Troi goes down the hallway to meet with Victoria, another IS project manager. They spend 30 minutes reviewing project assignments, since the two of them share personnel. Victoria’s project is behind schedule and in need of help. Troi offers to free up some of the team’s time to help her get back on track.

Troi returns to her office and makes several phone calls and returns several e-mails before walking downstairs to visit with members of her project team. Her intent is to follow up on an issue that had surfaced in the status report meeting. However, her simple, “Hi, guys, how are things going?” elicits a stream of disgrun- tled responses. After listening patiently for over 20 minutes, she realizes that among other things several of the client’s managers are beginning to request features that were not in the original project scope statement. She tells her people that she will get on this right away.

Returning to her office, she tries to call her counterpart, John, at the client firm but is told that he is not expected back from lunch for another hour. At this time, Eddie drops by and says, “How about lunch?” Eddie works in the finance office and they spend the next half hour in the company cafeteria gossiping about internal politics. She is surprised to hear that Jonah Johnson, the director of systems projects, may join another firm. Jonah has always been a powerful ally.

She returns to her office, answers a few more e-mails, catches up on Slack, and finally gets through to John. They spend 30 minutes going over the problem. The con- versation ends with John promising to do some investigating and to get back to her as soon as possible.

Troi goes outside to the company’s atrium, where she sits next to a creek, meditat- ing for 30 minutes.

Troi then takes the elevator to the third floor and talks to the purchasing agent assigned to her project. They spend the next 30 minutes exploring ways of getting necessary equipment to the project site earlier than planned. She finally authorizes express delivery.

When she returns to her desk, her watch reminds her that she is scheduled to participate in a conference call at 2:30. It takes 15 minutes for everyone to get online due to problems with the technology. During this time, Troi catches up on some e-mail. She spends the next hour exchanging information about the technical requirements associated with a new version of a software package they are using on systems projects like hers.

Troi decides to stretch her legs and goes on a walk down the hallway, where she engages in brief conversations with various co-workers. She goes out of her way to thank Chandra for his thoughtful analysis at the status report meeting. She returns to find that John has left a message for her to call him back ASAP. She contacts John, who informs her that according to his people, her firm’s marketing rep had made certain promises about specific features her system would provide. He doesn’t know how this communication breakdown occurred, but his people are pretty upset over

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the situation. Troi thanks John for the information and immediately takes the stairs to where the marketing group resides.

She asks to see Mary, a senior marketing manager. She catches up on Slack updates on her phone while she waits for 10 minutes before being invited into her office. After a heated discussion, she leaves 40 minutes later with Mary agreeing to talk to her people about what was promised and what was not promised.

She goes downstairs to her people to give them an update on what is happening. They spend 30 minutes reviewing the impact the client’s requests could have on the project schedule. She also shares with them the schedule changes she and Victoria had agreed to. After she says good night to her team, she heads upstairs to her manager’s office and spends 20 minutes updating him on key events of the day. She returns to her office and spends 30 minutes reviewing e-mails, her team Slack channel, and project documents. She logs on to the MS Project schedule of her project and spends the next 30 minutes working with “what-if” scenarios. She reviews tomorrow’s schedule and writes some personal reminders before starting off on her 30-minute commute home.

1. How effectively do you think Troi spent her day? 2. What does the case tell you about what it is like to be a project manager?

Case 1.2

The Hokies Lunch Group1

PART A Fatma settled down for lunch at the Yank Sing Chinese restaurant. She was early and took the time to catch up on her e-mail. Soon she would be joined by Jasper and Viktoria, two fellow 2014 grads from Virginia Tech in Blacksburg, Virginia.

Jasper worked as a software engineer for a start-up company that wanted to expand the boundaries of sharing economy. Viktoria was an electrical engineer who worked for a German healthcare company in San Francisco. They had met each other at a Silicon Valley alumni reception hosted by Virginia Tech. Each of them felt a bit like a fish out of water on the West Coast, so they decided to have lunch together each month. The lunch evolved into a professional support group. A major part of each of their jobs was managing projects, and they found it useful to share issues and seek advice from each other.

Fatma worked for a very successful Internet company whose founders believed that everyone in the firm should devote three days a year to community service projects. The company was partnering with several companies in the construction industry to renovate abandoned buildings for low-income families. The next project was the renovation of an empty warehouse into eight two-bedroom apartments. Fatma was part of the core team in charge of scheduling and managing work assignments.

Viktoria and Jasper entered the restaurant together. Viktoria was the first to move to the Bay Area. She was currently working on the next-generation neural stimula- tor (“PAX 2”). Neural stimulators are electronic devices that doctors implant in patients with wires connected to sources of pain in the patient’s spine. In the past, patients would have to have an operation to replace the stimulator battery every 10 years. PAX 2 was being designed to take advantage of new battery technologies and 1Hokies is the name associated with Virginia Tech athletic teams.

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use a rechargeable battery. In concept, this battery system would eliminate the need for replacement surgeries and allow the implanted battery to be recharged externally. Viktoria’s team had just completed the second prototype and was entering a critical testing phase. It had been tricky trying to predict the lifespan of the new rechargeable battery without testing it in real time. She was anxious to begin seeing the test results.

Jasper was working for a start-up company after doing contract work for his first nine months in San Francisco. He was sworn to secrecy about the project and all Fatma and Viktoria knew was that the project had something to do with sharing economy. He was working with a small development team that included colleagues from Bangalore, India, and Malmo, Sweden.

After ordering and chit-chatting a bit, Fatma started the discussion. “I will be glad when this week is over,” she said. “We’ve been struggling defining the scope of the project. At first glance our project seems relatively simple, build eight two-bedroom apartments in an old warehouse. But there are a lot of unanswered questions. What kind of community space do we want to have? How efficient should the energy system be? What kind of furniture? Everybody wants to do a good job, but when does low-income housing morph into middle-income housing?”

Viktoria offered, “Scope defining is one of the things my company does very well. Before a project is authorized, a detailed scope statement is developed that clearly defines the project objectives, priorities, budget, requirements, limits, and exclusions. All of the key stakeholders sign off on it. It is really important to identify priorities up front. I know on the PAX 2 project that scope is the number one priority. I know that no matter how long it takes it is imperative that my work is done right.”

Fatma responded, “That’s exactly what my project manager is preparing for Friday’s meeting. I guess that one of the things you have to do as a project manager is end discussions. He is going to make the tough calls and finalize the project scope so we can begin planning.”

Jasper interjected, “You guys are so lucky; for the most part your scope remains the same. In my work the scope is constantly changing. You show the founders a feature they wanted, and they say, well, if you can do that, can you do this? You know it’s going to happen, but you really can’t plan for it.”

Jasper went on, “We do know what our number one priority is: time. There are a lot of players trying to move in to the ‘space’ we are working on. We have to demonstrate we are ahead of the pack if we are going to continue to get VC funding.”2

Jasper said that despite the pressure, his project had been a lot of fun. He especially liked working with his Swedish and Indian counterparts, Axel and Raja. They worked like a global tag team on their part of the project. Jasper would code and then pass his work on to Raja, who would work on it and pass it on to Axel, who would eventually hand it off to Jasper. Given the time zones, they were able to have at least one person working on the code around the clock.

Jasper said it was hard at first working with someone he hadn’t met personally other than on a video screen. Trust was an issue. Everyone was trying to prove himself. Eventually a friendly competition arose across the team. The programmers exchanged funny cartoons and YouTube videos. He showed Fatma and Viktoria a YouTube video about scope creep that got a chuckle from everyone.

They made plans to meet next at the new Peruvian restaurant on SE 8th Street.

2New venture capital funding.

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PART B The Peruvian cilantro/lime ceviche was a big hit at the next lunch. Viktoria began their discussion by reporting, “I have good and bad news. The bad news is that our first pro- totype failed its tests miserably. The good news is that I have a smart project manager. She knew this could happen, so she mitigated the risk by having us working on two alternative battery technologies. The alternative technology is passing all of the tests. Instead of falling behind months, we are only days behind schedule.”

This precipitated a discussion of risk management. Fatma reported that there had been a two-day session on risk management for the renovation project. They spent the first day brainstorming what could go wrong, and the second day coming up with strategies for dealing with risks. A big help was the risk report that was generated after the last project. The report detailed all of the problems that had occurred on the last renovation project as well as recommendations. Fatma said, “I couldn’t believe how much time and attention was devoted to safety, but as my project manager said, ‘all it takes is one bad accident to shut down a project for weeks, even months.’”

Jasper reported that on his project they spent very little time on risk management. His project was driven by a build-test mentality. “Everybody assumes that daily testing eliminates problems, but when it’s time to integrate different features, that’s when the real bugs will emerge,” Jasper said.