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THE UNFINISHED NATION

A Concise History of the American People Eighth Edition

Alan Brinkley Columbia University

with Contributions from

John Giggie University of Alabama

Andrew Huebner University of Alabama

THE UNFINISHED NATION: A CONCISE HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE, EIGHTH EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2014, 2010, and 2008. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States. This book is printed on acid-free paper. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 DOC/DOC 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 ISBN 978-0-07-351333-1 MHID 0-07-351333-4

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Brinkley, Alan. The unfinished nation: a concise history of the American people / Alan Brinkley, Columbia University; with contributions from John Giggie, University of Alabama; Andrew Huebner, University of Alabama. — Eighth edition. pages cm ISBN 978-0-07-351333-1 (alkaline paper) — ISBN 0-07-351333-4 (alkaline paper) 1. United States—History. I. Giggie, John Michael, 1965- II. Huebner, Andrew. III. Title. E178.1.B827 2016 973—dc23

2015025264

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites. mheducation.com/highered

• vii

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Alan Brinkley is the Allan Nevins Professor of History at Columbia University. He served as university provost at Columbia from 2003 to 2009. He is the author of Voices of Protest: Huey Long, Father Coughlin, and the Great Depression, which won the 1983 National Book Award; American History: Connecting with the Past; The End of Reform: New Deal Liberalism in Recession and War; Liberalism and Its Discontents; Franklin D.

Roosevelt; and The Publisher: Henry Luce and His American Century. He is board chair of the National Humanities Center, board chair of the Century Foundation, and a trustee of Oxford University Press. He is also a member of the Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1998–1999, he was the Harmsworth Professor of History at Oxford University, and in 2011–2012, the Pitt Professor at the University of Cambridge. He won the Joseph R. Levenson Memorial Teaching Award at Harvard and the Great Teacher Award at Columbia. He was educated at Princeton and Harvard.

John Giggie is associate professor of history and African American studies at the University of Alabama. He is the author of After Redemption: Jim Crow and the Transformation of African American Religion in the Delta, 1875–1917, editor of America Firsthand, and editor of Faith in the Market: Religion and the Rise of Commercial Culture. He is currently preparing a book on African American religion during the Civil War. He has been honored for his teaching, most recently with a Distinguished Fellow in Teaching award from the University of Alabama. He received his PhD from Princeton University.

Andrew Huebner is associate professor of history at the University of Alabama. He is the author of The Warrior Image: Soldiers in American Culture from the Second World War to the Vietnam Era and has written and spoken widely on the subject of war and society in the twentieth-century United States. He is currently working on a study of American fami- lies and public culture during the First World War. He received his PhD from Brown University.

BRIEF CONTENTS

viii  •

PREFACE XXV

1 THE COLLISION OF CULTURES 1

2 TRANSPLANTATIONS AND  BORDERLANDS 24

3 SOCIETY AND CULTURE IN  PROVINCIAL AMERICA 54

4 THE EMPIRE IN TRANSITION 83

5 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 106

6 THE CONSTITUTION AND THE NEW  REPUBLIC 133

7 THE JEFFERSONIAN ERA 154

8 VARIETIES OF AMERICAN  NATIONALISM 184

9 JACKSONIAN AMERICA 201

10 AMERICA’S ECONOMIC  REVOLUTION 225

11 COTTON, SLAVERY, AND THE OLD  SOUTH 251

12 ANTEBELLUM CULTURE AND  REFORM 272

13 THE IMPENDING CRISIS 296

14 THE CIVIL WAR 321

15 RECONSTRUCTION AND THE NEW  SOUTH 351

16 THE CONQUEST OF THE FAR  WEST 380

17 INDUSTRIAL SUPREMACY 404

18 THE AGE OF THE CITY 427

19 FROM CRISIS TO EMPIRE 454

20 THE PROGRESSIVES 487

21 AMERICA AND THE GREAT WAR 518

22 THE NEW ERA 543

23 THE GREAT DEPRESSION 563

24 THE NEW DEAL 587

25 THE GLOBAL CRISIS, 1921–1941 611

26 AMERICA IN A WORLD AT WAR 628

27 THE COLD WAR 653

28 THE AFFLUENT SOCIETY 678

29 THE TURBULENT SIXTIES 707

30 THE CRISIS OF AUTHORITY 736

31 FROM “THE AGE OF LIMITS” TO  THE AGE OF REAGAN 766

32 THE AGE OF GLOBALIZATION 789 APPENDIX 823 GLOSSARY 851 INDEX 855

CONTENTS

AMERICA BEFORE COLUMBUS 2 The Peoples of the Precontact Americas 2 The Growth of Civilizations: The South 4 The Civilizations of the North 4

EUROPE LOOKS WESTWARD 6 Commerce and Sea Travel 6 Christopher Columbus 7 The Spanish Empire 9 Northern Outposts 12 Biological and Cultural Exchanges 12 Africa and America 13

THE ARRIVAL OF THE ENGLISH 18 Incentives for Colonization 18 The French and the Dutch in America 20 The First English Settlements 20

Consider the Source: Bartolomé de Las  Casas, “Of the Island of Hispaniola”  (1542) 10

Debating the Past: Why Do Historians  So Often Differ? 14 America in the World: The Atlantic  Context of Early American History 16 CONCLUSION 22 KEY TERMS/PEOPLE/PLACES/EVENTS 22 RECALL AND REFLECT 23

THE EARLY CHESAPEAKE 25 Colonists and Natives 25 Reorganization and Expansion 27 Maryland and the Calverts 29 Bacon’s Rebellion 30

THE GROWTH OF NEW ENGLAND 31 Plymouth Plantation 31 The Massachusetts Bay Experiment 32 The Expansion of New England 34 Settlers and Natives 37 King Philip’s War and the Technology of

Battle 38

THE RESTORATION COLONIES 39 The English Civil War 39 The Carolinas 40 New Netherland, New York, and New

Jersey 41 The Quaker Colonies 41

BORDERLANDS AND MIDDLE  GROUNDS 42

The Caribbean Islands 43 Masters and Slaves in the Caribbean 43 The Southwest Borderlands 44

The Southeast Borderlands 45 The Founding of Georgia 46 Middle Grounds 47

THE DEVELOPMENT OF EMPIRE 50 The Dominion of New England 50 The “Glorious Revolution” 51

Consider the Source: Cotton Mather  on the Recent History of New England  (1692) 36 Debating the Past: Native Americans  and the Middle Ground 48 CONCLUSION 52 KEY TERMS/PEOPLE/PLACES/EVENTS 52 RECALL AND REFLECT 53

1 THE COLLISION OF CULTURES 1

2 TRANSPLANTATIONS AND BORDERLANDS 24

• ix

PREFACE XXV

x •  CONTENTS

THE COLONIAL POPULATION 55 Indentured Servitude 55 Birth and Death 58 Medicine in the Colonies 58 Women and Families in the Colonies 59 The Beginnings of Slavery in English

America 60 Changing Sources of European

Immigration 65

THE COLONIAL ECONOMIES 65 The Southern Economy 65 Northern Economic and Technological

Life 66 The Extent and Limits of Technology 67 The Rise of Colonial Commerce 68 The Rise of Consumerism 69

PATTERNS OF SOCIETY 70 Masters and Slaves on the Plantation 70 The Puritan Community 72 Cities 73 Inequality 75

AWAKENINGS AND  ENLIGHTENMENTS 76

The Pattern of Religions 76 The Great Awakening 77 The Enlightenment 77 Literacy and Technology 78 Education 79 The Spread of Science 80 Concepts of Law and Politics 80

Consider the Source: Gottlieb  Mittelberger, the Passage of  Indentured Servants (1750) 56 Debating the Past: The Origins of  Slavery 62 Debating the Past: The Witchcraft  Trials 74 CONCLUSION 81 KEY TERMS/PEOPLE/PLACES/EVENTS 82 RECALL AND REFLECT 82

LOOSENING TIES 83 A Decentralized Empire 84 The Colonies Divided 84

THE STRUGGLE FOR THE  CONTINENT 85

New France and the Iroquois Nation 85 Anglo-French Conflicts 86 The Great War for the Empire 86

THE NEW IMPERIALISM 90 Burdens of Empire 90 The British and the Tribes 92 Battles over Trade and Taxes 92

STIRRINGS OF REVOLT 93 The Stamp Act Crisis 93 Internal Rebellions 96 The Townshend Program 96 The Boston Massacre 97 The Philosophy of Revolt 98 Sites of Resistance 101 The Tea Excitement 101

COOPERATION AND WAR 102 New Sources of Authority 102 Lexington and Concord 103

America in the World: The First  Global War 88 Consider the Source: Benjamin  Franklin, Testimony against the Stamp  Act (1766) 94 Patterns of Popular Culture: Taverns in  Revolutionary Massachusetts 100

CONCLUSION 104 KEY TERMS/PEOPLE/PLACES/EVENTS 105 RECALL AND REFLECT 105

3 SOCIETY AND CULTURE IN PROVINCIAL AMERICA 54

4 THE EMPIRE IN TRANSITION 83

CONTENTS  • xi 

THE STATES UNITED 107 Defining American War Aims 107 The Declaration of Independence 110 Mobilizing for War 110

THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 111 The First Phase: New England 111 The Second Phase: The Mid-Atlantic

Region 112 Securing Aid from Abroad 114 The Final Phase: The South 115 Winning the Peace 119

WAR AND SOCIETY 119 Loyalists and Minorities 119 The War and Slavery 120 Native Americans and the Revolution 121 Women’s Rights and Roles 121 The War Economy 124

THE CREATION OF STATE  GOVERNMENTS 124

The Assumptions of Republicanism 124 The First State Constitutions 124 Revising State Governments 125 Toleration and Slavery 126

THE SEARCH FOR A NATIONAL  GOVERNMENT 126

The Confederation 126

Diplomatic Failures 127 The Confederation and the Northwest 127 Indians and the Western Lands 129 Debts, Taxes, and Daniel Shays 129

Debating the Past: The American  Revolution 108 America in the World: The Age of  Revolutions 116 Consider the Source: The  Correspondence of Abigail Adams on  Women’s Rights (1776) 122 CONCLUSION 131 KEY TERMS/PEOPLE/PLACES/EVENTS 131 RECALL AND REFLECT 132

FRAMING A NEW GOVERNMENT 134 Advocates of Reform 134 A Divided Convention 135 Compromise 136 The Constitution of 1787 136

ADOPTION AND ADAPTATION 140 Federalists and Antifederalists 140 Completing the Structure 141

FEDERALISTS AND REPUBLICANS 142 Hamilton and the Federalists 142 Enacting the Federalist Program 143 The Republican Opposition 144

ESTABLISHING NATIONAL  SOVEREIGNTY 145

Securing the West 145 Maintaining Neutrality 148

THE DOWNFALL OF THE  FEDERALISTS 149

The Election of 1796 149 The Quasi War with France 149

Repression and Protest 150 The “Revolution” of 1800 151

Debating the Past: The Meaning  of the Constitution 138 Consider the Source: Washington’s  Farewell Address, American Daily Advertiser, September 19, 1796 146 CONCLUSION 152 KEY TERMS/PEOPLE/PLACES/EVENTS 152 RECALL AND REFLECT 153

5 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 106

6 THE CONSTITUTION AND THE NEW REPUBLIC 133

THE RISE OF CULTURAL  NATIONALISM 155

Educational and Literary Nationalism 155 Medicine and Science 156 Cultural Aspirations of the New Nation 157 Religion and Revivalism 157

STIRRINGS OF INDUSTRIALISM 159 Technology in America 161 Transportation Innovations 162 Country and City 163

JEFFERSON THE PRESIDENT 165 The Federal City and the “People’s

President” 165 Dollars and Ships 167 Conflict with the Courts 167

DOUBLING THE NATIONAL  DOMAIN 168

Jefferson and Napoleon 168 The Louisiana Purchase 170 Exploring the West 170 The Burr Conspiracy 171

EXPANSION AND WAR 174 Conflict on the Seas 175 Impressment 175 “Peaceable Coercion” 176 The “Indian Problem” and the British 177 Tecumseh and the Prophet 178 Florida and War Fever 179

THE WAR OF 1812 179 Battles with the Tribes 179 Battles with the British 181 The Revolt of New England 181 The Peace Settlement 182

America In The World: The Global  Industrial Revolution 160

Patterns of Popular Culture: Horse  Racing 164 Consider the Source: Thomas Jefferson  to Meriwether Lewis, June 20, 1803 172 CONCLUSION 182 KEY TERMS/PEOPLE/PLACES/EVENTS 183 RECALL AND REFLECT 183

STABILIZING ECONOMIC  GROWTH 185

The Government and Economic Growth 185

Transportation 186

EXPANDING WESTWARD 187 The Great Migration 187 White Settlers in the Old Northwest 187 The Plantation System in the Old

Southwest 188 Trade and Trapping in the Far West 188 Eastern Images of the West 189

THE “ERA OF GOOD FEELINGS” 189 The End of the First Party System 190 John Quincy Adams and Florida 191 The Panic of 1819 191

SECTIONALISM AND  NATIONALISM 192

The Missouri Compromise 192 Marshall and the Court 193

The Court and the Tribes 196 The Latin American Revolution and

the Monroe Doctrine 196

THE REVIVAL OF OPPOSITION 198 The “Corrupt Bargain” 198 The Second President Adams 199 Jackson Triumphant 199

Consider the Source: Thomas Jefferson  Reacts to the Missouri Compromise,  1820 194 CONCLUSION 200 KEY TERMS/PEOPLE/PLACES/EVENTS 200 RECALL AND REFLECT 200

7 THE JEFFERSONIAN ERA 154

8 VARIETIES OF AMERICAN NATIONALISM 184

xii •  CONTENTS

THE RISE OF MASS POLITICS 202 The Expanding Democracy 202 Tocqueville and Democracy in America 204 The Legitimization of Party 204 President of the Common People 205

“OUR FEDERAL UNION” 209 Calhoun and Nullification 209 The Rise of Van Buren 209 The Webster-Hayne Debate 210 The Nullification Crisis 210

THE REMOVAL OF THE INDIANS 211 White Attitudes toward the Tribes 211 The “Five Civilized Tribes” 211 Trail of Tears 212 The Meaning of Removal 214

JACKSON AND THE BANK WAR 214 Biddle’s Institution 214 The “Monster” Destroyed 215 The Taney Court 215

THE CHANGING FACE OF  AMERICAN POLITICS 216

Democrats and Whigs 216

POLITICS AFTER JACKSON 218 Van Buren and the Panic of 1837 218

The Log Cabin Campaign 219 The Frustration of the Whigs 222 Whig Diplomacy 223

Consider the Source: Alexis de  Tocqueville, Concerning the People’s Choices and the Instinctive Preferences of American Democracy 206 Debating the Past: Jacksonian  Democracy 208 Patterns of Popular Culture:  The Penny Press 220 CONCLUSION 224 KEY TERMS/PEOPLE/PLACES/EVENTS 224 RECALL AND REFLECT 224

THE CHANGING AMERICAN  POPULATION 226

Population Trends 226 Immigration and Urban Growth,

1840–1860 227 The Rise of Nativism 227

TRANSPORTATION AND  COMMUNICATIONS  REVOLUTIONS 228

The Canal Age 229 The Early Railroads 230 The Triumph of the Rails 231 The Telegraph 232 New Technology and Journalism 234

COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 234 The Expansion of Business, 1820–1840 234 The Emergence of the Factory 235 Advances in Technology 235 Rise of the Industrial Ruling Class 236

MEN AND WOMEN AT WORK 236 Recruiting a Native Workforce 236 The Immigrant Workforce 237

The Factory System and the Artisan Tradition 239

Fighting for Control 240

PATTERNS OF SOCIETY 240 The Rich and the Poor 240 Social and Geographical Mobility 242 Middle-Class Life 242 The Changing Family 243 The “Cult of Domesticity” 244 Leisure Activities 245

THE AGRICULTURAL NORTH 246 Northeastern Agriculture 246 The Old Northwest 247 Rural Life 249

Consider the Source: Handbook to Lowell, 1848 238 CONCLUSION 249 KEY TERMS/PEOPLE/PLACES/EVENTS 250 RECALL AND REFLECT 250

9 JACKSONIAN AMERICA 201

10 AMERICA’S ECONOMIC REVOLUTION 225

CONTENTS  • xiii 

THE COTTON ECONOMY 252 The Rise of King Cotton 252 Southern Trade and Industry 254 Sources of Southern Difference 255

SOUTHERN WHITE SOCIETY 256 The Planter Class 257 The “Southern Lady” 257 The Plain Folk 259

SLAVERY: THE “PECULIAR INSTITUTION” 260

Varieties of Slavery 261 Life under Slavery 261 Slavery in the Cities 264 Free African Americans 265 The Slave Trade 265 Slave Resistance 267

THE CULTURE OF SLAVERY 268 Slave Religion 268 Language and Music 269 The Slave Family 269

Consider the Source: Senator James Henry Hammond Declares, “Cotton Is King,” 1858 258 Debating the Past: The Character of Slavery 262 CONCLUSION 270 KEY TERMS/PEOPLE/PLACES/EVENTS 270 RECALL AND REFLECT 271

THE ROMANTIC IMPULSE 273 Nationalism and Romanticism in American

Painting 273 An American Literature 274 Literature in the Antebellum

South 274 The Transcendentalists 275 The Defense of Nature 276 Visions of Utopia 277 Redefining Gender Roles 277 The Mormons 278

REMAKING SOCIETY 279 Revivalism, Morality, and Order 279 Health, Science, and Phrenology 280 Medical Science 281 Education 281 Rehabilitation 282 The Rise of Feminism 283 Struggles of Radical Black

Women 285

THE CRUSADE AGAINST SLAVERY 286

Early Opposition to Slavery 286 Garrison and Abolitionism 287 Black Abolitionists 287

Anti-Abolitionism 291 Abolitionism Divided 291

Consider the Source: Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions, Seneca Falls, New York, 1848 284 America in the World: The Abolition of Slavery 288 Patterns of Popular Culture: Sentimental Novels 292 CONCLUSION 294 KEY TERMS/PEOPLE/PLACES/EVENTS 295 RECALL AND REFLECT 295

11 COTTON, SLAVERY, AND THE OLD SOUTH 251

12 ANTEBELLUM CULTURE AND REFORM 272

xiv • CONTENTS

LOOKING WESTWARD 297 Manifest Destiny 297 Americans in Texas 297 Oregon 299 The Westward Migration 299

EXPANSION AND WAR 301 The Democrats and Expansion 301 The Southwest and California 302 The Mexican War 303

THE SECTIONAL DEBATE 305 Slavery and the Territories 305 The California Gold Rush 307 Rising Sectional Tensions 308 The Compromise of 1850 308

THE CRISES OF THE 1850s 310 The Uneasy Truce 310 “Young America” 310

Slavery, Railroads, and the West 311 The Kansas–Nebraska Controversy 311 “Bleeding Kansas” 312 The Free-Soil Ideology 313 The Pro-Slavery Argument 314 Buchanan and Depression 315 The Dred Scott Decision 315 Deadlock over Kansas 316 The Emergence of Lincoln 317 John Brown’s Raid 317 The Election of Lincoln 318

Consider the Source: Wilmot Proviso, August 8, 1846 306 CONCLUSION 319 KEY TERMS/PEOPLE/PLACES/EVENTS 320 RECALL AND REFLECT 320

THE SECESSION CRISIS 322 The Withdrawal of the South 322 The Failure of Compromise 322 The Opposing Sides 323 Billy Yank and Johnny Reb 323

THE MOBILIZATION OF THE NORTH 326

Economic Nationalism 326 Raising the Union Armies 327 Wartime Politics 328 The Politics of Emancipation 329 African Americans and the Union Cause 330 Women, Nursing, and the War 331

THE MOBILIZATION OF THE SOUTH 331

The Confederate Government 331 Money and Manpower 332 Economic and Social Effects of the War 333

STRATEGY AND DIPLOMACY 333 The Commanders 333 The Role of Sea Power 336 Europe and the Disunited States 337

CAMPAIGNS AND BATTLES 338 The Technology of War 338 The Opening Clashes, 1861 339 The Western Theater 339 The Virginia Front, 1862 341 The Progress of the War 343

1863: Year of Decision 343 The Last Stage, 1864–1865 347

Debating the Past: The Causes of the Civil War 324 Patterns of Popular Culture: Baseball and the Civil War 334 Consider the Source: The Gettysburg Address, November 19, 1863 346 CONCLUSION 349 KEY TERMS/PEOPLE/PLACES/EVENTS 350 RECALL AND REFLECT 350

13 THE IMPENDING CRISIS 296

14 THE CIVIL WAR 321

CONTENTS • xv

THE PROBLEMS OF  PEACEMAKING 352

The Aftermath of War and Emancipation 352 Competing Notions of Freedom 352 Plans for Reconstruction 354 The Death of Lincoln 355 Johnson and “Restoration” 357

RADICAL RECONSTRUCTION 358 The Black Codes 358 The Fourteenth Amendment 358 The Congressional Plan 359 The Impeachment of Andrew Johnson 362

THE SOUTH IN  RECONSTRUCTION 362

The Reconstruction Governments 362 Education 364 Landownership and Tenancy 364 Incomes and Credit 364 The African American Family in

Freedom 365

THE GRANT ADMINISTRATION 366 The Soldier President 366 The Grant Scandals 367 The Greenback Question 367 Republican Diplomacy 368

THE ABANDONMENT OF  RECONSTRUCTION 368

The Southern States “Redeemed” 368 Waning Northern Commitment 369

The Compromise of 1877 369 The Legacy of Reconstruction 371

THE NEW SOUTH 371 The “Redeemers” 371 Industrialization and the New South 372 Tenants and Sharecroppers 373 African Americans and the

New South 373 The Birth of Jim Crow 374

Debating the Past: Reconstruction 356 Consider the Source: Southern Blacks  Ask for Help, 1865 360 Patterns of Popular Culture: The  Minstrel Show 376 CONCLUSION 378 KEY TERMS/PEOPLE/PLACES/EVENTS 379 RECALL AND REFLECT 379

THE SOCIETIES OF THE FAR  WEST 381

The Western Tribes 381 Hispanic New Mexico 382 Hispanic California and Texas 382 The Chinese Migration 383 Anti-Chinese Sentiments 385 Migration from the East 386

THE CHANGING WESTERN  ECONOMY 386

Labor in the West 387 The Arrival of the Miners 387 The Cattle Kingdom 388

THE ROMANCE OF THE WEST 390 The Western Landscape and the Cowboy 390 The Idea of the Frontier 391

THE DISPERSAL OF THE TRIBES 393 White Tribal Policies 394

The Indian Wars 395 The Dawes Act 397

THE RISE AND DECLINE  OF THE WESTERN FARMER 398

Farming on the Plains 398 Commercial Agriculture 399 The Farmers’ Grievances 401 The Agrarian Malaise 402

Debating the Past: The Frontier and  the West 392 Consider the Source: Walter Baron  Von Richthofen, Cattle Raising on the Plains in North America, 1885 400 CONCLUSION 402 KEY TERMS/PEOPLE/PLACES/EVENTS 403 RECALL AND REFLECT 403

15 RECONSTRUCTION AND THE NEW SOUTH 351

16 THE CONQUEST OF THE FAR WEST 380

xvi •  CONTENTS

SOURCES OF INDUSTRIAL  GROWTH 405

Industrial Technologies 405 The Technology of Iron and Steel

Production 406 The Automobile and the Airplane 407 Research and Development 408 The Science of Production 408 Railroad Expansion and the

Corporation 410

CAPITALIST CONSERVATISM AND  ITS CRITICS 412

Survival of the Fittest 412 The Gospel of Wealth 413 Alternative Visions 417 The Problems of Monopoly 419

THE ORDEAL OF THE WORKER 419 The Immigrant Workforce 419 Wages and Working Conditions 420 Emerging Unionization 421 The Knights of Labor 422 The American Federation of Labor 422 The Homestead Strike 423 The Pullman Strike 424 Sources of Labor Weakness 424

Consider the Source: Andrew Carnegie Explains the Gospel of Wealth, 1889 414 Patterns of Popular Culture: The  Novels of Horatio Alger 416 CONCLUSION 425 KEY TERMS/PEOPLE/PLACES/EVENTS 425 RECALL AND REFLECT 426

THE NEW URBAN GROWTH 428 The Migrations 428 The Ethnic City 429 Assimilation and Exclusion 431

THE URBAN LANDSCAPE 433 The Creation of Public Space 434 The Search for Housing 435 Urban Technologies: Transportation and

Construction 436

STRAINS OF URBAN LIFE 436 Fire and Disease 437 Environmental Degradation 437 Urban Poverty, Crime, and Violence 438 The Machine and the Boss 438

THE RISE OF MASS  CONSUMPTION 440

Patterns of Income and Consumption 440 Chain Stores, Mail-Order Houses, and

Department Stores 441 Women as Consumers 441

LEISURE IN THE CONSUMER  SOCIETY 443

Redefining Leisure 443 Spectator Sports 444 Music, Theater, and Movies 445 Patterns of Public and Private Leisure 446 The Technologies of Mass

Communication 447 The Telephone 447

HIGH CULTURE IN THE URBAN  AGE 448

Literature and Art in Urban America 448 The Impact of Darwinism 449 Toward Universal Schooling 450 Universities and the Growth of Science and

Technology 450 Medical Science 451 Education for Women 452

America in the World: Global  Migrations 432 Consider the Source: John Wanamaker,  the Four Cardinal Points of the  Department Store, 1874 442 CONCLUSION 452 KEY TERMS/PEOPLE/PLACES/EVENTS 453 RECALL AND REFLECT 453

17 INDUSTRIAL SUPREMACY 404

18 THE AGE OF THE CITY 427

CONTENTS  • xvii 

THE POLITICS OF EQUILIBRIUM 455 The Party System 455 The National Government 456 Presidents and Patronage 457 Cleveland, Harrison, and the Tariff 458 New Public Issues 459

THE AGRARIAN REVOLT 460 The Grangers 460 The Farmers’ Alliances 460 The Populist Constituency 462 Populist Ideas 462

THE CRISIS OF THE 1890s 462 The Panic of 1893 463 The Silver Question 464 “A Cross of Gold” 465 The Conservative Victory 466 McKinley and Recovery 466

STIRRINGS OF IMPERIALISM 468 The New Manifest Destiny 468 Hawaii and Samoa 468

WAR WITH SPAIN 472 Controversy over Cuba 472

“A Splendid Little War” 473 Seizing the Philippines 476 The Battle for Cuba 476 Puerto Rico and the United States 478 The Debate over the Philippines 478

THE REPUBLIC AS EMPIRE 481 Governing the Colonies 481 The Philippine War 482 The Open Door 484 A Modern Military System 485

America in the World: Imperialism 470 Patterns of Popular Culture: Yellow  Journalism 474 Consider the Source: Platform of the  American Anti-Imperialist League,  1899 480 CONCLUSION 485 KEY TERMS/PEOPLE/PLACES/EVENTS 486 RECALL AND REFLECT 486

THE PROGRESSIVE IMPULSE 488 The Muckrakers and the Social Gospel 489 The Settlement House Movement 491 The Allure of Expertise 492 The Professions 492 Women and the Professions 493

WOMEN AND REFORM 493 The “New Woman” 494 The Clubwomen 494 Woman Suffrage 495

THE ASSAULT ON THE PARTIES 496 Early Attacks 496 Municipal Reform 497 Statehouse Progressivism 497 Parties and Interest Groups 498

SOURCES OF PROGRESSIVE  REFORM 498

Labor, the Machine, and Reform 499 Western Progressives 501 African Americans and Reform 501

CRUSADES FOR SOCIAL ORDER  AND REFORM 503

The Temperance Crusade 503 Immigration Restriction 503 The Dream of Socialism 504 Decentralization and Regulation 504

THEODORE ROOSEVELT AND  THE MODERN PRESIDENCY 505

The Accidental President 505 The “Square Deal” 506 Roosevelt and the Environment 507 Panic and Retirement 509

THE TROUBLED SUCCESSION 510 Taft and the Progressives 510 The Return of Roosevelt 510 Spreading Insurgency 511 Roosevelt versus Taft 512

WOODROW WILSON AND THE NEW  FREEDOM 512

Woodrow Wilson 512 The Scholar as President 514 Retreat and Advance 515

America in the World: Social  Democracy 490 Debating the Past: Progressivism 500 Consider the Source: John Muir on the  Value of Wild Places, 1901 508 CONCLUSION 516 KEY TERMS/PEOPLE/PLACES/EVENTS 516 RECALL AND REFLECT 517

19 FROM CRISIS TO EMPIRE 454

20 THE PROGRESSIVES 487

xviii •  CONTENTS

THE “BIG STICK”: AMERICA AND  THE WORLD, 1901–1917 519

Roosevelt and “Civilization” 519 Protecting the “Open Door” in Asia 520 The Iron-Fisted Neighbor 520 The Panama Canal 521 Taft and “Dollar Diplomacy” 522 Diplomacy and Morality 522

THE ROAD TO WAR 524 The Collapse of the European Peace 524 Wilson’s Neutrality 524 Preparedness versus Pacifism 525 Intervention 525

“OVER THERE” 527 Mobilizing the Military 527 The Yanks Are Coming 529 The New Technology of Warfare 530 Organizing the Economy for War 532 The Search for Social Unity 533

THE SEARCH FOR A NEW WORLD  ORDER 535

The Fourteen Points 535 The Paris Peace Conference 536 The Ratification Battle 536

A SOCIETY IN TURMOIL 537 The Unstable Economy 537 The Demands of African Americans 538 The Red Scare 540 Refuting the Red Scare 540 The Retreat from Idealism 541

Consider the Source: Race, Gender,  and World War I Posters 528 Patterns of Popular Culture: George  M. Cohan, “Over There,” 1917 534

CONCLUSION 541 KEY TERMS/PEOPLE/PLACES/EVENTS 542 RECALL AND REFLECT 542

THE NEW ECONOMY 544 Technology, Organization, and Economic

Growth 544 Workers in an Age of Capital 545 Women and Minorities in the

Workforce 548 Agricultural Technology and the Plight

of the Farmer 551

THE NEW CULTURE 551 Consumerism and Communications 551 Women in the New Era 554 The Disenchanted 555

A CONFLICT OF CULTURES 556 Prohibition 556 Nativism and the Klan 557 Religious Fundamentalism 558 The Democrats’ Ordeal 558

REPUBLICAN GOVERNMENT 559 Harding and Coolidge 559 Government and Business 560

Consider the Source: America’s Early  Telephone Network 546 America in the World: The Cinema 552 CONCLUSION 562 KEY TERMS/PEOPLE/PLACES/EVENTS 562 RECALL AND REFLECT 562

21 AMERICA AND THE GREAT WAR 518

22 THE NEW ERA 543

CONTENTS  • xix 

THE COMING OF THE  DEPRESSION 564

The Great Crash 564 Causes of the Depression 565 Progress of the Depression 567

THE AMERICAN PEOPLE IN HARD  TIMES 568

Unemployment and Relief 569 African Americans and the Depression 570 Hispanics and Asians in Depression

America 570 Women and Families in the Great

Depression 573

THE DEPRESSION AND AMERICAN  CULTURE 574

Depression Values 574 Radio 574 The Movies 575 Literature and Journalism 578 The Popular Front and the Left 579

THE ORDEAL OF HERBERT  HOOVER 581

The Hoover Program 581 Popular Protest 582

The Election of 1932 584 The “Interregnum” 585

America in the World: The Global  Depression 566 Consider the Source: Mr. Tarver  Remembers the Great Depression 572 Patterns of Popular Culture: The  Golden Age of Comic Books 576 CONCLUSION 586 KEY TERMS/PEOPLE/PLACES/EVENTS 586 RECALL AND REFLECT 586

LAUNCHING THE  NEW DEAL 588 Restoring Confidence 588 Agricultural Adjustment 589 Industrial Recovery 590 Regional Planning 591 The Growth of Federal Relief 592

THE NEW DEAL IN TRANSITION 593 The Conservative Criticism of the

New Deal 593 The Populist Criticism of the New Deal 596 The “Second New Deal” 598 Labor Militancy 598 Organizing Battles 599 Social Security 600 New Directions in Relief 601 The 1936 “Referendum” 602

THE NEW DEAL IN DISARRAY 603 The Court Fight 603 Retrenchment and Recession 603

LIMITS AND LEGACIES OF THE  NEW DEAL 606

African Americans and the New Deal 606

The New Deal and the “Indian Problem” 607

Women and the New Deal 607 The New Deal and the West 608 The New Deal, the Economy, and

Politics 608

Debating the Past: The New Deal 594 Consider the Source: Franklin D.  Roosevelt Speaks on the  Reorganization of the Judiciary 604 CONCLUSION 609 KEY TERMS/PEOPLE/PLACES/EVENTS 610 RECALL AND REFLECT 610

23 THE GREAT DEPRESSION 563

24 THE NEW DEAL 587

xx •  CONTENTS

THE DIPLOMACY OF THE NEW ERA 612

Replacing the League 612 Debts and Diplomacy 613 Hoover and the World Crisis 613

ISOLATIONISM AND INTERNATIONALISM 616

Depression Diplomacy 616 The Rise of Isolationism 617 The Failure of Munich 618

FROM NEUTRALITY TO INTERVENTION 619

Neutrality Tested 619 The Campaign of 1940 623 Neutrality Abandoned 623 The Road to Pearl Harbor 625

America in the World: The Sino- Japanese War, 1931–1941 614

Patterns of Popular Culture: Orson Welles and the “War of the Worlds” 620 Consider the Source: Joint Statement by President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill 624 CONCLUSION 626 KEY TERMS/PEOPLE/PLACES/EVENTS 627 RECALL AND REFLECT 627

WAR ON TWO FRONTS 629 Containing the Japanese 629 Holding Off the Germans 630 America and the Holocaust 631

THE AMERICAN ECONOMY IN WARTIME 633

Prosperity and the Rights of Labor 633 Stabilizing the Boom and Mobilizing

Production 634 Wartime Science and Technology 634

RACE AND ETHNICITY IN WARTIME AMERICA 635

African Americans and the War 635 Native Americans and the War 636 Mexican American War Workers 637 The Internment of Japanese

Americans 637 Chinese Americans and the War 639

ANXIETY AND AFFLUENCE IN WARTIME CULTURE 639

Home-Front Life and Culture 639 Love, Family, and Sexuality in

Wartime 640 The Growth of Wartime Conservatism 642

THE DEFEAT OF THE AXIS 643 The European Offensive 644 The Pacific Offensive 646 The Manhattan Project and Atomic

Warfare 649

Consider the Source: The Face of the Enemy 638 Debating the Past: The Decision to Drop the Atomic Bomb 648 CONCLUSION 651 KEY TERMS/PEOPLE/PLACES/EVENTS 652 RECALL AND REFLECT 652

25 THE GLOBAL CRISIS, 1921–1941 611

26 AMERICA IN A WORLD AT WAR 628

CONTENTS • xxi

ORIGINS OF  THE COLD WAR 654

Sources of Soviet–American Tension 654

Wartime Diplomacy 655 Yalta 655

THE COLLAPSE OF THE PEACE 658 The Failure of Potsdam 658 The China Problem and Japan 659 The Containment Doctrine 659 The Conservative Opposition to

Containment 659 The Marshall Plan 660 Mobilization at Home 661 The Road to NATO 661 Reevaluating Cold War Policy 663

AMERICA AFTER THE WAR 663 The Problems of Reconversion 663 The Fair Deal Rejected 665 The Election of 1948 666 The Fair Deal Revived 667

The Nuclear Age 668

THE KOREAN WAR 669 The Divided Peninsula 669 From Invasion to Stalemate 671 Limited Mobilization 671

THE CRUSADE AGAINST  SUBVERSION 672

HUAC and Alger Hiss 672 The Federal Loyalty Program and the

Rosenberg Case 673 McCarthyism 673 The Republican Revival 676

Debating the Past: The Cold War 656

Consider the Source: National Security  Council Paper No. 68 (NSC-68) 664

Debating the Past: McCarthyism 674 CONCLUSION 676 KEY TERMS/PEOPLE/PLACES/EVENTS 677 RECALL AND REFLECT 677

THE ECONOMIC “MIRACLE” 679 Economic Growth 679 The Rise of the Modern West 680 Capital and Labor 681

THE EXPLOSION OF SCIENCE  AND TECHNOLOGY 682

Medical Breakthroughs 682 Pesticides 683 Postwar Electronic Research 684 Postwar Computer Technology 684 Bombs, Rockets, and Missiles 684 The Space Program 685

PEOPLE OF PLENTY 686 The Consumer Culture 687 The Suburban Nation 687 The Suburban Family 687 The Birth of Television 688 Travel, Outdoor Recreation, and

Environmentalism 689 Organized Society and Its Detractors 692 The Beats and the Restless Culture of

Youth 692 Rock ’n’ Roll 693

THE OTHER AMERICA 694 On the Margins of the Affluent Society 694 Rural Poverty 695 The Inner Cities 695

THE RISE OF THE CIVIL RIGHTS  MOVEMENT 696

The Brown Decision and “Massive Resistance” 696

The Expanding Movement 697 Causes of the Civil Rights

Movement 698

EISENHOWER REPUBLICANISM 698 “What Was Good for . . . General

Motors” 699 The Survival of the Welfare State 699 The Decline of McCarthyism 699

EISENHOWER, DULLES, AND THE  COLD WAR 700

Dulles and “Massive Retaliation” 700 France, America, and Vietnam 700 Cold War Crises 701 The U-2 Crisis 702

Patterns of Popular Culture: On  the Road 690 Consider the Source: Eisenhower  Warns of the Military–Industrial  Complex 704 CONCLUSION 705 KEY TERMS/PEOPLE/PLACES/EVENTS 706 RECALL AND REFLECT 706

27 THE COLD WAR 653

28 THE AFFLUENT SOCIETY 678

xxii •  CONTENTS

EXPANDING THE LIBERAL  STATE 708

John Kennedy 708 Lyndon Johnson 710 The Assault on Poverty 711 Cities, Schools, and Immigration 712 Legacies of the Great Society 712

THE BATTLE FOR RACIAL  EQUALITY 713

Expanding Protests 713 A National Commitment 716 The Battle for Voting Rights 717 The Changing Movement 717 Urban Violence 720 Black Power 720

“FLEXIBLE RESPONSE” AND THE  COLD WAR 721

Diversifying Foreign Policy 721 Confrontations with the Soviet Union 722 Johnson and the World 723

THE AGONY OF VIETNAM 724 America and Diem 724

From Aid to Intervention 725 The Quagmire 725 The War at Home 727

THE TRAUMAS OF 1968 729 The Tet Offensive 731 The Political Challenge 731 Assassinations and Politics 732 The Conservative Response 733

Debating the Past: The Civil Rights  Movement 714 Consider the Source: Fannie Lou  Hamer on the Struggle for Voting  Rights 718 Patterns of Popular Culture: The  Folk-Music Revival 728 America in the World: 1968 730 CONCLUSION 734 KEY TERMS/PEOPLE/PLACES/EVENTS 734 RECALL AND REFLECT 735

THE YOUTH CULTURE 737 The New Left 737 The Counterculture 739

THE MOBILIZATION OF  MINORITIES 740

Seeds of Indian Militancy 741 The Indian Civil Rights Movement 741 Latino Activism 742 Gay Liberation 744

THE NEW FEMINISM 745 The Rebirth 745 Women’s Liberation 746 Expanding Achievements 746 The Abortion Issue 747

ENVIRONMENTALISM  IN A TURBULENT SOCIETY 747

The New Science of Ecology 748

Environmental Advocacy 748 Earth Day and Beyond 749

NIXON, KISSINGER, AND THE  VIETNAM WAR 750

Vietnamization 750 Escalation 750 “Peace with Honor” 751 Defeat in Indochina 753

NIXON, KISSINGER, AND THE  WORLD 753

The China Initiative and Soviet–American Détente 753

Dealing with the Third World 754

POLITICS AND ECONOMICS  IN THE NIXON YEARS 755

Domestic Initiatives 755 From the Warren Court to the

Nixon Court 758 The 1972 Landslide 759 The Troubled Economy 759 The Nixon Response 760

THE WATERGATE CRISIS 761 The Scandals 761 The Fall of Richard Nixon 763

Consider the Source: Demands of  the New York High School Student  Union 738 America in the World: The End of  Colonialism 756 Debating the Past: Watergate 762 CONCLUSION 764 KEY TERMS/PEOPLE/PLACES/EVENTS 765 RECALL AND REFLECT 765

29 THE TURBULENT SIXTIES 707

30 THE CRISIS OF AUTHORITY 736

CONTENTS  • xxiii 

POLITICS AND DIPLOMACY AFTER  WATERGATE 767

The Ford Custodianship 767 The Trials of Jimmy Carter 769 Human Rights and National Interests 769 The Year of the Hostages 770

THE RISE OF THE NEW  CONSERVATIVE MOVEMENT 771

The Sunbelt and Its Politics 771 Religious Revivalism 771 The Emergence of the New Right 773 The Tax Revolt 774 The Campaign of 1980 774

THE “REAGAN REVOLUTION” 775 The Reagan Coalition 777 Reagan in the White House 779

“Supply-Side” Economics 779 The Fiscal Crisis 780 Reagan and the World 781

AMERICA AND THE WANING  OF THE COLD WAR 782

The Fall of the Soviet Union 782 The Fading of the Reagan

Revolution 783 The Presidency of George H. W. Bush 784 The Gulf War 785 The Election of 1992 786

Consider the Source: Ronald Reagan  on the Role of Government 776 CONCLUSION 787 KEY TERMS/PEOPLE/PLACES/EVENTS 788 RECALL AND REFLECT 788

31 FROM “THE AGE OF LIMITS” TO THE AGE  OF REAGAN 766

A RESURGENCE OF  PARTISANSHIP 790

Launching the Clinton Presidency 790 The Republican Resurgence 791 Clinton Triumphant and Embattled 793 Impeachment, Acquittal, and

Resurgence 793 The Election of 2000 794 The Presidency of George W. Bush 795 The Election of 2008 796 Obama and His Opponents 800 Obama and the Challenge of Governing 801

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN  THE NEW ECONOMY 802

The Digital Revolution 803 The Internet 803 Breakthroughs in Genetics 804

A CHANGING SOCIETY 805 A Shifting Population 805 African Americans in the Post–Civil

Rights Era 805 The Abortion Debate 807 AIDS and Modern America 808 Gay Americans and Same-Sex Marriage 809 The Contemporary Environmental

Movement 813

AMERICA IN THE WORLD 815 Opposing the “New World Order” 815 Defending Orthodoxy 816

The Rise of Terrorism 816 The War on Terror 818 The Iraq War 818 America after the Iraq War 820

Patterns of Popular Culture: Rap 798 Consider the Source: Same-Sex  Marriage, 2015 810 America in the World: The Global  Environmental Movement 812 CONCLUSION 821 KEY TERMS/PEOPLE/PLACES/EVENTS 822 RECALL AND REFLECT 822

APPENDIX 823 GLOSSARY 851 INDEX 855

32 THE AGE OF GLOBALIZATION 789

xxiv •  CONTENTS

PREFACE

THE title The Unfinished Nation is meant to suggest several things. It is a reminder of America’s exceptional diversity—of the degree to which, despite all the many efforts to build a single, uniform definition of the meaning of American nationhood, that meaning remains contested. It is a reference to the centrality of change in American history—to the ways in which the nation has continually transformed itself and continues to do so in our own time. And it is also a descrip- tion of the writing of American history itself—of the ways in which historians are engaged in a continuing, ever unfinished, process of asking new questions. Like any history, The Unfinished Nation is a product of its time and reflects the views of the past that historians of recent generations have developed. The writing of our nation’s history—like our nation itself—changes constantly. It is not, of course, the past that changes. Rather, historians adjust their perspectives and priorities, ask different kinds of questions, and uncover and incorporate new historical evidence. There are now, as there have always been, critics of changes in historical understanding who argue that history is a collection of facts and should not be subject to “interpre- tation” or “revision.” But historians insist that history is not simply a collection of facts. Names and dates and a record of events are only the beginning of historical understanding. Writers and readers of history interpret the evidence before them, and inevitably bring to the task their own questions, concerns, and experiences. Our history requires us to examine the many different peoples and ideas that have shaped American society. But it also requires us to understand that the United States is a nation whose people share many things: a common political system, a connection to an integrated national (and now international) economy, and a familiarity with a powerful mass culture. To understand the American past, it is necessary to understand both the forces that divide Americans and the forces that draw them together. It is a daunting task to attempt to convey the history of the United States in a single book, and the eighth edition of The Unfinished Nation has, as have all previous editions, been carefully writ- ten and edited to keep the book as concise and readable as possible. In addition to the content and scholarship updates that are detailed on pages xxxi–xxxii, we have strengthened the pedagogical features with an eye to the details. We added a glossary of his- torical terms and bolded those terms within the text where significantly discussed. These terms, along with key names, places, and events, are listed at the end of chapters to help students review. All of the Consider the Source features now include concise introductions that provide context for the documents. Every Consider the Source, Debating the Past, Patterns of Popular Culture, and America in the World feature is referenced within the narrative, for a clearer indication of how the different lines of inquiry work together to create a vivid and nuanced portrait of each period. Margin notes have been reinstated as well, at the request of reviewers who missed this feature from earlier editions. It is not only the writing of history that changes with time—the tools and technologies through which information is delivered change as well. New learning resources include:

∙ McGraw-Hill Connect®—an integrated educational platform that seamlessly joins superior content with enhanced digital tools (including SmartBook®) to deliver a personalized learning experience that provides precisely what students need—when and how they need it. New visual analytics, coupled with powerful reporting, provide immediate performance perspectives. Connect makes it easy to keep students on track.

• xxv

xxvi • PREFACE

∙ SmartBook®—an adaptive eBook that makes study time as productive and efficient as pos- sible. It identifies and closes knowledge gaps through a continually adapting reading expe- rience that provides personalized learning resources such as narrated map videos; key point summaries; time lines; and labeling activities at the precise moment of need. This ensures that every minute spent with SmartBook is returned to the student as the most value-added minute possible.

∙ Critical Missions—an activity within Connect History that immerses students in pivotal moments in history. As students study primary sources and maps, they advise a key historical figure on an issue of vital importance—for example, should President Truman drop the atomic bomb on Japan?

∙ Primary Source Primer—a video exercise in Connect History with multiple-choice questions. The primer teaches students the importance of primary sources and how to analyze them. This online “Introduction to Primary Sources” is designed for use at the beginning of the course, to save valuable class time.

∙ Create™—a service that allows professors to create a customized version of The Unfinished Nation by selecting the chapters and additional primary source documents that best fit their course, while adding their own materials if desired. Register at www.mcgrawhillcreate.com to build a complimentary review copy.

∙ McGraw-Hill Campus—a first-of-its-kind institutional service that provides faculty with true, single sign-on access to all of McGraw-Hill’s course content, digital tools, and other high-quality learning resources from any learning management system (LMS). This innovative offering allows secure, deep integration and seamless access to any of our course solutions, including McGraw-Hill Connect, McGraw-Hill LearnSmart, McGraw-Hill Create, and Tegrity. McGraw-Hill Campus covers our entire content library, including eBooks, assessment tools, presentation slides, and multimedia content, among other resources. This open and unlimited service allows faculty to quickly prepare for class, create tests or quizzes, develop lecture material, integrate interactive content, and much more.

Alan Brinkley

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Academic Reviewers Tramaine Anderson, Tarrant County College,

Northeast Darlene Antezana, Prince George’s Community

College Maj. Paul Belmont, U.S. Military Academy,

West Point Peter Belser, Ivy Tech Community College Robert Bender, Eastern New Mexico University,

Roswell Tiffany Bergman, Missouri Valley College Devan Bissonette, Excelsior College Blanche Brick, Blinn College Brian Cervantez, Tarrant County College,

Northwest Sharon Courmier, Lamar University Keith D. Dickson, Old Dominion University Kevin Eades, North Central Texas College Angela S. Edwards, Florence-Darlington

Technical College Ron Enders, Ashland Community College Amy Essington, California State University,

Long Beach Glen Findley, Odessa College Brandon Franke, Blinn College Mary E. Frederickson, Miami University of Ohio Joy Giguere, Ivy Tech Community College Howell H. Gwin Jr., Lamar University Donn Hall, Ivy Tech Community College Maj. Adrienne Harrison, U.S. Military Academy,

West Point Andrew Hollinger, Tarrant County College,

Northeast Volker Janssen, California State University,

Fullerton Brian Johnson, Tarrant County College, South Philbert Martin, San Jacinto College, South Linda McCabe, Tarrant County College,

Northeast Maureen A. McCormick, Florida State College

at Jacksonville Brian Craig Miller, Emporia State University Amanda Lea Miracle, Emporia State University

Josh Montandon, North Central Texas College Wesley Moody, Florida State College Rebekkah Morrow, Western Oklahoma State

College Simone de Santiago Ramos, North Central Texas

College Matt Schaffer, Florence-Darlington Technical

College Jason Scheller, Vernon College Rebecca Seaman, Elizabeth City State University Dennis Spillman, North Central Texas College Eddie Weller, San Jacinto College, South Ann K. Wentworth, Excelsior College Cody Whitaker, Drury University Christina A. Wilbur, Lamar University Geoffrey Willbanks, Tyler Junior College Martin W. Wilson, East Stroudsburg University Cary Wintz, Texas Southern University

Connect Board of Advisors Michael Downs, University of Texas–Arlington Jim Halverson, Judson University Reid Holland, Midlands Technical College Stephen Katz, Rider University David Komito, Eastern Oregon University Wendy Sarti, Oakton Community College Linda Scherr, Mercer County Community

College Eloy Zarate, Pasadena City College

Symposium and Digiposium Attendees Gisela Ables, Houston Community College Sal Anselmo, Delgado Community College Mario A. J. Bennekin, Georgia Perimeter

College C. J. Bibus, Wharton County Junior College Olwyn M. Blouet, Virginia State University Michael Botson, Houston Community College Cathy Briggs, Northwest Vista College Brad Cartwright, University of Texas–El Paso Roger Chan, Washington State University June Cheatham, Richland College Keith Chu, Bergen Community College Karl Clark, Coastal Bend College

WE are grateful to the many advisers and reviewers who generously offered comments, sug-gestions, and ideas at various stages in the development of this project. Our thanks go to:

• xxvii

xxviii •  ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Bernard Comeau, Tacoma Community College Kevin Davis, North Central Texas College Michael Downs, Tarrant County College Tim Draper, Waubonsee Community College Laura Dunn, Brevard Community College Arthur Durand, Metropolitan Community

College Amy Forss, Metropolitan Community College Jim Good, Lone Star College R. David Goodman, Pratt Institute Wendy Gunderson, Colin County Community

College Debbie Hargis, Odessa College Jim Harper, North Carolina Central University Matt Hinckley, Eastfield College John Hosler, Morgan State University James Jones, Prairie View A&M University Philip Kaplan, University of North Florida Carol A. Keller, San Antonio College Greg Kelm, Dallas Baptist University Michael Kinney, Calhoun Community College Jennifer Lang, Delgado Community College Meredith R. Martin, Collin College Thomas Massey, Cape Fear Community

College Linda McCabe, North Lake College Sandy Norman, Florida Atlantic University Michelle Novak, Houston Community College Jessica Patton, Tarrant County College Robert Risko, Trinity Valley Community College Gary Ritter, Central Piedmont Community

College Esther Robinson, Lone Star College Geri Ryder, Ocean County College Horacio Salinas, Laredo Community College Linda Scherr, Mercer County Community College

Jeffrey Smith, Lindenwood University Rachel Standish, San Joaquin Delta College Connie B. Thomason, Louisiana Delta

Community College Roger Ward, Colin County Community College Don Whatley, Blinn College David White, McHenry County College Geoffrey Willbanks, Tyler Junior College Scott M. Williams, Weatherford College Carlton Wilson, North Carolina Central

University Chad Wooley, Tarrant County College

Focus Group Participants Simon Baatz, John Jay College Manu Bhagavan, Hunter College David Dzurec, University of Scranton Mark Jones, Central Connecticut State

University Stephen Katz, Philadelphia University Jessica Kovler, John Jay College David Lansing, Ocean County College Benjamin Lapp, Montclair State University Julian Madison, Southern Connecticut State

University David Marshall, Suffolk Community College George Monahan, Suffolk Community College Tracy Musacchio, John Jay College Mikal Nash, Essex County College Veena Oldenburg, Baruch College Edward Paulino, John Jay College Craig Pilant, County College of Morris Susan Schmidt Horning, Saint John’s University Donna Scimeca, College of Staten Island Matthew Vaz, City College of New York Christian Warren, Brooklyn College

SOCIETY AND CULTURE IN PROVINCIAL AMERICA • xxix 

A GUIDED TOUR OF THE UNFINISHED NATION

The Unfinished Nation makes history relevant to students through a series of engaging features:

CONSIDER THE SOURCE FEATURES

In every chapter, Consider the Source features guide students through careful analysis of historical documents and prompt them to closely examine the ideas expressed, as well as the historical circumstances. Among the classic sources included are Benjamin Franklin’s testimony against the Stamp Act, the Gettysburg Address, a radio address from FDR, and Ronald Reagan on the role of government. Concise introductions provide context, and concluding questions prompt students to understand, ana- lyze, and evaluate each source.

DEBATING THE PAST FEATURES 10 •

Source: Francis Augustus MacNutt, Bartholomew de Las Casas: His Life, His Apostolate, and His Writings (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1909), p. 14.

CONSIDER THE SOURCE

Bartolomé de Las Casas, a Dominican friar from Spain, was an early European settler of the West Indies. He devoted much of his life to describing the culture of native peoples and chronicling the many abuses they suf- fered at the hands of their colonizers. This excerpt is from a letter he addressed to Spain’s Prince Philip.

God has created all these numberless people to be quite the simplest, without malice or duplicity, most obedient, most faithful to their natural Lords, and to the Christians, whom they serve; the most humble, most patient, most peaceful and calm, without strife nor tumults; not wrangling, nor queru- lous, as free from uproar, hate and desire of revenge as any in the world . . . Among these gentle sheep, gifted by their Maker with the above qualities, the Spaniards entered as soon as they knew them, like wolves, tigers and lions which had been starving for many days, and since forty years they have done nothing else; nor do they afflict, torment, and destroy them with strange and new, and divers kinds of cruelty, never before seen, nor heard of, nor read of . . .

The Christians, with their horses and swords and lances, began to slaughter and practice strange cruelty among them. They penetrated into the country and spared nei- ther children nor the aged, nor pregnant women, nor those in child labour, all of whom they ran through the body and lacerated, as though they were assaulting so many lambs herded in their sheepfold. They made bets as to who would slit a man in two, or cut off his head at one blow: or they opened up his bow- els. They tore the babes from their mothers’ breast by the feet, and dashed their heads

against the rocks. Others they seized by the shoulders and threw into the rivers, laughing and joking, and when they fell into the water they exclaimed: “boil body of so and so!” They spitted the bodies of other babes, to- gether with their mothers and all who were before them, on their swords.

They made a gallows just high enough for the feet to nearly touch the ground, and by thirteens, in honor and reverence of our Redeemer and the twelve Apostles, they put wood underneath and, with fire, they burned the Indians alive.

They wrapped the bodies of others entirely in dry straw, binding them in it and setting fire to it; and so they burned them. They cut off the hands of all they wished to take alive, made them carry them fastened on to them, and said: “Go and carry letters”: that is; take the news to those who have fled to the mountains.

They generally killed the lords and nobles in the following way. They made wooden gridirons of stakes, bound them upon them, and made a slow fire beneath; thus the victims gave up the spirit by degrees, emit- ting cries of despair in their torture.

UNDERSTAND, ANALYZE, & EVALUATE

1. How did Bartolomé de Las Casas characterize the natives? How do you think they would have responded to this description?

2. What metaphor did Las Casas use to describe the natives and where does this metaphor come from?

3. What role did Las Casas expect the Spaniards to play on Hispaniola? What did they do instead?

BARTOLOMÉ DE LAS CASAS, “OF THE ISLAND  OF HISPANIOLA” (1542)

648 •

DEBATING THE PAST

The Decision to Drop the Atomic Bomb There has been continuing disagreement since 1945 among historians—and many others—about how to explain and evaluate President Truman’s decision to use the atomic bomb against Japan.

Truman himself, both at the time and in his 1955 memoirs, insisted that the deci- sion was a simple and straightforward one. The alternative to using atomic weapons, he claimed, was an American invasion of

NAGASAKI SURVIVORS A Japanese woman and child look grimly at a photographer as they hold pieces of bread in the aftermath of the dropping of the second American atomic bomb—this one on Nagasaki. (© Bettmann/Corbis)

• 649

further weakened the Japanese will to resist. Moderate Japanese leaders, who had long since concluded the war was lost, were looking to end the fighting. But they continued to face powerful opposition from military leaders. Whether the moderates could ultimately have prevailed is a question historians continue to debate. In any case, their efforts became superfluous in August 1945, when the United States made use of a terrible new weapon it had been developing throughout the war.

The Manhattan Project and Atomic Warfare Reports had reached the United States in 1939 that Nazi scientists had taken the first step toward the creation of an atomic bomb, a weapon more powerful than any previously devised. The United States and Britain immediately began a race to develop the weapon before the Germans did.

mainland Japan that might have cost as many as a million American lives. That view has received considerable support from historians. Herbert Feis argued in The Atomic Bomb and the End of World War II (1966) that Truman made his decision on purely military grounds—to ensure a speedy American victory. David McCullough, the author of a popular biography of Truman published in 1992, also accepted Truman’s own account of his actions largely uncritically, as did Alonzo L. Hamby in Man of the People (1995), an important scholarly study of Truman. “One consideration weighed most heavily on Truman,” Hamby concluded. “The longer the war lasted, the more Americans killed.”

Others have strongly disagreed. As early as 1948, British physicist P. M. S. Blackett wrote in Fear, War, and the Bomb that the destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki was “not so much the last military act of the second World War as the first major opera- tion of the cold diplomatic war with Russia.” The most important critic of Truman’s deci- sion is the historian Gar Alperovitz, the author of two influential books on the subject: Atomic Diplomacy: Hiroshima and Potsdam (1965) and The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb (1995). Alperovitz dismissed the argument that the bomb was used to shorten the war and save lives. Japan was likely to have surrendered soon even if the bomb had not been used, he claimed. Instead, he argued, the United States used

the bomb less to influence Japan than to intimidate the Soviet Union, “to make Russia more manageable in Europe.”

John W. Dower’s War Without Mercy (1986) contributed, by implication at least, to another controversial explanation of the American de- cision: racism. The Japanese, many Americans came to believe during the war, were almost a subhuman species. Even many of Truman’s harshest critics, however, note that it is, as Alperovitz has written, “all but impossible to find specific evidence that racism was an important factor in the decision to attack Hiroshima and Nagasaki.”

The debate over the decision to drop the atomic bomb is an unusually emotional one, and it has inspired bitter professional and per- sonal attacks on advocates of almost every position. It illustrates clearly how history has often been, and remains, a powerful force in the way societies define themselves. • UNDERSTAND, ANALYZE, & EVALUATE

1. The United States dropped two atomic bombs on Japan, one on Hiroshima and the other on Nagasaki. Was dropping the bomb on Hiroshima necessary? Was it justifiable? Do the reasons for drop- ping the bomb on Hiroshima apply equally to the bombing of Nagasaki?

2. How might the war in the Pacific have been different if the United States had decided not to drop the bombs?

• xxix

Debating the Past essays introduce students to the contested quality of much of the American past, and they provide a sense of the evolving nature of historical scholarship. From examining specific differences in historical understandings of the Constitution, to exploring the causes of the Civil War and the significance of Watergate, these essays familiarize students with the interpretive character of historical understanding.

xxx •  CHAPTER 3

AMERICA IN THE WORLD FEATURES

470 •

Empires were not, of course, new to the nineteenth century, when the United States acquired its first overseas colonies. They had existed since the early moments of recorded history, and they have continued into our own time.

But in the second half of the nineteenth century, the construction of empires took on a new form, and the word imperialism emerged for the first time to describe it. In many places, European powers now created colonies not by sending large numbers of migrants to settle and populate new lands, but instead by creat- ing military, political, and business structures that allowed them to dominate and profit from the existing populations. This new impe- rialism changed the character of the coloniz- ing nations, enriching them greatly and producing new classes of people whose lives were shaped by the demands of imperial busi- ness and administration. It changed the char- acter of colonized societies even more, drawing them into the vast nexus of global industrial capitalism and introducing Western customs, institutions, and technologies to the subject peoples.

As the popularity of empire grew in the West, efforts to justify it grew as well. Champions of imperialism argued that the ac- quisition of colonies was essential for the health, even the survival, of their own indus- trializing nations. Colonies were sources of raw materials vital to industrial production; they were markets for manufactured goods; and they were suppliers of cheap labor. Defenders of empire also argued that imperi- alism was good for the colonized people. Many saw colonization as an opportunity to export Christianity to “heathen” lands, and new missionary movements emerged in Europe and America in response. More secular apologists argued that imperialism

helped bring colonized people into the modern world.

The invention of steamships, railroads, tele- graphs, and other modern vehicles of transpor- tation and communication; the construction of canals (particularly the Suez Canal, completed in 1869, and the Panama Canal, completed in 1914); the creation of new military technolo- gies (repeating rifles, machine guns, and mod- ern artillery)—all contributed to the ability of Western nations to reach, conquer, and con- trol distant lands.

The greatest imperial power of the nine- teenth century was Great Britain. By 1800, despite its recent loss of the colonies that became the United States, it already pos- sessed vast territory in North America, the Caribbean, and the Pacific. In the second half of the nineteenth century, Britain greatly expanded its empire. Its most important acqui- sition was India, one of the largest and most populous countries in the world and a nation in which Great Britain had long exerted infor- mal authority. In 1857, when native Indians revolted against British influence, British forces brutally crushed the rebellion and established formal colonial control over India. British officials, backed by substantial military power, now governed India through a large civil service staffed mostly by people from England and Scotland but with some Indians serving in minor positions. The British invested heavily in railroads, telegraphs, canals, harbors, and agricultural improvements, to enhance the economic opportunities available to them. They created schools for Indian children in an effort to draw them into British culture and make them supporters of the imperial system.

The British also extended their empire into Africa and other parts of Asia. The great imperial champion Cecil Rhodes expanded a small existing British colony at