Brain based learning jensen pdf

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Freeman, G. G., & Wash, P. D. (2013). You can lead students to the classroom, and you can make them think: Ten brain-based strategies for college teaching and learning success. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 24(3), 99-120.

You Can Lead Students to the Classroom, and You Can Make Them Think:

Ten Brain-Based Strategies for College Teaching and Learning Success

Greta G. Freeman Pamela D. Wash

University of South Carolina Upstate

Teaching in the digital age has become increasingly challenging for college and university faculty. Application, relevance, and active engagement rather than traditional PowerPoint slide show lectures are what our technology-savvy, socially networked students crave and need to keep their attention and interest levels high. Using a combination of information gathered from brain research and the brain-based teaching and learning liter- ature, direct classroom application of brain-compatible teaching strategies, and student opinion poll data, the authors developed a core of 10 brain-based teaching and learning strategies with real-world examples for college and university level faculty.

In a higher education perfect world, students would enjoy going to and participating in class, remember the material communicated, reflect on that information, and apply it in real-world situations. That this is often not the case may largely be due to the continued use of nineteenth-century teaching methods with our 21st-century students. Many college and uni- versity instructors continue to use lecture as their preferred pedagogical teaching strategy. Unfortunately, according to Sousa (2006) only about 5% of a lecture is generally retained by students even one day after delivery. Richtel (2010) shares research suggesting that the risk of new technologies is that students’ maturing brains have difficulty focusing attention and are more comfortable jumping from one assignment to another. Many in higher education are researchers first, and teaching is a fraction of their

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responsibilities. Thus, professors may subsequently fail to devote the time necessary to considering best practices in order to both get the information across and allow for success in knowledge retention.

Background

There is substantial research in the area of brain-based teaching and learning (Baylor, 2000; Braidic, 2009; Fischer, 2009; Jensen, 2011; Radin, 2009; Smith, 2007; Willis, 2007), with the term “brain-based learning” having been coined over 20 years ago by Caine and Caine (1990). Brain- based learning theory discounts memorization and focuses on a more consequential form of learning, is student-centered, and is centered around brain function (Tufekci & Deminel, 2009). If brain-based teach- ing and learning is grounded in how the brain operates (Kahveci & Ay, 2008), instructors must look to biology, developmental psychology, and cognitive neuroscience research to gain a better understanding of how the mind and brain work. For example, being aware of and understanding a concept such as “brain plasticity,” the brain’s ability to change or reorga- nize over time as a result of experiences (Kolb, Gibb, & Robinson, 2003), will support instructors in preparing for the diversity of their students. “Sensitive periods” in brain development, or confined intervals of time where outcomes of experience on the brain are stronger than at other times (Knudsen, 2004), have led some government-supported organizations to initiate birth to kindergarten educational programs.

The study of the brain provides evidence such as that learning a musical instrument is easier for young children than if one were to begin at a later stage in life (Kolb et al., 2003; Johnston, 2009). This type of information has led instructors to pay close attention to these “windows of opportunity” (Andersen, 2003; Thomas & Knowland, 2009) when planning curricula for different age levels. Well-informed instructors may transfer the infor- mation they have gathered in the area of brain research to classroom best practice using brain-based instruction.

Much of the research and discussion of brain-based teaching and learning is focused on the PK-12 age span (Cho, Ryali, Geary, & Menon, 2011; Fischer, 2009; Immordino-Yang, 2007). College professors may not be as educated in brain research and, therefore, do not know the benefits of this form of instruction. If “brain compatible” teaching, or “the active engagement of practical strategies based on principles derived from brain-related sciences” (Jensen, 2011, p. 5), promotes academic success with PK-12 students, as the research so suggests, then we must consider its value for postsecondary students as well. It might be assumed that

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college-age students are better able to sit through lectures as opposed to a more active, interactive learning environment than their younger counterparts. Yet if cognitive and neuroscience research shows that young students have more success with experiential learning environments and brain-compatible teaching (Fischer, 2009), age should not restrict its use. Instructors should teach the way students learn best, regardless of grade level. Making use of what the brain-based research tells us may increase college students’ retention and academic success.

The title of this article alludes to a presentation at the 31st annual Lilly International Conference on College Teaching (www.miamioh.edu/lilly- con/). This session proposed the question of whether or not students can be made to think once they are in the classroom (Ellis, 2012). We maintain that by implementing a variety of instructional strategies based on brain research, it is possible to compel students to think. Students can be taught using engaging pedagogical strategies in ways that help them remember the information, all while enjoying the learning process. Brandt (1999) believes that students forget because the information being taught fails to benefit them in any way, so they perceive it as meaningless and serving little purpose.

Radin (2009) suggests that teacher educators in universities should be leaders who demonstrate instructional best practices for teacher education and other university disciplines. Following Radin’s suggestion, we have developed a core of brain-based teaching and learning strategies for col- lege and university instructors. These strategies are based on our reading in the brain-research and brain-based teaching and learning literature, trial and error in our classrooms, and student opinion poll data. This article attempts to extend and merge a portion of the literature, much of which is related to the PK-12 classroom, to provide suggested strategies and real classroom examples to meet the learning needs of all students in the higher education instructional setting. These strategies may create a more enjoyable learning environment and may assist with retention of information shared in the college setting.

Ten Brain-Based Teaching Strategies for College Instructors

We are resolute about using a minimal amount of lecture to explain material in our university courses. From our perspective it is important to have high expectations in a low-stress environment; to make use of cooperative grouping, team activities, and guided inquiry; to weave dra- ma, music, technology, and humor throughout lessons; and to encourage

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reflection and critical thinking. Moreover, the use of attention enhancers based on brain-compatible learning research serves three purposes: to gain students’ attention quickly, to sustain students’ attention throughout the range of each class meeting, and to ensure students will remember much of the information provided in each class meeting. Course assign- ments should be relevant and real to students. It may not be possible to control what students are eating or how much exercise they are getting, two much-studied areas that affect the brain and learning (Jensen, 2008), but college instructors do have the capability to monitor and/or control what and how students are learning.

Strategy I: A Safe Environment

One of the characteristics of a brain-compatible learning environment is low stress (Caine, Caine, McClintic, & Klimek, 2009; Jensen, 2010; Radin, 2009; Shore, 2012; Sylwester, 1994; Wilmes, Harrington, Kohler-Evans, & Sumpter, 2008). Students should feel safe and unafraid. It is easy to understand this when thinking about a PK-12 classroom, for example, keeping discipline consistent while refraining from calling students out in front of their peers and raising one’s voice. It is far less evident that an adult student could be afraid or feel unsafe in a classroom on a university campus. But fear and stress most certainly do come into play in a college classroom setting. They occur when a professor degrades, belittles, teases, uses sarcasm, refuses to be available through office time or e-mail, and/ or fails to offer support to those students who are struggling or in need of additional instruction. Instructors should have strict guidelines for assignments and attendance, technology use, and classroom respect and civility; rude, disrespectful behavior from fellow students or instructors is unacceptable and can harm students’ self-esteem and academic progress. With recent reports suggesting that “30-50% of all students feel moderately or greatly stressed every day,” and “chronic or acute stress is very bad for behavior and learning” (Jensen, 2010, p. 5), creating an environment that is both enjoyable and stress-free only makes sense for student success and retention.

Radin (2009) interviewed 10 theorists for a qualitative study on brain-compatible teaching and learning. One characteristic that emerged from the interviews was emotional involvement. A comment made by one of the participants was, “I think classes need to be safe, physically and psychologically” (p. 45). In a study by Miley and Gonsalves (2003), stu- dents reported that faculty members’ attitudes and treatment of students is extremely important. “Degrading students,” “lack of interaction with

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students,” and being “unavailable” were three of the top five annoying habits of professors reported by students (Miley & Gonsalves, 2003, p. 449). Students responded that some professors “embarrass” them, “discriminate against some students,” and “play favorites” (p. 452). Other annoying behaviors were professors who are “not available outside class” and “do not show up for office hours or appointments” (p. 452-453).

Peter Beidler and Rosemarie Tong, two veteran college professors, shared their personal letters to one another in an article titled “Learning to Teach” (Beidler & Tong, 1994). In these letters they share experiences about their own teachers from elementary school through college. Tong states in one letter that “Teaching is a complex blend of being a caring person and having a certain set of skills” (p. 113). She stresses the im- portance of caring. In the opinion of Beidler, “the best teachers are fully human people who play as well as work, who always have time to see a student even if they don’t always have time to read a book” (p. 113). He shares a personal story about one such college teacher: “She always had time for people, she always took adversity in stride, and she always appreciated the smallest kindness shown to her” (p. 114). The authors’ message is that it is important to take time for students, to answer their academic questions but also to hear their life stories, because it is part of the role of caring teachers. Being a caring, supportive, and available instructor demonstrates a vested interest in the success of students, both personally and professionally.

To keep stress low for college students without compromising course policies,we suggest the following: (1) clear policies: a concise, thorough syllabus with clearly defined and presented deadlines and policies. Al- though the statement, “The instructor reserves the right to make changes to the course,” often appears in course syllabi, it is important to try to keep changes minimal; (2) availability: keep reasonable office hours posted, be available during those posted office hours and appointments, and always be available through e-mail. Students should not have to wait longer than 48 hours for some form of response; and (3) mutual respect: refrain from sarcasm and rude or insulting language.

Teaching traditional college students is similar to teaching middle or high school students. They can be disrespectful, lazy, uncouth, and act as if your subject is the most boring in the world. It is still important for instructors to remember professionalism. Treat students with the same deference expected of them. Deal with unacceptable behavior on a pro- fessional level. Talk to students outside of class. Agree to disagree.

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Strategy II: Multiple Intelligences

Connell (2009) states that “The theory of multiple intelligences,” devel- oped in 1983 by Howard Gardner, Harvard education professor, “provides a framework that teachers can use to create lessons that will reach all learners” (p. 36). Gardner identified eight multiple intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic. It is believed by many that if instructors use various pedagogical strategies based on a range of intelligences, students will have a better opportunity to comprehend and retain the information. Instructors can differentiate for instruction by designing activities based on the eight multiple intelligences (Andronache, Bocos, Stanciu, & Raluca, 2011; Connell, 2009) to help ensure the needs of all learners are met.

The use of role modeling to share examples of a variety of teaching tech- niques focusing on and integrating the eight intelligences can be beneficial to students. Instead of lecturing exclusively, use some lecture combined with music, drama, and visuals from various sources. Allow students to complete open-ended presentations—sharing information in a way they feel most comfortable as long as they cover the topic. Permit students to work on assignments individually, with partners and in group settings. Because students have a “range of strong, moderate, and less-developed multiple intelligences” (Connell, 2009, p. 36), meeting the needs of all students in our classrooms by using different teaching techniques and strategies is extremely important.

Some assignments in EDEL 447: Social Studies in the Elementary School, a course taught by one of the authors, address a variety of intelligences. These include group presentations (involving interpersonal, spatial, ver- bal-linguistic, intrapersonal, and musical intelligences); color coding and completing a variety of maps from around the world (spatial, logical/ mathematical); an “Our State” notebook assignment (verbal-linguistic, spatial, intrapersonal); a research and evaluation of a popular song (ver- bal-linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, interpersonal); an individual project where students create and send a flat/poster board person around the world and calculate mileage and research geographical locations (spatial, verbal-linguistic, logical mathematical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic); and a living museum, where students bring in an object from their history/culture for others to explore (bodily kinesthetic, interpersonal).

Strategy III: Cooperative Grouping

Cooperative learning is a teaching strategy easily integrated into col-

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lege classrooms and is “crucial to a successful brain-based classroom” (Wilmes et al., 2008, p. 661). Jensen (2011) believes students with good social skills will do well academically, and he encourages instructors to use social situations supported by cooperative learning programs. Willis (2007) believes that to qualify as cooperative group work, students must depend on one another to complete the task, tasks should be clear and easily achieved, the instructor must be available as a guide or mediator, but students should not need constant assistance; and students ultimately are responsible for working together and accomplishing their goal.

Students benefit from working together on projects and presentations inside and outside of regular face-to-face class meetings and online course- work. Adopting Willis’s (2007) use of cooperative grouping, whereby the instructor moves away from the traditional teacher-centered styles of teaching and allowed students to be more involved in their own learning, will give students a sense of freedom and appreciation of the trust shown by their instructor. It is important to have open-ended assignments along with required general guidelines to follow. For example, appointing groups to present on a topic, with instructions to talk/lecture for less than half of the allotted presentation time, and to include an experiential activity with a generous amount of audience participation, benefits both instructor and students.

Cooperative grouping can be implemented at any level and in any content area. Willis (2007) addresses cooperative learning in specific content areas: “In mathematical collaboration, students learn to test one another’s conjectures and identify valid or invalid solutions. In literature and social studies, students have a small, safer place to try out ideas they might not express to the entire class” (p. 5). Cooperative groups should be an ongoing form of instruction in university coursework.

Strategy IV: Movement and Chunking of Content

Radin (2009) and Jensen (2008) say that movement is a characteristic of brain-compatible instruction. Whether it be the instructor traveling around the room as he or she lectures or facilitates class discussion, or the students repositioning themselves periodically (to form or work in groups, to role-play, to take a short break), movement allows the brain to make better connections. Jensen (2010) reports that the hippocampus, the part of the brain involved in memory forming, has limits on how much information it can hold. In other words, students subjected to continu- ous lecture for longer than 15-minute chunks may not be processing the information effectively. Taking short breaks where students are allowed

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to move about, using purposeful transitions, or changing activities every few minutes allows for students to be more attentive and remember what they learn.

Shore (2012) reports that we are more likely to remember what is taught at the beginning and end of a class. She delivers “important information first and last so that the students have a higher chance at retention” (p. 133). Thus, instructors may want to have several topic beginnings and endings planned during a class session, with breaks and movement embedded, so that students will remember more of what is taught. Courses should be designed so that lecture/presentation is at the beginning of class, followed by practice and/or some type of experiential learning activity. Integration of discussion and practice followed by review helps students remain on task and retain information. Some possibilities are to ask students to work with a partner and discuss a topic, share information, or tutor one another in an area where there is a need for practice. Field trips are memorable and an excellent way to stimulate learning. Games and technology can be used to teach content while keeping interest levels high.

Strategy V: Humor

One of our mentor teachers once said, “If you make a mistake, never admit it.” Another adage instructors often hear is, “Do not smile until Christmas,” or, for college professors, “Do not smile at all.” This sugges- tion is to be taken lightly. Professors who are able to laugh at themselves may generate a feeling of approachability by their students. Having a good laugh is good for overall health, and, as stated by Kher, Molstad, and Donahue (1999), “Humor is a valuable teaching tool for establishing a classroom climate conducive to learning” (p. 400). The key for humor to be beneficial is that it must be relevant and astutely managed.

Shore (2012) shares insights related to both Roland Barth’s educational thought and the brain-based learning research of today. As she states, “laughing provides more oxygen to the brain, causes endorphins, the body’s natural pain killers, to surge, and decreases stress levels and blood pressure” (p. 130). Humor goes beyond having a good laugh. In her book Laugh and Learn (2003), Tamblyn defines humor as a “state or quality” (p. 9). She goes on to say that “humor is openness, optimism—a sort of yes-saying to life. Humor is creativity” (p. 9). Sylwester (1994) states, “a joyful classroom atmosphere makes students more apt to learn how to successfully solve problems in potentially stressful situations” (p. 61).

Laughter in college classrooms creates a feeling of community among students. Beidler (Beidler & Tong, 1994) says of his college professors,

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“they taught me that they were having fun with their lives, and that they thought they were doing something that mattered” (p. 115). College professors should be able to bring humor to the classroom, laugh at their mistakes, and teach students that life is a joy, both inside and outside of the classroom. It is important not only to love the subject area, but also to remember it is being taught to real people with emotions and worries. Lightening the load with a bit of humor could mean all the difference for a student’s success in the course.

Strategy VI: The Arts

The arts can be used as a brain-based attention enhancer as well as a strategic way to teach a topic. Jensen (2010) reports recent research results demonstrating that “certain arts boost attention, working memory, and visual spatial skills” (p. 9). For example, in PK-12 settings, music is used as a calming agent and to teach literacy related concepts. In a college environment music can be used as an attention grabber, “creating a short burst of energizing excitement” (Wilmes et al., 2008, p. 664). A former colleague of one of the authors began almost every class meeting with a riff from a different 1970s or 1980s rock band. His strategy was, first, to get their attention, and second, to get them thinking using different genres of music. YouTube videos and songs can be used to aid students’ under- standing. Music can also be used as a calming agent or for “providing a multi-sensory learning experience that enhances memory” (Wilmes et al., 2008, p. 664). It can be helpful to play soft music while students work independently, in groups, or in test-taking situations. Music helps with memory and recall (Ho, Cheung, & Chan, 2003; Wessel, 1998). Having students put facts or researched information about a topic to music is not only a way to integrate the arts, but allows for movement, cooperative learning, and experiential learning.

Brain experts also say students learn through drama (Smithrim & Upitis, 2005). Students can be asked to create and perform by singing, dancing, reading poetry, or acting out relevant information (Shore, 2012). Reader’s Theater is a form of drama in which people read from a script expressive- ly. There is no need for costumes, sets, or props, and no memorization is required (Kelleher, 1997). It can easily be adapted for use in college courses. Students can find and perform scripts as well as write them. Reader’s Theater can be used in almost any college course. Role-playing or acting out a concept helps people retain information. If a student is involved in a Reader’s Theater skit, he or she is more likely to remember the information than from reading about it in a text or memorizing facts.

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Like Reader’s Theater, poetry slams are a fun way to learn or share infor- mation. Poetry slamming is “the competitive art of performance poetry” (Glazner, 2000, p. 11). Students write and perform or read expressively poems about various topics they are studying.

Strategy VII: Active/Experiential Learning

According to Kahveci and Ay (2008), Constructivist learning is when “students are in the center of the teaching and learning process” (p. 125). Experiential learning is “the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (Kolb, 1984, p. 41). Experien- tial education is “the change in an individual that results from reflection on a direct experience and results in new abstractions and applications” (Roberts, 2002, p. 92). Roberts (2002) stresses the importance of experiential learning for academic success. He goes on to say the brain-compatible ap- proach is one attempt to “broaden and deepen experiential pedagogy” (p. 281). One of Radin’s (2009) characteristics of brain-compatible instruction is “experiences in the classroom, including trial and error, exploration, practice, creativity and critical thinking” (p. 43). Stated another way, “knowledge is based in activity” (Fischer, 2009, p. 5).

The need to incorporate play into early childhood classrooms has been extensively researched and supported by child development specialists (Elkind, 2007; Pellegrini, 2009). “Play” has even been utilized in middle and high school courses. Haase Menzies (2004) used artistic play to teach parts of Beowulf in her senior English class. As she states, “play, especially artistic play that capitalizes on the subconscious aspects of the brain, em- beds the learning of information in an emotional, meaningful context” (p. 70). Haase Menzies had students create depictions of evil from found art. The students were active and “playing,” yet learning as they discussed topics from the epic poem brought out in their artistic creations. Brandt (1999) recalled research by Hobson and Diamond showing that “rats, allowed to play with toys and other rats, have thicker, heavier brains than rats kept in isolation” (p. 236). Many of these types of activities or experiential lessons can easily be transferred to a college classroom.

Tong (Beidler & Tong, 1994) states of her college metaphysics teacher, “Not only could she make such arcane topics as potentiality, actuality, causality, and natural law understandable, she could make them exciting” (p. 114). Experiential lessons help students to remember the information and makes learning more “exciting.” College students should be active and involved in experiential learning activities. Assignments should integrate the arts, technology, movement, and group work. An example might be

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a field trip to a bookstore, where the students browse the shelves, have coffee and conversation, and read and conduct book discussions. Students could write and illustrate poetry and have a poetry slam or compete with Reader’s Theater skits. One popular activity is to have one student dress as his or her favorite character and answer audience questions as if he or she is the character.

Strategy VIII: Relevant/Real Course Assignments

Making course content “relevant” is, in Roberts’s (2002) words, “relating information to students previous experience and learning” (p. 282). For example, “Simulations and role-plays mimic our natural environment and encourage complex processing” (p. 283). One college science professor we know of has taught the digestive system through a dance. After per- forming the dance, complete with digestion related costumes, there was no way students could ever forget the process of digestion. When Shore’s (2012) students had trouble remembering brain-related vocabulary, one of her students “brought in a dozen white Styrofoam hat and wig stands that they had purchased at a local beauty supply.” Groups of students, using colorful markers, drew “diagrams of the relevant brain parts on the Styrofoam head and name(d) them with a partner” (p. 133). Rather than simply giving students a vocabulary list to memorize, this activity made the brain parts become real to them.

Cooperative grouping, discussed earlier, is one way to make assign- ments real and relevant because, as McGuckin and Ladhani (2010) state, it “stimulates discussion and complex problem solving” and is “transferable to the workforce and enriching for workplace preparation” (p. 2). Cooper- ative group work allows for authentic discussions and problem solving. The content often becomes more relevant to students when working together to create a presentation of the information. Beidler (Beidler & Tong, 1994) shares his experience with working with another student in geometry class: “I learned to explain something I knew to someone who knew less about it—and cared less about it—than I did” (p. 116). After giving his explanation, the material became more relevant not only to the other student, but also to Beidler himself.

One of Radin’s (2009) stated characteristics of brain-compatible in- struction is “challenge, problem-solving, and authentic work, in which the students do the work of learning and create their own meaning” (p. 43). When students are put into situations in which they must figure out the answer or understand a topic on their own or with a team, it becomes more real than when an instructor gives them the information and requires

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them to regurgitate it back in the form of answers on a test. A “literature response” is an example of a strategy that places the responsibility of the content as well as the teaching on the student(s), while allowing full autonomy for the presentation format. Students are assigned required reading topics and given the challenge to engage the class in the content while avoiding “retelling” the reading. This activity not only engages students in the content, but also allows them the opportunity for peer- to-peer teaching in the classroom, creating for a more decentralized, safe learning environment.

Pool (1997) shares an anecdote of a teacher who used brain-based teach- ing “to turn her whole classroom into a coffeehouse” (p. 12). The students transformed the space with “low lights, candles on the tables, tablecloths, music playing softly” (p. 12). Adults from the school and community came to the simulated coffee house to “read their favorite poetry and talk about it” (p. 12). “Through this complex experience” states Pool, “the teacher gave her students a sense, or felt meaning, for what poetry is and that it is valued by adults in the real world” (p. 12).

In our methods courses education students teach lessons to one anoth- er as if they were young children. They design lesson plans for the real world using real content and state standards. They bring to class their real-world personal stories that supplement the curriculum. They write stories and poetry from their own experiences. They use their personal experiences and information to design technological presentations such as Photo Stories and Webquests. They use what they already know to build on new information. Pool (1997) believes that “The best learning happens when necessary facts and skills are embedded in experiences that relate to real life, when there’s a big picture somehow” (p. 11).

Strategy IX: Critical Thinking and Reflection

Brain-based classrooms “are characterized by ongoing questioning and analysis” (Pool, 1997, p. 14). Critical thinking in the classroom must be purposeful. Instructors should strategically plan for experiences with the content at various levels of thinking. Bloom’s taxonomy (1956) is a staple for guiding levels of thinking in classrooms; however, an essential component of true understanding and learning is reflection. To capitalize on this concept, Pappas (2010) developed his “Taxonomy of Reflection” based on the original Bloom’s taxonomy as well as the revised Bloom’s taxonomy (Anderson et al., 2001). Pappas’s model suggests that students be provided reflective questions from the various levels of the taxonomy at the completion of a project or key assignment. In turn, the instructor

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should reflect on each lesson, asking the same six key questions Pappas proposes: (1) Remembering: What did I do? (2) Understanding: What was important about it? (3) Applying: Where could I use this again? (4) Analyzing: Do I see any patterns in what I did? (5) Evaluating: How well did I do? and (6) Creating: What should I do next?

Wash (2003) conducted research using a strategy called “exploratory conservations.” Students were audiotaped while conducting science inves- tigations in groups. These recordings were then transcribed and analyzed for glimpses of critical thinking. Wash concluded that when students are presented the opportunity to use inquiry in the classroom, their conver- sations with their peers reflect higher levels of thinking. Students were noted to be using key verbs based on Bloom’s levels, such as “observe,” “classify,” ”measure,” “communicate,” “infer,” and “predict.” They were documented to be hypothesizing, building off of other’s ideas, raising questions, and demonstrating a problem-posing stance.

How do we make time for reflection in class? Research has demon- strated that our brains can process and retain only limited amounts of information at any given time. For most of us, the need for a transition occurs after approximately 15 minutes of direct content interaction. Yoder (2009) suggests that one effective way to weave in reflection is to have students write about what was just discussed or completed in class. Portfolios are a widely used reflection tool in higher education. They are designed to allow students a certain amount of autonomy in selecting key assignments and/or projects. Portfolios allow students to present and re- flect on their learning at a penultimate time in their programs. In creating portfolios, teacher candidates learn content information through course instruction and participation followed by creating personal artifacts and reflecting on those experiences.

Strategy X: Technology Integration

“Brain-based learning is wonderfully compatible with technology,” ac- cording to Pool (1997, p. 10). Technology use has surged and forged ahead in recent years, captivating and drawing the attention of users, especially among those ages 8 to 18. The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation (Rideout, Foehr, & Roberts, 2010) reports that young people have increased their daily use of technology and media from 6.5 hours a day to slightly over 7.5 hours a day in the past five years. This increase is attributed to the explosion of mobile and online media accessible to youth ages eight to 18 years. Knowing this generation of students is or soon will be filling our classrooms, it is essential that teachers at all levels tap into this medium

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to motivate learners. When used appropriately, technology is a dynamic learning tool with

seemingly unlimited potential. Professors should capitalize on instruction- al technologies such as Microsoft Photo Story 3, Promethean ActivInspire, Promethean ActiExpressions, Wordle, Tagxedo, and Inspiration, to name just a few. These types of technologies are already widely used in the field of education, but they are growing in popularity among all disciplines in higher education.

Microsoft Photo Story 3

Microsoft Photo Story 3 is an easy-to-use, free program that allows users to upload picture-formatted files (for instance, JPEG, GIF), adding in transitions, music, and personalized narration. In one of the authors’ science methods courses, EDEL 448: Teaching Science in the Elementary School, this program is used by students to create a digital story correlated to a science concept.

Promethean ActivInspire

Promethean ActivInspire is a software program widely used in edu- cation classrooms in conjunction with the Promethean ActivBoard. This program allows any user (instructors and students) to create interactive, multimedia presentations through the extensive tools and resource li- braries built in to the program, making the classroom a two-way conduit of learning.

Promethean ActivExpressions

ActivExpressions are student response systems (“clickers”) that work collaboratively with ActivInspire. These hand-held devices allow stu- dents to respond anonymously to all types of question formats, such as multiple choice or short answer, using both alpha and numeric responses. This creates a powerful engagement tool for any classroom, providing both a means to informally or formally gauge a class while promoting a safe learning environment where students feel comfortable responding without fear of reprisal.

Wordle and Tagxedo

Wordle and Tagxedo are two highly useful and free technologies. Both of these Web 2.0 tools allow users to create personalized word clouds. In

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one of the author’s courses, EDEL 441: Curriculum and Teaching in the Elementary School curriculum, students are asked to define “curriculum” in their own words using their own powers of creative expression through either Wordle.com or Tagxedo.com.

Inspiration

Graphic organizers are excellent tools to reflect and organize thoughts, concepts, topics, steps, and the like. Inspiration is one of many programs available to allow users the freedom to create a myriad of graphic organizer formats. This program is unique in that it allows for embedded audio and video, thus spanning across multiple brain-based learning principles such as that of authentic work, or where students create their own meaning (Ra- din, 2009). Embedded audio and video support the linguistic intelligence through the use of visual and verbal explanation. Adding audio and video with pictures and/or music allows for better understanding through the spatial/musical intelligence. Graphic organizers can assist the intraper- sonal intelligence by moving information from inside the learner’s mind to an outside source, promoting greater interpersonal communication and general understanding. One of the author’s courses, EDEL 446: Teaching Mathematics in the Elementary School, Inspiration is used by students to develop a unit of study centered on a key mathematics concept.

Student Evaluation (Opinion Poll) Data Supporting the Use

of Brain-Based Teaching Strategies for a College Setting

The student opinion polls administered at the authors’ institution at the conclusion of all courses consist of 15 Likert-scale questions and three open-ended items. The open-ended items are as follows: (1) “What sug- gestions do you have for improving instruction and/or course content?” (2) “Note specific strengths or weaknesses of this instructor or course” and (3) “How would you rate this individual as an instructor, and why?” We collected and analyzed students’ comments received for the three open-ended pieces over four semesters.

When we disaggregated this data, the pattern of comments related to specific pedagogical strategies representing the major brain-based teaching strategies became evident. Because these three questions require hand-written narrative responses from the students rather than a simple bubbled-in response, the responses represent feedback that students felt

Journal on Excellence in College Teaching114

compelled to share with the instructors, thus increasing their level of importance. The comments were analyzed using a dichotomy approach. We noted key words relevant to each of the 10 brain-based teaching strat- egies, categorized them accordingly, and reported the sums received for the four academic terms.

When we analyzed the totals (see Table 1), 53% of the student com- ments received (N = 542) stated that our classrooms were “safe learning environments.” One student wrote, “I appreciate this instructor’s positive learning environment. She creates an atmosphere of safety by allowing us to express any stress that we may have about the course.” Creating “active/experiential learning and relevant and real course assignments” tied for second with response rates of 15%. As one student stated, “This class was very useful. I really enjoyed learning new and creative ways to help children understand science. I will use all the material gained from this classroom in my own classroom.”

Respectively, students valued the following top-five brain-based teach- ing strategies in their courses: “a safe environment” (237 references made by participants); “active/experiential learning” (68 references made by participants); “relevant/real course assignments” (68 references made by participants); “cooperative learning” (27 references made by participants); and “critical thinking and reflection” (24 references made by participants). The quantity and quality of the voluntary student opinion poll comments demonstrate that from the students’ perspectives, they yearn for and ap- preciate the inclusion of these identified brain-based teaching strategies in their classes.

Conclusions

Reducing stress for university students should begin with strategies for lowering stress. A brain-based teaching and learning environment should be one that is safe, relevant, enjoyable, and active, all the while meeting the needs of the variety of intelligences presented by the students. There are written accounts of college professors throwing objects at students, “forcefully” removing students from classes, and calling students offensive names in the presence of their peers (Kean, 2007, p. 5). Other reports of poor treatment of students on the part of university faculty specifically include faculty disrespecting, embarrassing, and belittling students (Mi- ley & Gonsalves, 2003). There may be reasons given by professors who want to “toss” students out of class, throw objects at them, and call them names; however, losing our tempers is not the most professional way of handling these situations. Disrespectful faculty behavior toward students

Ten Brain-Based Strategies for College Teaching 115

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