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The Media of Mass Communication Twelfth Edition

John Vivian

Winona State University

330 Hudson Street, NY, NY 10013

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Vivian, John author.

Title: The media of mass communication / John Vivian, Winona State University.

Description: Boston : Pearson, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2016025354 | ISBN 9780133931211 | ISBN 0133931218

Subjects: LCSH: Mass media. | Mass media—Technological innovations. | Mass media—Social aspects. | Communication—Technological innovations. | Mass media and culture.

Classification: LCC P90 .V53 2017 | DDC 302.23–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016025354

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Books a la Carte

ISBN-10: 0-13-393121-8

ISBN-13: 978-0-13-393121-1

Brief Contents 1. 1 Mass Media Literacy 1

2. 2 Media Technology 16

3. 3 Media Economics 39

4. 4 Cybermedia 59

5. 5 Legacy Media 75

6. 6 News 98

7. 7 Entertainment 119

8. 8 Public Relations 136

9. 9 Advertising 152

10. 10 Mass Audiences 172

11. 11 Mass Media Effects 190

12. 12 Governance and Mass Media 209

13. 13 Global Mass Media 227

14. 14 Mass Media Law 245

15. 15 Mass Media Ethics 258

Contents 1. Preface xi

2. About the Author xv

1. 1 Mass Media Literacy 1

1. 1.1 Media Exposure 2

1. 1.1.1 Media Usage 3

2. 1.1.2 Concurrent Media Usage 3

3. 1.1.3 Inescapable Symbiosis 3

4. 1.1.4 Being an Empowered Media Consumer 4

2. 1.2 Purposeful Mass Communication 4

1. 1.2.1 To Inform 4

2. 1.2.2 To Persuade 5

3. 1.2.3 To Entertain 5

4. 1.2.4 To Enlighten 6

5. 1.2.5 Overlapping Purposes 6

3. 1.3 Mediated Communication 7

1. 1.3.1 Traditional Forms of Communication 7

2. 1.3.2 Communication Through Mass Media 7

3. 1.3.3 Communication Through Social Media 9

4. 1.4 Literacy for Media Consumers 10

1. 1.4.1 Linguistic Literacy 10

2. 1.4.2 Visual Literacy 11

3. 1.4.3 Film Literacy 12

5. 1.5 Assessing Media Messages 13

1. 1.5.1 Fundamentals of Media Literacy 13

2. 1.5.2 Spheres of Media Literacy 14

1. Summary: Mass Media Literacy 15

2. 2 Media Technology 16

1. 2.1 Media Technology 18

1. 2.1.1 Technology Dependence 18

2. 2.1.2 Evolving Media Landscape 18

2. 2.2 Printing Technology 20

1. 2.2.1 Movable Metal Type 20

2. 2.2.2 Gutenberg’s Impact 21

3. 2.2.3 Industrial Revolution Effects 22

4. 2.2.4 Print–Visual Integration 22

3. 2.3 Chemical Technology 23

1. 2.3.1 Photography 23

2. 2.3.2 Movies 24

4. 2.4 Electrical Technology 25

1. 2.4.1 Electricity as Transformational 25

2. 2.4.2 Recording 26

3. 2.4.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum 26

5. 2.5 Current Technologies 28

1. 2.5.1 Orbiting Satellites 28

2. 2.5.2 Back to Wires 29

3. 2.5.3 Semiconductor 30

4. 2.5.4 Internet Originals 30

5. 2.5.5 Media Convergence 31

6. 2.5.6 Media Architecture 33

7. 2.5.7 Internet-Delivered Communication 34

6. 2.6 Technology and Mass Communication 34

1. 2.6.1 Lasswell Model 34

2. 2.6.2 Values and Limitations of Models 35

3. 2.6.3 Concentric Circle Model of Communication 35

4. 2.6.4 21st-Century Models 36

1. Summary: Media Technology 38

3. 3 Media Economics 39

1. 3.1 Financial Foundations 40

1. 3.1.1 Capitalism 40

2. 3.1.2 Revenue Streams 40

3. 3.1.3 Investors 42

2. 3.2 Ownership Structures 43

1. 3.2.1 Conglomerate Dominance 44

2. 3.2.2 Conglomerate Behavior 46

3. 3.2.3 Divestiture 46

3. 3.3 Media Economic Patterns 46

1. 3.3.1 Invention 47

2. 3.3.2 Entrepreneurship 47

3. 3.3.3 Industry 49

4. 3.3.4 Maturation 49

5. 3.3.5 Denial 49

4. 3.4 Rethinking Media Ownership 52

1. 3.4.1 Ownership Alternatives 52

2. 3.4.2 University Media Generators 54

3. 3.4.3 Family Ownership 54

5. 3.5 Funding Alternatives 55

1. 3.5.1 Government Role 55

2. 3.5.2 Government Issues 56

3. 3.5.3 Philanthropy 56

4. 3.5.4 Fund Drives 56

6. 3.6 New Media Funding 57

1. 3.6.1 Advertising and Subscriptions 57

2. 3.6.2 Hybrid Mix 57

1. Summary: Media Economics 57

4. 4 Cybermedia 59

1. 4.1 Changing Media Landscape 60

1. 4.1.1 Media Convergence 60

2. 4.1.2 Delivery Platforms 61

3. 4.1.3 Industry Realignments 61

4. 4.1.4 Age of Pixelation 62

2. 4.2 New Audience Engagement 62

1. 4.2.1 Push–Pull Models 62

2. 4.2.2 Limitless Archiving 63

3. 4.2.3 Interactivity 64

3. 4.3 Jobs’ Historical Model 64

1. 4.3.1 Computer Revolution 65

2. 4.3.2 Internet Revolution 65

3. 4.3.3 Digital Lifestyle 65

4. 4.4 User-Generated Content 66

1. 4.4.1 Blogging 66

2. 4.4.2 Social Networking 67

3. 4.4.3 Messaging 69

4. 4.4.4 Texting 70

5. 4.5 Online Commerce 71

1. 4.5.1 Sales Sites 71

2. 4.5.2 Product Downloads and Streaming 72

6. 4.6 Online Dominance 72

1. 4.6.1 Assessing Target Audiences 73

2. 4.6.2 Behavioral Targeting 73

1. Summary: Cybermedia 74

5. 5 Legacy Media 75

1. 5.1 Mass Media as Industries 76

1. 5.1.1 Legacy Industries 76

2. 5.1.2 Transformation of Print Industries 77

2. 5.2 Business Models 78

1. 5.2.1 The Business of Newspapers 78

2. 5.2.2 Organization of Media Industries 78

3. 5.3 Ink-on-Paper Industries 79

1. 5.3.1 Newspapers 79

2. 5.3.2 Magazines 81

3. 5.3.3 Books 82

4. 5.4 Sound Media Industries 85

1. 5.4.1 Recording 85

2. 5.4.2 Intellectual Property Issues 85

3. 5.4.3 Radio 87

5. 5.5 Motion Media Industries 89

1. 5.5.1 Movies 89

2. 5.5.2 Television 91

3. 5.5.3 Movie–Television Meld 94

4. 5.5.4 Strength through Trade Groups 94

6. 5.6 Platform-Neutral Future 96

1. 5.6.1 Legacy Media under Siege 96

2. 5.6.2 Legacy Media Prospects 96

1. Summary: Legacy Media 97

6. 6 News 98

1. 6.1 Concept of News 99

1. 6.1.1 News as Change 99

2. 6.1.2 Newsworthiness 99

2. 6.2 Bennett News Model 100

1. 6.2.1 James Gordon Bennett 100

2. 6.2.2 Bennett Model Components 101

3. 6.2.3 Bennett Model Flaws 102

3. 6.3 Rethinking News Models 105

1. 6.3.1 Hutchins Model 105

2. 6.3.2 Changing News Dynamics 105

3. 6.3.3 New Platforms and Dynamics 106

4. 6.3.4 Hybrid News Models 106

4. 6.4 Values That Shape News 107

1. 6.4.1 News Judgment 108

2. 6.4.2 Personal Values 108

5. 6.5 Variables Affecting News 109

1. 6.5.1 News Hole 109

2. 6.5.2 News Flow 110

3. 6.5.3 News Staffing 110

4. 6.5.4 Audience Expectations 111

5. 6.5.5 Competition 112

6. 6.6 Journalism Trends 113

1. 6.6.1 Newsrooms in Transition 114

2. 6.6.2 Nonstop Coverage 115

3. 6.6.3 Live News 115

4. 6.6.4 Exploratory Reporting 116

5. 6.6.5 Soft News 117

1. Summary: News 118

7. 7 Entertainment 119

1. 7.1 Mediation of Entertainment 120

1. 7.1.1 Entertainment as Mass Media 120

2. 7.1.2 Technology-Driven Entertainment 121

3. 7.1.3 Authentic and Mediated Performance 122

2. 7.2 Storytelling 123

1. 7.2.1 Genres of Literature 123

2. 7.2.2 Media-Defined Trends 123

3. 7.3 Music 124

1. 7.3.1 Transformative Effect on Culture 124

2. 7.3.2 Rockabilly Revolution 125

3. 7.3.3 Rock ‘n’ Roll 126

4. 7.3.4 Music of Dissent 126

5. 7.3.5 Rise of Rap 127

4. 7.4 Sports as Media Entertainment 127

1. 7.4.1 Mass Audience for Sports 127

2. 7.4.2 Audience and Advertiser Confluence 128

3. 7.4.3 Televised Sports 128

5. 7.5 Sex as Media Content 129

1. 7.5.1 Adult Entertainment 129

2. 7.5.2 Decency Requirements 130

3. 7.5.3 Sexual Content and Children 130

6. 7.6 Artistic Values 131

1. 7.6.1 Media Content as High Art 131

2. 7.6.2 “High,” “Low,” “Greater,” and “Lesser” (Not Really) Art 132

3. 7.6.3 Evaluating a Range of Media Content 133

4. 7.6.4 Pop Art Revisionism 134

1. Summary: Entertainment 134

8. 8 Public Relations 136

1. 8.1 Public Relations Scope 136

1. 8.1.1 Public Relations Industry 137

2. 8.1.2 The Work of Public Relations 137

2. 8.2 Public Relations in Context 138

1. 8.2.1 Public Relations and Advertising 139

2. 8.2.2 Public Relations in News 139

3. 8.3 Roots of Public Relations 140

1. 8.3.1 Social Darwinism 140

2. 8.3.2 Ivy Lee 141

3. 8.3.3 Public Relations on a Massive Scale 142

4. 8.3.4 Corporate Public Relations 143

4. 8.4 Public Relations as Strategy 143

1. 8.4.1 Strategic Communication 144

2. 8.4.2 Integrated Marketing 144

5. 8.5 Public Relations Tactics 144

1. 8.5.1 Promotion 144

2. 8.5.2 Image Management 145

3. 8.5.3 Crisis Management 146

6. 8.6 Contingency Planning 147

1. 8.6.1 Advocacy 147

2. 8.6.2 Tarnished Image 149

3. 8.6.3 Ethics: Standards and Certification 150

1. Summary: Public Relations 151

9. 9 Advertising 152

1. 9.1 Importance of Advertising 153

1. 9.1.1 Consumer Economies 153

2. 9.1.2 Advertising and Prosperity 153

3. 9.1.3 Advertising and Democracy 154

2. 9.2 Origins of Advertising 155

1. 9.2.1 First Advertisements 155

2. 9.2.2 Technology Dependence 155

3. 9.2.3 The Creative Revolution 156

3. 9.3 Advertising Agencies 158

1. 9.3.1 Pioneer Agencies 158

2. 9.3.2 Agency Compensation 158

4. 9.4 Media Plans 159

1. 9.4.1 Campaigns and Placement 159

2. 9.4.2 Online Placement and Virtual Marketing 161

5. 9.5 Brand Strategies 161

1. 9.5.1 Brand Names 162

2. 9.5.2 Brand Images 162

3. 9.5.3 Brand Types 164

6. 9.6 Advertising Tactics 165

1. 9.6.1 Lowest Common Denominator 165

2. 9.6.2 Redundancy Techniques 166

3. 9.6.3 Testimonials 166

4. 9.6.4 Addressing Ad Clutter 167

5. 9.6.5 Buzz Advertising 167

1. Summary: Advertising 171

10. 10 Mass Audiences 172

1. 10.1 Discovering Mass Audiences 173

1. 10.1.1 Audience Research Evolution 173

2. 10.1.2 Survey Industry 173

2. 10.2 Audience Measurement Principles 175

1. 10.2.1 Probability Sampling 175

2. 10.2.2 Quota Sampling 177

3. 10.2.3 Evaluating Surveys 177

4. 10.2.4 Latter-Day Straw Polls 178

3. 10.3 Measuring Audience Size 179

1. 10.3.1 Newspaper and Magazine Audits 179

2. 10.3.2 Broadcast Ratings 179

3. 10.3.3 Criticism of Ratings 180

4. 10.3.4 Engagement Ratings 181

4. 10.4 Audience Measurement Techniques 181

1. 10.4.1 Basic Tools 182

2. 10.4.2 Internet Audience Measures 183

3. 10.4.3 Mobile Audience Measures 184

5. 10.5 Measuring Audience Reaction 185

1. 10.5.1 Focus Groups 185

2. 10.5.2 Galvanic Skin Checks 185

3. 10.5.3 Prototype Research 186

6. 10.6 Audience Analysis 187

1. 10.6.1 Demographics 187

2. 10.6.2 Cohort Analysis 187

3. 10.6.3 Geodemographics 188

4. 10.6.4 Psychographics 188

1. Summary: Media Audiences 189

11. 11 Mass Media Effects 190

1. 11.1 Effects Theories 191

1. 11.1.1 Bullet Model 191

2. 11.1.2 Minimalist Model 191

3. 11.1.3 Cumulative Model 192

2. 11.2 Lifestyle Effects 192

1. 11.2.1 Socialization 193

2. 11.2.2 Living Patterns 193

3. 11.2.3 Intergenerational Eavesdropping 194

3. 11.3 Attitude Effects 194

1. 11.3.1 Influencing Opinion 195

2. 11.3.2 Role Models 195

3. 11.3.3 Stereotypes 196

4. 11.4 Cultural Effects 196

1. 11.4.1 Historical Transmission of Values 197

2. 11.4.2 Contemporary Transmission of Values 197

3. 11.4.3 Cultural Imperialism 198

5. 11.5 Behavioral Effects 201

1. 11.5.1 Motivational Messages 201

2. 11.5.2 Subliminal Messages 201

6. 11.6 Media-Depicted Violence 202

1. 11.6.1 Learning About Violence 202

2. 11.6.2 Media Violence as Positive 203

3. 11.6.3 Media Violence as Negative 203

4. 11.6.4 Catalytic Model 204

5. 11.6.5 Societally Debilitating Effects 205

6. 11.6.6 Media Violence and Youth 205

7. 11.6.7 Tolerance of Violence 206

1. Summary: Mass Media Effects 207

12. 12 Governance and Mass Media 209

1. 12.1 Media-Governance Structure 210

1. 12.1.1 Fourth Estate 210

2. 12.1.2 Watchdog Function 211

2. 12.2 Media–Government Tension 212

1. 12.2.1 Media Influence on Governance 212

2. 12.2.2 News Coverage of Government 214

3. 12.2.3 Media Obsessions 215

3. 12.3 Government Manipulation 217

1. 12.3.1 Influencing Coverage 217

2. 12.3.2 Trial Balloons and Leaks 218

3. 12.3.3 Stonewalling 219

4. 12.4 Political Campaigns 220

1. 12.4.1 Cyclical Coverage 220

2. 12.4.2 Tracking Polls 220

3. 12.4.3 Role of Commentary 220

5. 12.5 Courting Campaign Coverage 221

1. 12.5.1 Campaign Tactics 222

2. 12.5.2 Creating Coverage Opportunities 222

3. 12.5.3 Limiting Access 223

6. 12.6 Campaign Messages 223

1. 12.6.1 Message Strategies 223

2. 12.6.2 Precision Targeting 224

1. Summary: Governance and Mass Media 225

13. 13 Global Mass Media 227

1. 13.1 Mass Media and Nation-States 228

1. 13.1.1 Authoritarianism 228

2. 13.1.2 Libertarianism 230

2. 13.2 War as a Libertarian Test 232

1. 13.2.1 Combat Reporting 233

2. 13.2.2 Embedded Reporters 233

3. 13.3 Online Global Reform 234

1. 13.3.1 Whither Nation-States 234

2. 13.3.2 Whither Mega-Corporations 236

4. 13.4 Trans-Border Soft Diplomacy 237

1. 13.4.1 Afghanistan Media-Building 237

2. 13.4.2 Trans-Border Propaganda 238

3. 13.4.3 Voice of America 239

4. 13.4.4 Trans-Border Blockages 239

5. 13.5 Arab Media Systems 240

1. 13.5.1 Diverse Media Structures 240

2. 13.5.2 Al-Jazeera 240

3. 13.5.3 Media as Totalitarian Tool 241

4. 13.5.4 Dubai Media Incorporated 241

6. 13.6 China Media 242

1. 13.6.1 Chinese Policy 242

2. 13.6.2 Chinese Censorship 243

1. Summary: Global Mass Media 243

14. 14 Mass Media Law 245

1. 14.1 Censorship 246

1. 14.1.1 Free Expression 246

2. 14.1.2 First Amendment in Context 247

3. 14.1.3 Common Sense and First Amendment 247

4. 14.1.4 Incitement Standard 247

2. 14.2 First Amendment Expansionism 249

1. 14.2.1 Literature and First Amendment 249

2. 14.2.2 Amusement and First Amendment 250

3. 14.2.3 Emotive Speech 250

4. 14.2.4 Hate Speech 250

5. 14.2.5 Expressive Speech 250

3. 14.3 Government Regulation 251

1. 14.3.1 Federal Communications Commission 251

2. 14.3.2 Federal Trade Commission 251

4. 14.4 Indecency 252

1. 14.4.1 Pornography Versus Obscenity 252

2. 14.4.2 Protecting Children 252

5. 14.5 Intellectual Property 253

1. 14.5.1 Copyright 253

2. 14.5.2 Consumer Rights 254

6. 14.6 Defamation 255

1. 14.6.1 Libel as a Concept 255

2. 14.6.2 Reckless Disregard 255

3. 14.6.3 Comment and Criticism 256

1. Summary: Mass Media Law 257

15. 15 Mass Media Ethics 258

1. 15.1 The Difficulty of Ethics 259

1. 15.1.1 Prescriptive Ethics 259

2. 15.1.2 Conflict of Duties 260

2. 15.2 Media Ethics 261

1. 15.2.1 Media Commitment 261

2. 15.2.2 Audience Expectations 262

3. 15.3 Moral Principles 262

1. 15.3.1 Golden Mean 262

2. 15.3.2 Reciprocity Principle 263

3. 15.3.3 Utilitarian Ethics 263

4. 15.3.4 Pragmatic Ethics 263

5. 15.3.5 Egalitarian Ethics 264

6. 15.3.6 Social Responsibility 264

4. 15.4 Process Versus Outcome 265

1. 15.4.1 Deontological Ethics 265

2. 15.4.2 Teleological Ethics 265

3. 15.4.3 Situational Ethics 267

5. 15.5 Potter’s Box 267

1. 15.5.1 Four Quadrants 268

2. 15.5.2 Intellectual Satisfaction 269

6. 15.6 Ethics, Law, and Practicality 269

1. 15.6.1 Ethics and Law 270

2. 15.6.2 Accepted Practices 270

3. 15.6.3 Prudence and Ethics 270

4. 15.6.4 Misrepresentation 270

1. Summary: Mass Media Ethics 272

1. Glossary 273

2. References 280

3. Credits 285

4. Index 289

Preface The mass media was in a rapid, dizzying change in 1991 when I first wrote The Media of Mass Communication in an attempt to help college students make sense of it all. Since then, the change has accelerated exponentially. Indeed, newspapers were still a reigning medium back then. Facebook inventor Mark Zuckerberg was a second grader. By the day, it seems, the change is more rapid, more dizzying—and more exciting and fascinating. As an author, my task is greater than ever to make sense of it all.

Through The Media of Mass Communication and a growing network of colleagues who have adopted the book, my reach as a teacher has been extended far, far beyond the confines of my own classroom. There are editions in several countries, including Canada, China, and Indonesia. In all, The Media of Mass Communication has been published in 24 variations over the years, each revised specifically to keep students up-to-speed with ever-changing media dynamics. I am indebted deeply to professors and their students, who pepper me almost daily with their reactions to the book and with news and tidbits to keep the next edition current.

Most gratifying to me is the community that has grown up around The Media of Mass Communication. These are people, many of whom have become valued friends, whose thoughts have made the book an evolving and interactive project. In countless messages, professors have shared what works in their classes and how it might work elsewhere. Students write me the most, sometimes puzzled over something that deserves more clarity, sometimes with examples to illustrate a point. All of the comments, questions, and suggestions help add currency and effectiveness to every new edition.

New to This Edition Updated content on new trends in the Mass Communication fields, which will aid students in understanding the evolution of the Mass Communications and related disciplines.

New content on the impact of social media on Mass Communications, providing students with a greater understanding of how new technologies have influenced the field.

Increased focus on professions within the fields of Mass Communications, including advertising and marketing, enabling students to better explore career options

Updated case studies in each chapter, providing students with real-world examples about a range of dynamics within the discipline of Mass Communications.

Updated photographs and graphs, providing students with better visuals to enhance learning.

Updated writing style, increasing readability.

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REVEL enlivens course content with media interactives and assessments—integrated directly within the authors’ narrative—that provide opportunities for students to read about and practice course material in tandem. This immersive educational technology boosts student engagement, which leads to a better understanding of concepts and improved performance throughout the course.

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Acknowledgments I am indebted to my students and colleagues at my academic home, Winona State University, who made contributions in ways beyond what they realize. I am indebted too to many students elsewhere who have written thoughtful suggestions that have shaped this edition. They include Niele Anderson, Grambling State University; Krislynn Barnhart, Green River Community College; Michelle Blackstone, Eckerd College; Mamie Bush, Winthrop University; Lashaunda Carruth, Forest Park Community College; Mike Costache, Pepperdine University; Scott DeWitt, University of Montana; John Dvorak, Bethany Lutheran College; Denise Fredrickson, Mesabi Range Community and Technical College; Judy Gaines, Austin Community College; James Grades, Michigan State University; Dion Hillman, Grambling State University; Rebecca Iserman, Saint Olaf University; Scott Wayne Joyner, Michigan State University; David Keys, Citrus College; Chad Larimer, Winona State University; Amy Lipko, Green River Community College; Christina Mendez, Citrus College; Nicholas Nabokov, University of Montana; Andrew Madsen, University of Central Florida; Scott Phipps, Green River Community College; Colleen Pierce, Green River Community College; June Siple, University of Montana; and Candace Webb, Oxnard College.

I am grateful to reviewers who provided guidance for this new edition of The Media of Mass Communication:

Patricia Cambridge, Ohio University

Michael Cavanagh, University of Illinois at Springfield

Thomas Gardner, Westfield State College

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Nancy Jennings, University of Cincinnati

Eungjun Min, Rhode Island College

Lynn C. Owens, Peace College

I also appreciate the suggestions of other colleagues whose reviews over the years have contributed to the book’s success: Edward Adams, Brigham Young University; Ralph D. Barney, Brigham Young University; Thomas Beell, Iowa State University; Ralph Beliveau, University of Oklahoma; Robert Bellamy, Duquesne University; ElDean Bennett, Arizona State University; Lori Bergen, Wichita State University; Michelle Blackstone, Eckerd College; Bob Bode, Western Washington University; Timothy Boudreau, Central Michigan University; Bryan Brown, Missouri State University Cambridge, Ohio University; Jane Campbell, Columbia State Community College; Dom Caristi, Ball State University; Michael L. Carlebach, University of Miami; Meta Carstarphen, University of North Texas; Michael Cavanagh, University of Louisiana at Lafayette; Danae Clark, University of Pittsburgh; Jeremy Cohen, Stanford University; Michael Colgan, University of South Carolina; Ross F. Collins, North Dakota State University; Stephen Corman, Grossmont College; James A. Danowski, University of Illinois, Chicago; David Donnelly, University of Houston; Thomas R. Donohue, Virginia Commonwealth University; John Dvorak, Bethany Lutheran College; Michele Rees Edwards, Robert Morris University; Kathleen A. Endres, University of Akron; Glen Feighery, University of Utah; Celestino Fernández, University of Arizona; Donald Fishman, Boston College; Carl Fletcher, Olivet Nazarene University; Laurie H. Fluker, Southwest Texas State University; Kathy Flynn, Essex County College in Newark, New Jersey; Robert Fordan, Central Washington University; Ralph Frasca, University of Toledo; Judy Gaines, Austin Community College; Mary Lou Galician, Arizona State University; Andy Gallagher, West Virginia State College; Ronald Garay, Louisiana State University; Lisa Byerley Gary, University of Tennessee; Donald Godfrey, Arizona State University; Tom Grier, Winona State University; Neil Gustafson, Eastern Oregon University; Donna Halper, Emerson College; Peggy Holecek, Northern Illinois University; Anita Howard, Austin Community College; Jason Hutchens, University of North Carolina at Pembroke; Elza Ibroscheva, Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville; Carl Isaacson, Sterling College; Nancy-Jo Johnson, Henderson State University; Carl Kell, Western Kentucky University; Mark A. Kelley, The University of Maine; Wayne F. Kelly, California State University, Long Beach; Donnell King, Pellissippi State Technical Community College; William L. Knowles, University of Montana; John Knowlton, Green River Community College; Sarah Kohnle, Lincoln Land Community College in Illinois; Jennifer Lemanski, University of Texas-Pan American; Charles Lewis, Minnesota State University, Mankato; Lila Lieberman, Rutgers University; Amy

Lignitz, Johnson County Community College in Kansas; Amy Lipko, Green River Community College; Larry Lorenz, Loyola University; Sandra Lowen, Mildred Elley College; Linda Lumsden, Western Kentucky University; John N. Malala, Cookman College; Reed Markham, Salt Lake Community College; Maclyn McClary, Humbolt State University; Daniel G. McDonald, Ohio State University; Denis Mercier, Rowan College of New Jersey; Timothy P. Meyer, University of Wisconsin, Green Bay; Jonathan Millen, Rider University; Bruce Mims, Southeast Missouri State University; Joy Morrison, University of Alaska at Fairbanks; Gene Murray, Grambling State University; Richard Alan Nelson, Kansas State University; Thomas Notton, University of Wisconsin—Superior; Judy Oskam, Texas State University; David J. Paterno, Delaware County Community College; Terri Toles Patkin, Eastern Connecticut State University; Sharri Ann Pentangelo, Purdue University; Deborah Petersen—Perlman, University of Minnesota—Duluth; Tina Pieraccini, State University of New York at Oswego; Leigh Pomeroy, Minnesota State University, Mankato; Mary-Jo Popovici, Monroe Community College; Thom Prentice, Southwest Texas State University; Hoyt Purvis, University of Arkansas; Jack Rang, University of Dayton; John Reffue, Hillsborough Community College; Benjamin H. Resnick, Glassboro State College; Rich Riski, Peninsula College; Ronald Roat, University of Southern Indiana; Patrick Ropple, Nearside Communications; Marshel Rossow, Minnesota State University, Mankato; Julia Ruengert, Pensacola Junior College; Cara L. Schollenberger, Bucks County Community College; Quentin Schultz, Calvin College; Jim Seguin, Robert Morris College; Susan Seibel, Butler County Community College; Todd Simon, Michigan State University; Ray Sinclair, University of Alaska at Fairbanks; J. Steven Smethers, Kansas State University; Karen A. Smith, College of Saint Rose; Mark Smith, Stephens College; Howard L. Snider, Ball State University; Brian Southwell, University of Minnesota; Rob Spicer, DeSales University; Alan G. Stavitsky, University of Oregon; Penelope Summers, Northern Kentucky University; Philip Thompsen, West Chester University; Larry Timbs, Winthrop University; John Tisdale, Baylor University; Edgar D. Trotter, California State University, Fullerton; Carl Tyrie, Appalachian State University; Helen Varner, Hawaii Pacific University; Rafael Vela, Southwest Texas State University; Stephen Venneman, University of Oregon; Kimberly Vos, Southern Illinois University; Michael Warden, Southern Methodist University; Hazel G. Warlaumont, California State University, Fullerton; Ron Weekes, Ricks College; Bill Withers, Wartburg College; Donald K. Wright, University of South Alabama; Alan Zaremba, Northeastern University; and Eugenia Zerbinos, University of Maryland.

About the Author John Vivian’s academic home is Winona State University in Minnesota, where he has taught a wide range of mass communication courses. He holds a Medill journalism degree from Northwestern University and earlier from Gonzaga University. He has done additional work at Marquette University and the University of Minnesota. As an undergraduate, Vivian worked for United Press International. Later, he joined the Associated Press in four Western cities. His work has won numerous professional awards, including Minaret Awards as an Army Reservist. Vivian is a former national president of Text and Academic Authors. His Media of Mass Communication has been the leading textbook in its field since the first edition. Judges for the TAA Texty Award gave MMC the first perfect score in history. Vivian is at home in the scholarly and pedagogical journals of his field. With Alfred Lorenz, he coauthored News Reporting and Writing. Besides journalism, public relations, and advertising, Vivian’s academic focus is media law and history. He invites feedback from students and adopters at jvivian@winona.edu

mailto:jvivian@winona.edu
Chapter 1 Mass Media Literacy

Watch Attacking Uganda Warlord Goes Viral

Going Viral, Maximizing Impact Without much else going on in their lives, three 20-something guys from San Diego decided to pack some video equipment and go to East Africa. They wanted to shoot something about a 17‑year civil war that had killed 20 million people. Inexperienced about war, not even knowing what to look for, the three found nothing worth recording.

After being stranded unexpectedly one night in a northern Uganda town, the three witnessed something shocking. Thousands of children showed up from the countryside at nightfall. Afraid that rebels would capture them in their villages and kidnap them to be soldiers or sex slaves, they walked dozens of miles every evening for the security of the town. They slept in alleys, parking lots, and hospital hallways. At dawn, feeling safety in daylight, the children vanished into the countryside and trekked back to their villages.

Jason Russell, 24, Bobby Bailey, 21, and Laren Poole, 19, shot video. Through interviews, they learned that a ragtag rebel group, the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) had terrorized Northern Uganda for years. Although fewer in number, the rebels were feared for their brutality—rape, murder, mutilation, and cannibalism.

The young filmmakers never found the LRA’s leader, the self-proclaimed prophet Joseph Kony. But they heard chilling stories about him and the atrocities he committed primarily against his own people, the Acholi in Northern Uganda, like cutting people’s faces off and making children eat their friends. The young filmmakers knew that the story, little known outside the region, needed to be told. In 2003 they cobbled together a 55-minute documentary that they hoped would rally global attention to end the scourge of the LRA. Not knowing much about how mass media worked however, they had little idea how to go about it, at least not with maximum impact.

The inaugural screening of Invisible Children occurred a year later at the University of San Diego. Over the next couple years, Russell, Bailey, and Poole took the movie on the road, mostly to high schools, churches, and other colleges.

Incredibly, what was happening in Uganda wasn’t on the radar of mainstream media prior to this documentary. After its release in 2005, Kony was indicted by the International Criminal Court on charges of crimes against humanity, including the abduction of 30,000 children, killing thousands of villagers, some with machetes, and burning some to death in their huts. Despite the indictment, Kony remains at large.

As Russell, Bailey, and Poole booked more screenings, they recognized more needed to be done. They created a nonprofit corporation. Now more organized, the Invisible Children project moved into a higher gear. In time, the organization brought in a New York public relations expert, Ken Sunshine, who had a reputation for promoting celebrities and publicizing events. Once Sunshine was on board, these things then happened:

The film was slickly repackaged and trimmed to 29 minutes as part of a campaign called Kony 2012.

The film was promoted with a poster portraying Kony with Osama bin Laden and Adolph Hitler. The poster became iconic.

Teen heartthrob Justin Bieber, Barbadian singer Rihanna, and rapper P. Diddy tweeted 38 million fans to watch the video on YouTube.

A $30 promotional package went to donors—a T-shirt, bracelet, stickers, and buttons and posters bearing the Kony 2012 logo.

A downside of the viral success was keener media interest and scrutiny in the Invisible Children organization. Questions were raised about the nonprofit organization’s overspending and excessively narrow focus. The film itself was

criticized as simplistic and propagandist. After receiving a dramatic boost in funding after its Kony 2012 campaign ($26.5 million), support for the organization plummeted in 2013, reflected by the fact that it raised only $4.9 million. In December of 2014, Invisible Children announced it would be closing its doors by the end of 2015; despite this unfortunate turn of events, the Invisible Children organization shined a spotlight on a war that most people in the West knew nothing about. by 2014, many Western leaders, including in the United States, increased their focus on ending the LRA’s siege. Although Kony remains free, others in the upper echelon of the powerful rebel group have either been killed or captured. For instance, in January 2015, Uganda confirmed the capture of LRA military senior commander Dominic Ongwen, who was then transferred by American forces to the International Criminal Court in The Hague where he is currently facing charges of crimes against humanity.

Invisible Children clearly accomplished a tremendous amount of good in a relatively short period of time. The fact that this organization rose to just prominence so quickly when it was founded and run by college students is even more impressive. Could a more sophisticated and long-term media strategy have helped Invisible Children to achieve longevity and avoid its dramatic spike in success and subsequent rapid decline? Did the leader’s youth, inexperience, and idealism—characteristics that fueled their passion and success, ultimately lead to their downfall? How did the mass media attention impact the fate of the Invisible Children organization? In this chapter, you will learn techniques to enable you as a media consumer to make your own judgments.

Prior to any discussion about the nature and function of mass communication and mass media, it is important to have a shared understanding of basic terminology, particularly since the terms “communication” and “media” are used in a variety of contexts to refer to a range of activities and concepts. The term “mass communication” refers to messages sent to a large audience by individuals, groups, or organizations. The vehicle through which mass messages are sent is referred to as mass media, such as newspapers, radio, broadcast television, the dramatic arts, books, and more recently the Internet.

The messages that are sent via mass media to large audiences are referred to as mass messages, and can include advertisements, news stories and editorials, books and screenplays, and even Tweets and Facebook statuses. The entity that broadcasts the mass message is referred to as a mass communicator and can include advertising marketers, journalists, bloggers, authors, and actors. The mass audience that receives the mass message includes any large group of people who may or may not have anything in common other than receiving messages from a common source. For instance, these might include readers of the sci-fi novel Hunger Games, viewers of

Anderson Cooper 360, subscribers to Time magazine, followers of George Takei on Twitter and Facebook, and followers of YouTube channels.

We are exposed to so much mass media, including simultaneous messages, that at times we may not be aware of the nature of the messages or how they are affecting or influencing us.

1.1 Media Exposure

Study Preview Many people engage in media for a significant portion of the day—often simultaneously. The output of mass communicators can be overwhelming, but tools are available for making sense of it. To chart a clear course to understand and articulate media issues, a mastery of basic vocabulary is essential. This means differentiating terms like mass media and mass communication.

Learning Objectives By the end of this module you will be able to:

1. 1.1.1 Classify the digital media usage of the consumers of mass media in the United States

2. 1.1.2 Describe concurrent media usage in the United States

3. 1.1.3 Characterize the relationship between the producers and consumers of mass media

4. 1.1.4 Explain how to empower consumers of mass communication

1.1.1 Media Usage 1. Objective: Classify the digital media usage of the consumers of mass media

in the United States

According to research, Americans are prolific consumers of mass media, particularly digital media. In fact, most Americans spend the majority of their waking hours engaging in some form of media, with television watching remaining the top media activity for the majority of Americans (see Figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1 Media Usage In fact, the media research firm Nielsen reports that television viewing easily leads other media in the average hours of use whether measured by hours per person or hours per household. There is likely considerable overlap though between time spent on the Internet and smartphones and television viewing, such as streaming television content on portable devices via subscription services like Hulu and Netflix, which is why in 2015 Nielson launched the Total it Up campaign to measure live television viewing across all devices.

Figure 1.1 Full Alternative Text

1.1.2 Concurrent Media Usage 1. Objective: Describe concurrent media usage in the United States

People are spending an increasing amount of time engaging in simultaneous digital media usage—viewing more than one device at a time (e.g., watching television while perusing Facebook on their smartphone), as well as media multitasking (e.g., half- watching television while cooking dinner). Between simultaneous media usage and media multitasking, most of us are consuming some type of mass media more than half of our waking hours (see Figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2 Time Spent Media Multitasking with Smartphone Percentage of Smartphone Users Who Multitask on Their Media Devices

Figure 1.2 Full Alternative Text

This is particularly true for tween and teen smartphone users who according to one recent study, spend more time online than sleeping. According to a 2015 Pew Research Center report, since the advent of the smartphone, 92% of teens between the ages of 13 and 17 go online daily, over half go online several times a day, and about one-quarter of all teens are online constantly. Caucasian tweens and teens from families with incomes over $75,000 per year report the highest digital media usage than other teen demographics. This included watching television and using the Internet and mobile media such as watching YouTube videos and using Instagram, Facebook, and other social media sites. Furthermore, African American teens have the highest access to smartphones (85%), followed by Latinos and Caucasian (71%).

1.1.3 Inescapable Symbiosis 1. Objective: Characterize the relationship between the producers and

consumers of mass media

Most of us have symbiotic dependence on mass media. We depend on media for information, and media industries are dependent on us as consumers. What would be the purpose of a news station, for example, if nobody listened?

Personal Dependence. Each of us depends on mass communication delivered via through mass media everyday for important information. For instance, the weather forecast is the most- listened-to item in the morning newscast. Why? Because people want to know how to prepare for the day, how to dress, whether to take an umbrella. Not knowing that rain is expected can mean getting wet on the way home. For most of us, modern life simply wouldn’t be possible without media. We need media for news and information, for entertainment, amusement, diversion, and for the exchange of ideas.

Media Dependence. Not only do people in their contemporary lifestyles need mass media, the industries that have built up around the media need an audience. This interdependence reflects a symbiosis between consumers and media. To survive financially, a publishing house needs readers who will pay for a book. A Hollywood movie studio needs people at the box office. Media companies with television, radio, newspaper, and magazine products cannot survive financially unless they can deliver to an audience that advertisers want to reach. Advertisers will buy time and space from media companies only if potential customers can be delivered.

We live in an environment that interconnects with mass media. The interdependence is generally satisfying although not problem-free fact of modern life.

Writing Prompt Journal: Applying Your Media Literacy—Media Exposure

Spend one hour directing your awareness to media messages from as many sources as you are able to track (television, radio, social media). Write down what you notice, including what messages you are receiving and how they are impacting you (i.e., excited, sad, frustrated, overwhelmed). Also note how often you are using more than

one device simultaneously, and how this impacts your attention level and ability to receive these messages.

The response entered here will appear in the performance dashboard and can be viewed by your instructor.

Submit

1.1.4 Being an Empowered Media Consumer 1. Objective: Explain how to empower consumers of mass communication

Mass communication—mass information relayed through mass media to the general public—can be very overwhelming at times. There is so much media produced on such a grand scale, which people consume on a daily basis, that at times it can be difficult to know how to manage all of the information we are receiving. Many people may just relent and accept the mass production of media rather unconsciously. But it is possible to become personally empowered by developing a greater awareness of the process of mass communication—its purpose, goals, and its impact on consumers. When consumers are aware, they can become empowered, which means they can utilize mass media in a way that benefits them. They can become wise consumers rather than unaware subjects.

Finding tools to navigate through all the mass communication and put media to a use in a way that makes sense for the user is the key to gaining personal empowerment in this regard. The tools of personal empowerment include gaining an understanding of how mass communication works as a process.

Asking the following questions can help with the personal empowerment process:

What motivates people, groups, and organizations to produce mass messages?

Can information be presented in a useful way, without bias?

Can persuasion ever be honest?

Does the process of mass communication distort or otherwise affect a mass message?

Can you trust mass media?

1.2 Purposeful Mass Communication

Study Preview Mass communicators have a purpose with every message they craft. One purpose is informational, which can help people make intelligent decisions in their daily lives and in their participation in society. Persuasion can be a purpose of mass communication. Indeed, people find media essential in making most purchases and even embracing points of view. Another purpose is amusement.

Learning Objectives By the end of this module you will be able to:

1. 1.2.1 Outline the roles of media-delivered information

2. 1.2.2 Compare the ways by which mass media persuades people

3. 1.2.3 Explain how mass media has changed the scope of entertainment

4. 1.2.4 Describe ways that consumers use mass media to learn

5. 1.2.5 Identify forms of media that serve overlapping purposes

1.2.1 To Inform 1. Objective: Outline the roles of media-delivered information

Media-delivered information comes in many forms. Students heading for college, especially if they plan to live in a dorm, receive a brochure about the dreaded disease meningitis. It’s a life-or-death message about reducing the contagion in cramped living quarters. The message “Inoculate Now” is from a mass medium—a printed brochure or a mass-mailed letter or an e-mail attachment from the campus health director.

Digital News Options. Many people now get their news on their tablets or smart phones.

The most visible mass media-delivered information is news. People look to newscasts and news sites—even talk show hosts like Steven Colbert, Bill Maher, and David Letterman—to know what’s going on beyond the horizon. If not for mass media, people would have to rely on word-of-mouth from travelers to know what’s happening in Afghanistan, Hollywood, or their state capital.

Information creates awareness in many forms—not just news and health brochures. For example, advertising offers information to help consumers make intelligent decisions. In a democracy, media comprise an essential forum for news and information and the exchange of ideas that promote intelligent citizen participation.

1.2.2 To Persuade 1. Objective: Compare the ways by which mass media persuades people

The study of mass communication is primarily concerned with how mass media persuades people receiving the information to in some way change their opinions, beliefs, perspectives, attitudes and/or behavior.

Persuasion is defined as causing someone to think or behave in a certain way. Persuasion within the context of mass communication and mass media involves the process of convincing the audience of something, such as swaying their opinion or causing them to act in response to new information. Persuasion can be negative, particularly if the information is shared in propaganda. On the other hand, persuasion can also be good, particularly if the impact on the audience is a positive one, such as persuading the general population to get a flu shot.

Persuasion in the absence of diversity of ideas can be dangerous, such as in a religious cult or political dictatorship. But the use of persuasion in an environment with a free exchange of ideas can be an effective way of gaining a consumers’ attention and articulating an important message, such as how to stop child abuse, or what direction our country should head politically.

People come to conclusions on pressing issues by exposing themselves to competing ideas in what’s called the marketplace of ideas. In 1644 the thinker-novelist John Milton eloquently stated the concept of the value of competing ideas: “Let truth and falsehood grapple; whoever knew truth put to the worse in a free and open encounter.” Today more than ever, people look for truth by exposing their views and values to those of others in a mass media marketplace. Milton’s mind would be boggled by the sheer volume of differing ideas with which to grapple. Consider the diversity of ideas expressed through talk radio, newspaper editorial pages, anti-war lyrics from iTunes, blogs, and tweets, to name a sliver of the array of ideas in the marketplace.

The role of persuasion is especially important in a democratic society, in which public policy bubbles up from the citizenry over time. Consider the debate for decades on limiting young people’s access to alcohol. Should the legal drinking age be 18? 21? No limit at all? Or should booze be banned entirely? As the debate has worn on with both sides making their cases, public policy representing a grassroots majority has evolved. The media have been essential in this process in getting the word out. The same process occurs for all cutting-edge issues across a broad range (e.g., abortion, gay marriage, war, and peace).

The most obvious form of persuasion that the mass media facilitates is advertising. People look to ads to decide among competing products and services. What would you know about Nikes or iPads if it weren’t for advertising?

A major element in persuasion also comes from the public relations industry, which uses media to win people over. General Motors employs a public relations staff to make people feel good about GM. The Republican National Committee wants people to feel good about the GOP (Grand Old Party). The techniques of public relations fall

short of advertising’s pitches to make a sale. nonetheless, public relations people have persuasion as their end goal.

1.2.3 To Entertain 1. Objective: Explain how mass media has changed the scope of entertainment

Before mass media came into existence in the mid-1400s, people created their own diversion, entertainment, and amusement. Villagers got together to sing and swap stories. Traveling jugglers, magicians, and performers dropped by. What a difference mass media have made since then. More than 75 million people in North America alone saw the James Cameron movie Avatar in its first four months. In light of Avatar’s strong message of respecting indigenous cultures and lands, its ability to attract such a large audience is powerful. The long-awaited seventh installment of the Star Wars movie series, The Force Awakens (www.starwars.com), had equal expectations as Avatar, with regard to its opening weekend and longevity, prior to its box office opening in December of 2015. The week before the film was set to open, film critics predicted that The Force Awakens would break all previously set earnings records, perhaps even exceeding 1 billion in total box office sales. Star Wars: The Force Awakens is not only an excellent example of the power of film to entertain mass audiences, but as the first-ever film to feature a woman and an African American as the primary protagonists. It is also a great example of the power of film to both influence and reflect social mores.

In addition, with the advent of the Internet and portable electronic devices, such as laptops, tablets, and smartphones, people can now be entertained by media throughout the day and evening, regardless of their other activities or responsibilities. Just walk into an airport or restaurant and look around—what you’ll likely see is that most people are looking into their smartphone or other portable electronic device watching some form of media for entertainment purposes, perhaps on Hulu.com or Netflix.com, or any number of other streaming services. In fact, streaming media has never been easier, particularly in urban areas where cellular signals are strong and wi-fi is readily available. We can now begin watching our favorite television show or sports team at home on our smart TV, transition to our tablet when traveling, and then when we arrive we can transition to our smartphone if necessary. This is possible not only because of the technology that allows for personal device integration, but also because most cable providers now allow consumers to watch live television on their personal electronic devices.

http://www.starwars.com
1.2.4 To Enlighten 1. Objective: Describe ways that consumers use mass media to learn

Mass media are important in figuring ourselves out. Insights into the human condition come from prose, poetry, fiction, and nonfiction in every medium. Mass media are powerful vehicles for self and other exploration. Think about listening to a moving obituary on a pivotal person in our society, or reading a powerful novel—Dalton Trumbo’s Johnny Got His Gun on the price of war or Alice Walker’s The Color Purple, and imagine how you were changed by content of those media. Ideas that have changed our worldview gained traction and acceptance as mediated messages— Charles Darwin’s Origin of Species, Thomas Paine’s Common Sense, Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring, or Betty Friedan’s Feminine Mystique—all were fundamentally transformative in their own way. The whole range of media products, as diverse as sappy television sitcoms, somber radio documentaries, and online brooding anime cartoons, can tell us something about ourselves.

Mass media has such a strong impact on the thoughts, attitudes, opinions, and behavior that people often turn to certain types of media when they want to be enlightened and educated. Consider bibliotherapy—a form of self-therapy involving an individual who is seeking enlightenment and transformative change by reading self-help books or inspirational novels. Many people who saw the movie The Wild, Cheryl Strayed’s memoir of walking the Pacific Crest Trail alone in order to deal with her grief in the wake of her mother’s death, became determined to do something similar to deal with their own heartbreak. Essentially, mass media are an ideal way to gain insights about ourselves and the world around us, to be moved emotionally, to feel connected with something larger than ourselves, to gain new perspectives, and to experience personal growth.

1.2.5 Overlapping Purposes 1. Objective: Identify forms of media that serve overlapping purposes

Dissecting media messages by their purpose is useful; however, the pigeonholing or categorizing media by its purpose is limiting since most media messages have multiple purposes. Social humorist Bill Maher, for example, is a comedian but his intent is not mere amusement. Maher is also a source of information and might lie to persuade you to see things his way. Other examples of media with overlapping

purposes are John Oliver from Last Week Tonight and Stephen Colbert of the Late Show, both of whom deliver political news while entertaining through humor and sarcasm.

Media consumers may not be aware of the overlapping purposes of media, and particularly when persuasive messages are packaged as entertainment, yet with a well- developed sense of awareness and a high level of sophistication, media consumers can become savvy at assessing the true nature of media messages, which renders them less susceptible to media manipulation.

Writing Prompt Journal: Applying Your Media Literacy—Purposeful Mass Communication

Watch television for one hour, switching channels at least three times. Write down the purpose of the various forms of mass communication you watch, including commercials, and television shows. What did you notice that you wouldn’t have noticed before? How often did you note overlapping purposes? What is the value of becoming more aware of the various purposes of mass media?

The response entered here will appear in the performance dashboard and can be viewed by your instructor.

Submit

1.3 Mediated Communication

Study Preview Mass literacy means making distinctions between mass communication and other forms of communication. Mass communication targets technologically amplified messages to massive audiences. Other forms of communication pale in comparison in their ability to reach great numbers of people, and yet can still be effective forms of communication.

Learning Objectives By the end of this module you will be able to:

1. 1.3.1 Analyze the way technology has affected communication

2. 1.3.2 Characterize mass communication

3. 1.3.3 Differentiate industrial and social media

1.3.1 Traditional Forms of Communication 1. Objective: Analyze the way technology has affected communication

Human communication has many forms. Cave dwellers talked to each other. When Tor grunted at his neighbor Oop, it was interpersonal communication—one on one. Around the campfire, when Tor recounted tales from the hunt for the rest of the tribe, he was engaging in group communication. Traditionally, both interpersonal and group communication are face-to-face. Technology has expanded the prehistoric roots of human communication. When lovers purr sweet nothings via text on a smartphone, it’s still interpersonal communication. And even though technology-assisted, a rabble- rouser with a megaphone is engaging in group communication. The lines between

interpersonal and group communication become blurred when using social media as a vehicle. For instance, if two individuals are engaging in an online debate on Twitter, and other Twitter users can observe and chime in if they so choose, is this interpersonal communication or group communication?

Paleolithic humans left images that communicated among selves and later cave visitors.

1.3.2 Communication Through Mass Media 1. Objective: Characterize mass communication

Fundamental to media literacy is recognizing the different forms of communication for what they are. Confusing interpersonal communication and mass communication, for example, only muddles an attempt to sort through important complex issues.

Mass communication is the sending of a message to a great number of people at widely separated points. Mass communication is possible only through technology, whether it be a printing press, a broadcast transmitter, or an Internet server. The massiveness of the audience is a defining characteristic of mass communication.

Characteristics of Mass Communication Audience. The mass audience is eclectic and heterogeneous. With sitcoms, for example, the television networks seek mega-audiences of disparate groups— male and female, young and old, liberal and conservative, devout and nonreligious. Some media products narrow their focus, like a bridal magazine, but a bridal magazine’s intended audience, although primarily young and female, is still diverse in terms of ethnicity, income, education, and other kinds of measures. Its focus is still a mass audience.

Distance. The mass audience is beyond the communicator’s horizon, sometimes thousands of miles away. This is not the case with either interpersonal or group communication. Even technology-assisted group meetings via satellite or videoconferencing, although connecting faraway points, are not mass communication but a form of group communication.

Feedback. The mass audience generally lacks the opportunity for immediate feedback. In interpersonal communication, a chuckle or a punch in the nose right then and there is immediate feedback. With most mass communication, receipt of a consumer’s response—an e-mail to the editor, a canceled subscription, a nasty tweet—is delayed as the recipient (media consumer) doesn’t necessarily read it right away. Even a text message to a reality television show is delayed a bit and is certainly less potent than a more immediate response in interpersonal communication.

As previously referenced, mass communication cannot exist without technology. As such, mass communication was a triumph of the Industrial Age and the rise of machinery. Some people call it industrial communication. The term signifies the significant technological resources that are essential for mass communication to work on a large scale. Ever thought about buying a Goss Metro printing press to start a newspaper? Think in the millions of dollars. The Federal Communications Commission won’t even consider issuing a television broadcast license to anyone without cash upfront to meet six months of expenses. Again, think millions. Mass communication has historically been an industrial-scale undertaking—that is, until the advent of the Internet. For instance, the majority of people now receive the news through the Internet by reading an online newspaper via their personal computer, laptop, tablet, or smartphone. This trend has had a significantly negative effect on the traditional paper newspaper industry but has expanded the reach of the news media allowing for a global audience.

Media Tomorrow Eclipse of the Novel?

Before Gutenberg invented mass production for the printed word in the mid-1400s, lengthy fictional prose was a rarity. Hand-scribed and bound books were terribly expensive, produced manually one copy at a time. Furthermore, with low pre- Gutenberg literacy levels, the market of readers was miniscule. The word “novel” itself didn’t come about until the 1700s. Now after 300 or 400 years, the novel as we know it may be at a crossroads. The question is whether modern technology, with its abbreviated format, has eclipsed the need for longer prose. In other words, has technology, which gave birth to the novel as a high form of literary art, been its comeuppance?

The Digital Revolution and the State of Traditional Literature

Competing Technology.

Newer media technology, particularly digital media, has created potent storytelling forms that encroach on the novel’s once exclusive domain. Movies

have emerged as a powerful vehicle for exploring the human condition and great social issues. Television has potential for serious literary expression as well, making it another competitor with the traditional novel. Competing technologies have both unique attributes and shortcomings, such as the movie’s relative compactness, which can be somewhat limiting in expressing literary nuances.

Ease of Access.

New technologies have made access easier to electronic-based and digital-based media. Going to a movie house for a two-hour experience is far easier than acquiring a book and committing to two weeks of reading. Access could hardly be easier than on-demand movies and television streamed to a mobile tablet.

Time Constraints.

Although novels can be downloaded, the process of consuming long-form literature involves the slow and laborious intellectual process of reading. Most people, when reading for comprehension, move through only 300 words a minute—less than a page. As a learning tool, textbooks are even more labor- intensive. At an extreme, quick reading, like skimming, is typically 600 or 700 words a minute. With easier access to more compact media communication, it seems that people have either shorter attention spans or less patience. Certainly, more is competing for people’s attention than ever before; 24 hours a day is not enough for even a fraction of the media involvement most of us would like.

Will the novel disappear?

Not overnight, but even some champions of long-form story telling, like novelist Philip Roth, see the sun setting. Roth bemoaned to the Daily Beast: “The book can’t compete with the screen. It couldn’t compete beginning with the movie screen. It couldn’t compete with the television screen. And it can’t compete with the computer screen. Now we have all those screens.”

New media forms, such as Twitter, are attracting creative people who in earlier times might have chosen the form of the novel for their artistic explorations and expression. For example, Twitter has become one of the newest media outlets for poetry, with users such as @Poetrytweets whose handle is “exploring the power of 140 characters or less” (a reference to the limit of characters per tweet), and the newly coined term “twaiku” representing the new Twitter haiku movement. Linguist Ben Zimmer notes with interest Twitter’s increasing popularity as a literary source, stating how an author’s use of Twitter to mete out storylines, one tweet at a time, is both novelistic

and intriguing.

Episodic delivery—in chunks—exists in television series and to a greater degree in the edited breakdowns of shows into mini-segments for downloading and consumption on the run. For instance, the trend for shorter content is apparent with the increasing popularity of episodic television series featured solely on YouTube channels, as well as Netflix, Hulu, and Amazon original series, many of which are under 20 minutes.

Writing Prompt Journal: What Do You Think?—Longevity of the Traditional Novel

Do you think that the novel, in its traditional form, is becoming obsolete? What might save its seeming ultimate demise?

The response entered here will appear in the performance dashboard and can be viewed by your instructor.

Submit

1.3.3 Communication Through Social Media 1. Objective: Differentiate industrial and social media

Perhaps as revolutionary as the addition of mass communication to human communication is the 21st century phenomenon of social media, facilitated through different communication channels, called social networking sites, such as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, Pinterest, and Tumblr. With the development of smartphones, reasonably priced mobile phone plans, and readily available wi-fi access, social media is now accessible to almost anybody. You don’t need costly printing presses or broadcast equipment to communicate with a mass audience via social media. In fact, all you really need is a personal electronic device that can access the Internet, an account with one of the many social networking sites, something interesting to say that has the potential to go viral, and mass communication may be only a few keystrokes away.

Mediated forms of communication, whether through mass media or social media, can

reach small or huge audiences, depending on the subject matter, relevance, and methods used for dissemination. A video posted on YouTube can go almost unnoticed, as most do, while others go viral.

Or consider the recent “Ice Bucket Challenge,” the challenge was fundraising campaign for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS, also known as Lou Gehrig’s Disease) initiated by a single individual on behalf of a friend whose husband had ALS and involved people posting videos of themselves getting a bucket of ice dumped on their heads, challenging someone else, donating money to the ALS association, and then posting the video on social media with the hashtag #IceBucketChallenge.

While this challenge was initiated by a single individual, it quickly went viral, and within one year over $100 million dollars was raised for the ALS Association by 2.5 million people who took the ice bucket challenge—an increase over the previous year of about 3,500%. Last year when the majority of Facebook users logged on to their account, most likely they would see at least one, but maybe more Ice Bucket Challenge videos, some of which may have even ended with a challenge to them to be the next person to have a bucket of ice dumped on their heads.

Media consumers must be discerning though when evaluating the truthfulness and accuracy of viral posts and videos on social media, since exaggerated claims, propaganda, gossip, and outright falsehoods are common. This is particularly true in response to crises—such as news reports involving crime—when a rush to disseminate news quickly devolves into the spread of gossip involving false or exaggerated attacks against individuals or companies involved in controversial situations. People’s careers can be destroyed when a negative post goes viral, and in some cases, lives may be put in jeopardy when damaging information is disseminated widely via social media and individuals referred to as “Internet trolls” resort to cyberbullying and death threats in response. Thus in order to be a good consumer of mass communication through social media, one should take the time to evaluate the accuracy of the information, as well as the impact of clicking the “share” or “retweet” button.

Although there are similarities between industrial and social media, it is sometimes difficult to discern the difference between the two. Determining the difference can be important as it may impact the veracity and accuracy of the information being disseminated. Review the useful ways to see differences between social media and industrial media.

Differences between Social Media and

Industrial Media Reach. Social and industrial media both use technologies to give scale to communication. Both are capable of reaching a global audience. However, industrial media typically use a centralized framework for organization, production, and dissemination. Social media are more decentralized, less hierarchical, and have many more points of production and access. Social media has increased the reach of many film makers who use crowdfunding sites such as gofundme, Kickstarter, and indigogo. The model for crowdfunding sites is different than traditional funding for films, in that rather than asking a few people for a lot of money, crowdfunding asks a lot of people for a little money. While this is a relatively new movement, the Film & Video section of the Kickstarter website has raised over $200 million for independent films, such as the film Veronica Mars, which raised $5,702,153 from 91,585 people. Crowdfunding sites have had a significant impact on the entire independent filmmaking (Indie) movement, reflected in the dramatic increase in popularity of Indie film festivals, such as the Sundance Film Festival.

Ownership. Because the means of production are complicated and costly, industrial media typically are owned by corporations or government. In contrast, social media’s production tools have low thresholds for entry and are within the economic means of most people.

Access. The complexity of production for industrial media requires specialized skills and training. Social media production requires only commonly held skills, which means that just about anyone with access to an Internet-ready computer can produce messages for potentially wide distribution.

Writing Prompt Journal: Applying Your Media Literacy—Mediated Communication

Describe the source(s) of most of the mass media you consume. Is it from books, digital new sites, television, or social media? Are there differences in how you evaluate the media you are consuming based on their source?

The response entered here will appear in the performance dashboard and can be viewed by your instructor.

Submit

1.4 Literacy for Media Consumers

Study Preview Basic components of media literacy are writing and reading skills. But as visuals have become more important in mass communication, visual literacy is needed too. This involves “reading” still and moving images.

Learning Objectives By the end of this module you will be able to:

1. 1.4.1 Relate linguistic literacy to economic prosperity

2. 1.4.2 Assess how visual literacy impacts communication

3. 1.4.3 List the competencies that comprise film literacy

1.4.1 Linguistic Literacy 1. Objective: Relate linguistic literacy to economic prosperity

Mass media once were almost entirely word-centric. The act of creating media messages and deriving meaning from them—media literacy, it’s called—required vocabulary, grammar, and other writing and reading skills. These were acquired skills, both teachable and learnable—not anything innate from birth.

Linguistic literacy today is as much a measure of modern civilization as economic production and prosperity, all of which are interconnected. Although there are exceptions, like Cuba, with a national policy that emphasizes education but which is economically troubled, strong literacy rates correlate roughly to capita income (see Table 1.1).

Table 1.1 Literacy Rates v. Income Country Literacy Rates Annual Income per Capita

United States

Total Population: 99.0%

Male: 99%

Women: 99%

$54,629.5

India

Total Population: 74.04%

Male: 82.14%

Female: 65.46%

$1,595.70

Afghanistan

Total Population: 34.0%