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A FIRST LOOK AT

COMMUNICATION THEORY

NINTH EDITION

EM GRIFFIN

ANDREW LEDBETTER

GLENN SPARKS

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A FIRST LOOK AT

COMMUNICATION THEORY

NINTH EDITION

EM GRIFFIN Wheaton College

ANDREW LEDBETTER Texas Christian University

GLENN SPARKS Purdue University

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A FIRST LOOK AT COMMUNICATION THEORY, NINTH EDITION

Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2015 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2012, 2009, and 2006. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

v

Em Griffi n is Professor Emeritus of Communication at Wheaton College in Illinois, where he taught for over 35 years and was chosen Teacher of the Year. He received his M.A. and Ph.D. in communication from Northwestern University; his research interest is in the development of close friendships. Em is the author of three applied communication books: The Mind Changers (persuasion), Getting Together (group dynamics), and Making Friends (close relationships). For three decades, Em has been an active volunteer with Opportunity International, a nonprofi t development organization providing fi nancial solutions and training to empower people living in poverty to transform their lives. He also serves as a mediator and coach at the Center for Confl ict Resolution in Chicago. Em’s wife, Jean, is an artist and a musi- cian. They recently celebrated 50 years of marriage and have two adult children, Jim and Sharon, and six grandchildren, Josh, Amy, Sam, Kyle, Alison, and Dan. You can reach Em at em.griffi n@wheaton.edu.

Andrew Ledbetter is an Associate Professor of Communication Studies at Texas Christian University. He received his M.A. and Ph.D. in communication studies from the University of Kansas. His research addresses how people use commu- nication technology to maintain their interpersonal relationships. A related inter- est concerns how parent–child communication predicts health and well-being. Andrew has published more than 35 articles and received recognition for teaching excellence from both the National Communication Association and Central States Communication Association. His wife, Jessica, is a former attorney who teaches business law at Texas Christian University. With their daughters, Sydney and Kira, they enjoy involvement in their church, playing board and card games, read- ing, cooking, and following the TCU Horned Frogs and Kansas Jayhawks. You can reach Andrew at a.ledbetter@tcu.edu, visit his blog at www.andrewledbetter.com, or follow him on Twitter via @dr_ledbetter.

Glenn Sparks is a professor in the Brian Lamb School of Communication at Pur- due University in Indiana, where he has taught for 28 years. He received his Ph.D. in communication arts from the University of Wisconsin–Madison; his research focuses on the effects of media. Glenn is the author of Media Effects Research: A Basic Overview and a personal memoir, Rolling in Dough: Lessons I Learned in a Doughnut Shop. He’s co-author of Refrigerator Rights: Our Crucial Need for Close Connection. Glenn is an avid sports fan and also enjoys trying to increase his skill playing the theremin. He is married to Cheri, a developmental therapist; they have three adult children, David, Erin, and Jordan, and one grandchild, Caleb. You can reach Glenn at sparks@purdue.edu.

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DEDICATION

We dedicate this book to our wives, Jeanie, Jessica , and Cheri, who encouraged us to work together, celebrated with us when the process went well, and comforted us when it didn’t. Just as they lovingly supported us in this project, we commit to

being there for them in what they feel called to do.

Em, Andrew, Glenn

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CONTENTS

Preface for Instructors x

DIVISION ONE OVERVIEW

CHAPTER 1 Launching Your Study of Communication Theory 2

CHAPTER 2 Talk About Theory 13

CHAPTER 3 Weighing the Words 24

CHAPTER 4 Mapping the Territory (Seven Traditions in the Field of Communication Theory) 37

DIVISION TWO INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

Interpersonal Messages 52

CHAPTER 5 Symbolic Interactionism of George Herbert Mead 54

CHAPTER 6 Coordinated Management of Meaning (CMM) of W. Barnett Pearce & Vernon Cronen 66

CHAPTER 7 Expectancy Violations Theory of Judee Burgoon 81

Relationship Development 94

CHAPTER 8 Social Penetration Theory of Irwin Altman & Dalmas Taylor 96

CHAPTER 9 Uncertainty Reduction Theory of Charles Berger 108

CHAPTER 10 Social Information Processing Theory of Joseph Walther 121

Relationship Maintenance 134

CHAPTER 11 Relational Dialectics of Leslie Baxter & Barbara Montgomery 136

CHAPTER 12 Communication Privacy Management Theory of Sandra Petronio 151

CHAPTER 13 The Interactional View of Paul Watzlawick 164

Infl uence 175

CHAPTER 14 Social Judgment Theory of Muzafer Sherif 177

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viii CONTENTS

CHAPTER 15 Elaboration Likelihood Model of Richard Petty & John Cacioppo 188

CHAPTER 16 Cognitive Dissonance Theory of Leon Festinger 200

DIVISION THREE GROUP AND PUBLIC COMMUNICATION

Group Communication 214

CHAPTER 17 Functional Perspective on Group Decision Making of Randy Hirokawa & Dennis Gouran 216

CHAPTER 18 Symbolic Convergence Theory of Ernest Bormann 230

Organizational Communication 242

CHAPTER 19 Cultural Approach to Organizations of Clifford Geertz & Michael Pacanowsky 244

CHAPTER 20 Communicative Constitution of Organizations of Robert McPhee 255

CHAPTER 21 Critical Theory of Communication in Organizations of Stanley Deetz 267

Public Rhetoric 281

CHAPTER 22 The Rhetoric of Aristotle 283

CHAPTER 23 Dramatism of Kenneth Burke 293

CHAPTER 24 Narrative Paradigm of Walter Fisher 303

DIVISION FOUR MASS COMMUNICATION

Media and Culture 314

CHAPTER 25 Media Ecology of Marshall McLuhan 316

CHAPTER 26 Semiotics of Roland Barthes 327

CHAPTER 27 Cultural Studies of Stuart Hall 339

Media Effects 351

CHAPTER 28 Uses and Gratifi cations of Elihu Katz 353

CHAPTER 29 Cultivation Theory of George Gerbner 363

CHAPTER 30 Agenda-Setting Theory of Maxwell McCombs & Donald Shaw 375

DIVISION FIVE CULTURAL CONTEXT

Intercultural Communication 389

CHAPTER 31 Communication Accommodation Theory of Howard Giles 391

CHAPTER 32 Face-Negotiation Theory of Stella Ting-Toomey 404

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CONTENTS ix

CHAPTER 33 Speech Codes Theory of Gerry Philipsen 418

Gender and Communication 430

CHAPTER 34 Genderlect Styles of Deborah Tannen 432

CHAPTER 35 Standpoint Theory of Sandra Harding & Julia T. Wood 444

CHAPTER 36 Muted Group Theory of Cheris Kramarae 457

DIVISION SIX INTEGRATION

Integration 470

CHAPTER 37 Common Threads in Comm Theories 472

Appendix A: Abstracts of Theories A-1

Appendix B: Feature Films That Illustrate Communication Theories A-6

Appendix C: NCA Credo for Ethical Communication A-8

Endnotes E-1

Credits and Acknowledgments C-1

Index I-1

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PREFACE FOR INSTRUCTORS

If you’re already familiar with A First Look at Communication Theory and under- stand the approach, organization, and main features of the book, you may want to jump ahead to the “Major Changes in the Ninth Edition” section. For those who are new to the text, reading the entire preface will give you a good grasp of what you and your students can expect.

A Balanced Approach to Theory Selection. We’ve written A First Look for students who have no background in communication theory. It’s designed for undergraduates enrolled in an entry-level course, regardless of the students’ clas- sifi cation. The trend in the fi eld is to offer students a broad introduction to theory relatively early in their program. But if a department chooses to offer its fi rst theory course on the junior or senior level, the course will still be the students’ fi rst comprehensive look at theory, so the book will meet them where they are.

Our goal in this text is to pres ent 32 communication theories in a clear and interesting way. After reading about a given theory, students should understand the theory, know the research that supports it, see useful applications in their lives, and be aware of the theory’s possible fl aws. We hope readers will discover relationships among theories located across the communication landscape—a clear indication that they grasp what they’re reading. But that kind of integra- tive thinking only takes place when students fi rst comprehend what a theorist claims.

With the help of more than 200 instructors, we’ve selected a range of theories that refl ect the diversity within the discipline. Some theories are proven candi- dates for a Communication Theory Hall of Fame. For example, Aristotle’s analysis of logical, emotional, and ethical appeals continues to set the agenda for many public-speaking courses. Mead’s symbolic interactionism is formative for inter- pretive theorists who are dealing with language, thought, self-concept, or the ef- fect of society upon the individual. Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory was the fi rst objective theory to be crafted by a social scientist trained in the fi eld. And no student of mediated communication should be ignorant of Gerbner’s cultivation theory, which explains why heavy television viewing cultivates fear of a mean and scary world.

It would be shortsighted, however, to limit the selection to the classics of communication. Some of the discipline’s most creative approaches are its newest. For example, Sandra Petronio’s theory of communication privacy management

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PREFACE FOR INSTRUCTORS xi

undergirds much of the research conducted in the fi eld of health communication. Leslie Baxter and Barbara Montgomery’s theory of relational dialectics offers insight into the ongoing tensions inherent in personal relationships. And Robert McPhee’s communicative constitution of organizations describes how the prin- ciple of social construction works in an organizational context.

Organizational Plan of the Book. Each chapter introduces a single theory in 10 to 15 pages. We’ve found that most undergraduates think in terms of discrete packets of information, so the concentrated coverage gives them a chance to focus their thoughts while reading a single chapter. This way, students can gain an in-depth understanding of important theories rather than acquire only a vague familiarity with a jumble of related ideas. The one-chapter–one-theory arrange- ment also gives teachers the opportunity to drop theories or rearrange the order of presentation without tearing apart the fabric of the text.

The fi rst four chapters provide a framework for understanding the theo- ries to come. The opening chapter, “Launching Your Study of Communication Theory,” presents working defi nitions of both theory and communication, and also prepares students for the arrangement of the chapters and the features within them. Chapter 2, “Talk About Theory,” lays the groundwork for understanding the differences between objective and interpretive theories. Chapter 3, “Weigh- ing the Words,” presents two sets of criteria for determining a good objective or interpretive theory. Based on Robert Craig’s (University of Colorado) conception, Chapter 4, “Mapping the Territory,” introduces seven traditions within the fi eld of communication theory.

Following this integrative framework, we feature 32 theories in 32 self- contained chapters. Each theory is discussed within the context of a commu- nication topic: interpersonal messages, relationship development, relationship maintenance, infl uence, group communication, organizational communication, public rhetoric, media and culture, media effects, intercultural communication, or gender and communication. These communication context sections usually con- tain three theories. Each section’s two-page introduction outlines a crucial issue that theorists working in this area address. The placement of theories in familiar contexts helps students recognize that theories are answers to questions they’ve been asking all along. The fi nal chapter, “Common Threads in Comm Theories,” offers students a novel form of integration that will help them discern order in the tapestry of communication theory that might otherwise seem chaotic.

Because all theory and practice has value implications, we briefl y explore a dozen ethical principles throughout the book. Consistent with the focus of this text, each principle is the central tenet of a specifi c ethical theory. Other disciplines may ignore these thorny issues, but to discuss communication as a process that is untouched by questions of good and bad, right and wrong, or questions of char- acter would be to disregard an ongoing concern in our fi eld.

Features of Each Chapter. Most people think in pictures. Students will have a rough time understanding a theory unless they apply its explanations and inter- pretations to concrete situations. The typical chapter uses an extended example to illustrate the “truth” a theory proposes. We encourage readers to try out ideas by visualizing a fi rst meeting of freshman roommates, responding to confl ict in a dysfunctional family, trying to persuade other students to support a zero- tolerance policy on driving after drinking, and many others. We also use speeches

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xii PREFACE FOR INSTRUCTORS

of Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X, and scenes from Mad Men, The Offi ce, The Help, Bend It Like Beckham, and Thank You for Smoking to illustrate principles of the theories. The case study in each chapter follows the pedagogical principle of explaining what students don’t yet know in terms of ideas and images already within their experience.

Some theories are tightly linked with an extensive research project. For exam- ple, the impact of cognitive dissonance theory was greatly spurred by Festinger’s surprising fi nding in his now classic $1/$20 experiment. And Philipsen’s speech codes theory began with a three-year ethnographic study of what it means to speak like a man in “Teamsterville.” When such exemplars exist, we describe the research in detail so that students can learn from and appreciate the benefi ts of grounding theory in systematic observation. In this way, readers of A First Look are led through a variety of research designs and data analyses.

Students will encounter the names of Baxter, Berger, Bormann, Burgoon, Burke, Deetz, Fisher, Giles, Kramarae, Pacanowsky, Pearce, Philipsen, Ting- Toomey, Walther, Wood, and many others in later communication courses. We therefore make a concerted effort to link theory and theorist. By pairing a particu- lar theory with its originator, we try to promote both recall and respect for a given scholar’s effort.

The text of each chapter concludes with a section that critiques the theory. This represents a hard look at the ideas presented in light of the criteria for a good theory outlined in Chapter 3. Some theorists have suggested that we are “friends” of their theory. We appreciate that because we want to present all of the theories in a constructive way. But after we summarize a theory’s strengths, we then discuss its weaknesses, unanswered questions, and possible errors that remain. We try to stimulate a “That makes sense, and yet I wonder . . .” response among students.

We include a short list of thought questions at the end of each chapter. Labeled “Questions to Sharpen Your Focus,” these probes encourage students to make connections among ideas in the chapter and also to apply the theory to their everyday communication experience. As part of this feature, words printed in italics remind students of the key terms of a given theory.

Each chapter ends with a short list of annotated readings entitled “A Second Look.” The heading refers to resources for students who are interested in a theory and want to go further than a 10- to 15-page introduction allows. The top item is the resource we recommend as the starting point for further study. The other list- ings identify places to look for material about each of the major issues raised in the chapter. The format is designed to offer practical encouragement and guidance for further study without overwhelming the novice with multiple citations. The sources of quotations and citations of evidence are listed in an “Endnotes” section at the end of the book.

We think professors and students alike will get a good chuckle out of the cartoons we’ve selected for each chapter and section introduction. The art’s main function, however, is to illustrate signifi cant points in the text. As in other edi- tions, we’re committed to using quality cartoon art from The New Yorker and Punch magazines, as well as comic strips such as “Calvin and Hobbes” and “Dilbert.” Perceptive cartoonists are modern-day prophets—their humor serves the educa- tion process well when it slips through mental barriers or attitudinal defenses that didactic prose can’t penetrate.

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PREFACE FOR INSTRUCTORS xiii

While no author considers his or her style ponderous or dull, we believe we’ve presented the theories in a clear and lively fashion. Accuracy alone does not communicate. We’ve tried to remain faithful to the vocabulary each theorist uses so that the student can consider the theory in the author’s own terms, but we also translate technical language into more familiar words. Students and reviewers cite readability and interest as particular strengths of the text. We encourage you to sample a chapter so you can decide for yourself.

In 13 of the chapters, you’ll see photographs of the theorists who appear in “Conversations with Communication Theorists,” eight-minute video clips of our discussions together. The text that accompanies each picture previews intriguing comments the theorists made so students can watch the interview with a specifi c purpose in mind. You can fi nd these videos, as well as auto-graded quizzes, theory abstracts, web links, and crossword puzzles on the book’s two websites, www.mhhe.com/griffi n9e and the author-driven www.afi rstlook.com.

Both sites offer password-protected features for instructors. The most selected resource is Emily Langan’s world-class Instructor’s Manual, which offers additional commentary, discussion questions, and classroom activities for each chapter. In addition, the McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center contains a test bank, fl ashcards, and PowerPoint presentations. The First Look site offers anno- tated movie clips that illustrate theories, a comparison chart showing theories covered in major communication theory texts, and chapter-by-chapter changes from the previous edition.

Major Changes in the Ninth Edition. Andrew Ledbetter and Glenn Sparks have become co-authors with Em. They were special consultants for the previous edition, but we now join together as equal partners. Both men are highly recog- nized scholars in their fi eld—Andrew in computer-mediated communication and family communication; Glenn in media effects and interpersonal communication. Glenn was a student in Em’s fi rst persuasion course at Wheaton; Andrew aced the last communication theory class Em taught before he retired from full-time teaching. Despite differences in our ages of up to 45 years, the three of us are close friends and colleagues who have published together before. Each of us vets and edits what the other two write and offers advice on what to cover. We believe this interactive process ensures that students will read up-to-date information presented in the same “voice” that has characterized the book throughout eight editions.

Responding to instructors’ desire to have at least one more organizational theory, we’ve added a chapter on Robert McPhee’s theory, the communicative constitution of organizations. McPhee’s conception of four fl ows of communication that create and sustain an organization is just one of several versions of CCO, but we think it’s the account easiest to understand and most useful for students. In order to make room for McPhee’s theory, we’ve moved our coverage of Delia’s constructivism to the theory archive at www.afi rstlook.com.

We’ve made a concerted effort to update examples that no longer have the explanatory power or appeal they did when introduced in previous editions. References to old fi lms are a case in point. As apt as these movies are to illustrate symbolic interactionism or critical theory of communication in organizations, the major- ity of college students aren’t familiar with Nell or Erin Brockovich. We’ve replaced many of these examples with cultural material more relevant to students.

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xiv PREFACE FOR INSTRUCTORS

Half the chapters in the book have undergone major additions, deletions, or alterations. Here’s a sample:

• In the “Talk About Theory” chapter, Glenn’s and Marty’s analyses of the most popular commercial of the 2013 Super Bowl telecast highlight the dif- ferences between objective and interpretive scholarship.

• In the “Weighing the Words” chapter, a discussion of communication appre- hension now illustrates the explanation-of-data standard for objective theories.

• The chapter on the coordinated management of meaning has been completely rewritten. It’s shorter, less complex, and faithful to the new direction the theory has taken. The CMM Institute will use it on its website to introduce the theory.

• In the “Uncertainty Reduction Theory” chapter, the section on anxiety/uncer- tainty management theory has been replaced with an in-depth section on the relational turbulence model, which is on the cutting-edge of research in the URT tradition.

• The revised chapter on social information processing theory begins by ref- erencing the hit 2010 movie The Social Network and then uses an ongoing example of a Facebook friendship to illustrate key components of the theory. Walther’s hyperpersonal perspective is applied to online dating.

• The “Three State-of-the-Art Revisions” section of the “Cognitive Dissonance” chapter has been largely rewritten. The edits more clearly differentiate among the three revisions and use the example of President Obama’s struggle with smoking to illustrate those differences.

• In Deetz’ “Critical Theory of Communication” chapter, there’s an extensive elaboration of his Politically Attentive Relational Constructivism (PARC). This is followed by an account of how Deetz applies the theory to his work with the International Atomic Energy Agency to prevent nuclear plant melt- downs.

• We’ve made a major reorganization of the chapter on Burke’s dramatism. The order of the fi rst four sections is now (1) an expanded presentation of the dramatistic pentad, (2) a new section on language as the genesis of guilt, (3) the guilt–redemption cycle, and (4) identifi cation as the necessary condi- tion for persuasion to occur.

• In the chapter on cultural studies, we rewrote the section on broadcast and print news supporting dominant ideology, using Obamacare as a case study. We then discussed satire as a possible form of resistance to the dominant ideology, using The Daily Show and The Colbert Report as examples.

• In the “Genderlect Styles” chapter, we replaced the When Harry Met Sally example with new material on rules of conversation that boys and girls learn early in life, and discuss how childhood speech communities may be the origin of genderlect.

• The revised chapter on muted group theory introduces Orbe’s co-cultural theory, which charts how muted groups desire assimilation, separation, or accommodation.

Bottom-line numbers on important features of the text are an index of addi- tional changes we’ve made in this edition. We’ve created two new “Conversations

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PREFACE FOR INSTRUCTORS xv

with Communication Theorists” videos—Glenn interviewing Sandra Petronio about her communication privacy management theory and Andrew discussing com- munication accommodation theory with Howie Giles. We’ve selected six new appli- cation logs that show how students use theories in their lives, and captured seven new cartoons that cleverly highlight a crucial claim of a particular theory. You’ll also fi nd 50 new annotated citations in the “Second Look” feature at the end of the chapters.

McGraw-Hill Education offers a robust custom publishing program, Create, that you may want to consider. Create enables you to build a book with only the chapters you need, and arrange them in the order you’ll teach them. There’s also the option of adding materials you prepare or using chapters from other McGraw- Hill books or resources from their library. When you build a Create book, you will receive a complimentary print review copy in just a few days or a complimentary eBook via email in about one hour.

Acknowledgments. We gratefully acknowledge the wisdom and counsel of many generous scholars whose intellectual capital is embedded in every page you’ll read. Over the last 27 years, hundreds of communication scholars have gone out of their way to make the book better. People who have made direct contributions to this edition include Ron Adler, Santa Barbara City College; Ed Appel, Lock Haven University; Ryan Bisel, University of Oklahoma; Dan Brown, Grove City College; Kristen Carr, Texas Christian University; Ken Chase, Wheaton College; Stan Deetz, University of Colorado; Chip Eveland, Ohio State University; Darin Garard, Santa Barbara City College; Howard Giles, University of California, Santa Barbara; Cheris Kramarae, University of Oregon; Glen McClish, San Diego State University; Max McCombs, University of Texas; Marty Medhurst, Baylor University; Rebecca Meisenbach, University of Missouri; Melanie Mills, Eastern Illinois University; James Olufowote, Boston College; Mark Orbe, Western Michigan University; Doug Osman, Purdue University; Kim Pearce, CMM Institute for Personal and Social Evolution; Sandra Petronio, University of Indiana–Purdue University Indianapolis; Gerry Philipsen, University of Washington; Russ Proctor, Northern Kentucky University; Linda Putnam, University of California, Santa Barbara; Derrick Rosenoir, Vanguard University; Alan Rubin, Hebrew University of Jerusalem; Christa Sloan, Pepperdine University; Jordan Soliz, University of Nebraska; Stella Ting-Toomey, California State University, Fullerton; Mina Tsay, Boston University; Paul Witt, Texas Christian University; Robert Woods Jr., Spring Arbor University. Without their help, this edition would be less accurate and certainly less interesting.

Em has great appreciation for two Wheaton undergraduate research assis- tants. David Washko juggled his responsibilities while playing two seasons of varsity football at Wheaton. Laurel Porter constructed the comprehensive index that contains thousands of entries—a task no one should do more than once in life. Glenn is grateful for Lewis Day and Beth Stanley, two Purdue student production assistants who made recording his conversation with Sandra Petronio possible.

Our relationships with the professionals at McGraw-Hill have been highly sat- isfactory. Susan Gouijnstook was our initial Development Editor, but a maternity leave and well-deserved promotion to Director of Communication brought Adina Lonn to the Development Editor role. Both women were incredibly responsive to our needs, and their care for the entire project matched ours. They were backed up by Lisa Pinto, Executive Director of Development; David Patterson, Managing

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xvi PREFACE FOR INSTRUCTORS

Director; Penina Braffman, Managing Editor; Jessica Portz, Project Manager; and Jamie Daron, Brand Coordinator. Other authors are envious when they hear of our experience working with these professionals.