Chapter 15 vehicle spotting latin translation

Writing Analytically

FIFTH EDITION

David Rosenwasser

Muhlenberg College

Jill Stephen

Muhlenberg College

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Writing Analytically, Fifth Edition David Rosenwasser

Jill Stephen

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v

UNIT I THE ANALYTICAL FRAME OF MIND: INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL METHODS 1

CHAPTER 1 Analysis: What It Is and What It Does 3

CHAPTER 2 Counterproductive Habits of Mind 17

CHAPTER 3 A Toolkit of Analytical Methods 31

CHAPTER 4 Interpretation: What It Is, What It Isn’t, and How to Do It 49

CHAPTER 5 Analyzing Arguments 73

CHAPTER 6 Topics and Modes of Analysis 93

UNIT II WRITING THE ANALYTICAL ESSAY 107

CHAPTER 7 What Evidence Is and How It Works 109

CHAPTER 8 Using Evidence to Build a Paper: 10 on 1 versus 1 on 10 123

CHAPTER 9 Making a Thesis Evolve 139

CHAPTER 10 Structuring the Paper: Forms and Formats 159

CHAPTER 11 Introductions and Conclusions 179

CHAPTER 12 Recognizing and Fixing Weak Thesis Statements 193

BRIEF CONTENTS

UNIT III WRITING THE RESEARCHED PAPER 203

CHAPTER 13 Reading Analytically 205

CHAPTER 14 Using Sources Analytically: The Conversation Model 215

CHAPTER 15 Organizing and Revising the Research Paper: Two Sample Essays 227

CHAPTER 16 Finding, Citing, and Integrating Sources 241

UNIT IV GRAMMAR AND STYLE 269

CHAPTER 17 Style: Choosing Words for Precision, Accuracy, and Tone 271

CHAPTER 18 Style: Shaping Sentences for Precision and Emphasis 287

CHAPTER 19 Common Grammatical Errors and How to Fix Them 305

vi Brief Contents

vii

Preface xvii

UNIT I THE ANALYTICAL FRAME OF MIND: INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL METHODS 1

CHAPTER 1 Analysis: What It Is and What It Does 3

First Principles 3

Analysis Defined 3

The Five Analytical Moves 4

Move 1: Suspend Judgment 5

Move 2: Define Significant Parts and How They’re Related 5

Move 3: Make the Implicit Explicit 6

Move 4: Look for Patterns 8

Move 5: Keep Reformulating Questions and Explanations 9

Analysis at Work: A Sample Paper 10

Distinguishing Analysis from Argument, Summary, and Expressive Writing 11

Applying the Five Analytical Moves: The Example of Whistler’s Mother 13

Analysis and Personal Associations 15

CHAPTER 2 Counterproductive Habits of Mind 17

Fear of Uncertainty 17

Prejudging 18

Blinded by Habit 19

The Judgment Reflex 20

Generalizing 21

Overpersonalizing (Naturalizing Our Assumptions) 23

Opinions (versus Ideas) 25

What It Means to Have an Idea 26

Rules of Thumb for Handling Complexity 28

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 3 A Toolkit of Analytical Methods 31

The Toolkit 32

Paraphrase ! 3 33

Notice and Focus (Ranking) 35

Prompts: Interesting and Strange 35

10 on 1 36

The Method: Working with Patterns of Repetition and Contrast 37

Thinking Recursively with Strands and Binaries 39

Generating Ideas with The Method: An Example 40

Doing The Method on a Poem: Our Analysis 40

A Procedure for Finding and Querying Binaries 43

Freewriting 44

Passage-Based Focused Freewriting 45

Writers’ Notebooks 46

Passage-Based Focused Freewriting: An Example 47

CHAPTER 4 Interpretation: What It Is, What It Isn’t, and How to Do It 49

Pushing Observations to Conclusions: Asking So What? 50

Asking So What?: An Example 51

Implications versus Hidden Meanings 54

The Limits on Interpretation 56

Plausible versus Implausible Interpretations 57

Interpretive Contexts and Multiple Meanings 58

Specifying an Interpretive Context: An Example 58

Intention as an Interpretive Context 59

What Is and Isn’t “Meant” to Be Analyzed 60

The Fortune Cookie School of Interpretation 61

The Anything Goes School of Interpretation 62

Seems to Be about X but Could Also Be (Is Really) about Y 63

Putting It All Together: Interpretation of a New Yorker Cover 65

Description of a New Yorker Cover, Dated October 9, 2000 65

Using The Method to Identify Patterns of Repetition and Contrast 67

viii Contents

Pushing Observations to Conclusions: Selecting an Interpretive Context 68

Making the Interpretation Plausible 69

Arriving at an Interpretive Conclusion: Making Choices 70

CHAPTER 5 Analyzing Arguments 73

The Role of Binaries in Argument 73

A Procedure for Reformulating Binaries in Argument 74

Strategy 1: Locate a Range of Opposing Categories 74

Strategy 2: Analyze and Define the Key Terms 74

Strategy 3: Question the Accuracy of the Binary 75

Strategy 4: Substitute “To What Extent?” for “Either/Or” 75

Uncovering Assumptions (Reasoning Back to Premises) 76

Uncovering Assumptions: A Brief Example 78

A Procedure for Uncovering Assumptions 78

Analyzing an Argument: The Example of “Playing by the Antioch Rules” 79

Strategies for Developing an Argument by Reasoning Back to Premises 82

The Problems with Debate-Style Argument 84

Seeing the Trees as Well as the Forest: Toulmin and the Rules of Argument 85

Refining Categorical Thinking: Two Examples 88

A Brief Glossary of Common Logical Errors 90

CHAPTER 6 Topics and Modes of Analysis 93

Rhetorical Analysis 93

Rhetorical Analysis of a Place: A Brief Example 94

Rhetorical Analysis of an Advertisement: A Student Paper 94

Summary 96

Strategies for Making Summaries More Analytical 96

Personal Response: The Reaction Paper 98

Strategies for Making Personal Responses More Analytical 98

Agree/Disagree 100

Comparison/Contrast 100

Strategies for Making Comparison/Contrast More Analytical 100

Contents ix

Definition 102

Strategies for Making Definition More Analytical 102

UNIT II WRITING THE ANALYTICAL ESSAY 107

CHAPTER 7 What Evidence Is and How It Works 109

The Function of Evidence 110

The Missing Connection: Linking Evidence and Claims 110

“Because I Say So”: Unsubstantiated Claims 111

Distinguishing Evidence from Claims 111

Giving Evidence a Point: Making Details Speak 112

How to Make Details Speak: A Brief Example 113

What Counts as Evidence? 114

Kinds of Evidence 116

Statistical Evidence 116

Anecdotal Evidence 117

Authorities as Evidence 117

Empirical Evidence 118

Experimental Evidence 118

Textual Evidence 118

Using What You Have 119

CHAPTER 8 Using Evidence to Build a Paper: 10 on 1 versus 1 on 10 123

Developing a Thesis Is More Than Repeating an Idea (1 on 10) 123

What’s Wrong with Five-Paragraph Form? 124

Analyzing Evidence in Depth: 10 on 1 127

Demonstrating the Representativeness of Your Example 128

10 on 1 and Disciplinary Conventions 128

Pan, Track, and Zoom: Using 10 on 1 to Build a Paper 128

Doing 10 on 1: A Brief Example (Tiananmen Square) 129

Converting 1 on 10 into 10 on 1: A Student Paper (Flood Stories) 131

Revising the Draft Using 10 on 1 and Difference within Similarity 133

Doing 10 on 1: A Student Paper (Good Bye Lenin!) 136

x Contents

Contents xi

A Template for Organizing Papers Using 10 on 1: An Alternative to Five- Paragraph Form 138

CHAPTER 9 Making a Thesis Evolve 139

What a Strong Thesis Does 139

Making a Thesis Evolve: A Brief Example (Tax Laws) 140

The Reciprocal Relationship between Thesis and Evidence: The Thesis as Lens 142

What a Good Thesis Statement Looks Like 143

Six Steps for Making a Thesis Evolve 144

Evolving a Thesis in an Exploratory Draft: A Student Draft on Las Meninas 145

Evolving a Thesis in a Later-Stage Draft: The Example of Educating Rita 153

Locating the Evolving Thesis in the Final Draft 156

CHAPTER 10 Structuring the Paper: Forms and Formats 159

Romantics versus Formalists 159

The Two Functions of Formats: Product and Process 160

Using Formats Heuristically: A Brief Example 161

Classical Forms and Formats 162

Writing Analytically’s Forms and Formats 162

Pan, Track, and Zoom: Using 10 on 1 to Build a Paper 163

Constellating 163

A Template for Organizing Papers Using 10 on 1 163

Six Steps for Making a Thesis Evolve 164

The Toolkit as Template 164

The Shaping Force of Thesis Statements 165

The Shaping Force of Transitions 166

The Shaping Force of Common Thought Patterns: Deduction and Induction 167

Thesis Slots 169

Negotiating Disciplinary Formats 169

Three Common Organizing Strategies 171

Climactic Order 171

xii Contents

Comparison/Contrast 172

Concessions and Refutations 173

Structuring the Paragraph 173

The Topic Sentence Controversy 174

Some Theories on Paragraph Structure 174

Finding the Skeleton of an Essay: An Example (September 11th: A National Tragedy?) 175

CHAPTER 11 Introductions and Conclusions 179

Introductions and Conclusions as Social Sites 179

What Introductions Do: “Why What I’m Saying Matters” 180

Putting an Issue or Question in Context 181

How Much to Introduce Up-Front: Typical Problems 182

Digression 182

Incoherence 183

Prejudgment 183

Using Procedural Openings 184

Good Ways to Begin 185

What Conclusions Do: The Final So What? 186

Solving Typical Problems in Conclusions 188

Redundancy 188

Raising a Totally New Point 188

Overstatement 189

Anticlimax 189

Introductions in the Sciences 189

Conclusions in the Sciences: The Discussion Section 191

CHAPTER 12 Recognizing and Fixing Weak Thesis Statements 193

Five Kinds of Weak Thesis Statements and How to Fix Them 193

Weak Thesis Type 1: The Thesis Makes No Claim 194

Weak Thesis Type 2: The Thesis Is Obviously True or Is a Statement of Fact 195

Weak Thesis Type 3: The Thesis Restates Conventional Wisdom 195

Weak Thesis Type 4: The Thesis Bases Its Claim on Personal Conviction 196

Weak Thesis Type 5: The Thesis Makes an Overly Broad Claim 198

Contents xiii

How to Rephrase Thesis Statements: Specify and Subordinate 199

Is It Okay to Phrase a Thesis as a Question? 201

UNIT III WRITING THE RESEARCHED PAPER 203

CHAPTER 13 Reading Analytically 205

How to Read: Words Matter 206

Becoming Conversant Instead of Reading for the Gist 207

Three Tools to Improve Your Reading: A Review 207

The Pitch, the Complaint, and the Moment 208

Uncovering the Assumptions in a Reading 209

Reading with and against the Grain 210

Using a Reading as a Model 212

Applying a Reading as a Lens 213

CHAPTER 14 Using Sources Analytically: The Conversation Model 215

Six Strategies for Analyzing Sources 215

“Source Anxiety” and What to Do about It 216

The Conversation Analogy 216

Ways to Use a Source as a Point of Departure 217

Six Strategies for Analyzing Sources 219

Make Your Sources Speak 219

Attend Carefully to the Language of Your Sources by Quoting or Paraphrasing 220

Supply Ongoing Analysis of Sources (Don’t Wait Until the End) 221

Use Your Sources to Ask Questions, Not Just to Provide Answers 221

Put Your Sources into Conversation with One Another 223

Find Your Own Role in the Conversation 225

CHAPTER 15 Organizing and Revising the Research Paper: Two Sample Essays 227

A Sample Research Paper and How to Revise It: The Flight from Teaching 227

Strategies for Writing and Revising Research Papers 230

Be Sure to Make Clear Who Is Talking 230

xiv Contents

Analyze as You Go Along Rather Than Saving Analysis for the End (Disciplinary Conventions Permitting) 230

Quote in Order to Analyze: Make Your Sources Speak 231

Try Converting Key Assertions in the Source into Questions 231

Get Your Sources to Converse with One Another, and Actively Referee the Conflicts among Them 232

A Good Sample Research Paper: Horizontal and Vertical Mergers within the Healthcare Industry 233

Guidelines for Writing the Researched Paper 238

CHAPTER 16 Finding, Citing, and Integrating Sources 241

Getting Started 242

Three Rules of Thumb for Getting Started 244

Electronic Research: Finding Quality on the Web 244

Understanding Domain Names 245

Print Corollaries 246

Web Classics 246

Wikipedia, Google, and Blogs 246

Asking the Right Questions 247

Subscriber-Only Databases 248

Indexes of Scholarly Journals 249

Who’s Behind That Website? 250

A Foolproof Recipe for Great Research—Every Time 252

Citation Guides on the Web 254

A Librarian’s Brief Guidelines to Successful Research 254

Plagiarism and the Logic of Citation 254

Why Does Plagiarism Matter? 255

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) about Plagiarism 256

How to Cite Sources 257

Single Author, MLA Style 258

Single Author, APA Style 259

How to Integrate Quotations into Your Paper 260

How to Prepare an Abstract 262

Guidelines for Finding, Citing, and Integrating Sources 264

Contents xv

UNIT IV GRAMMAR AND STYLE 269

CHAPTER 17 Style: Choosing Words for Precision, Accuracy, and Tone 271

Not Just Icing on the Cake: Style Is Meaning 272

How Style Shapes Thought: A Brief Example 273

Making Distinctions: Shades of Meaning 273

Word Histories and the OED 274

What’s Bad about “Good” and “Bad” 275

Concrete and Abstract Diction 276

Latinate Diction 277

Choosing Words: Some Rhetorical Considerations 278

Tone 278

Formal and Colloquial Styles: Who’s Writing to Whom, and Why Does It Matter? 279

The Person Question 281

The First Person Pronoun “I”: Pro and Con 281

The Second Person Pronoun “You”: Pro and Con 282

Using and Avoiding Jargon 283

CHAPTER 18 Style: Shaping Sentences for Precision and Emphasis 287

How to Recognize the Four Basic Sentence Types 287

The Simple Sentence 288

The Compound Sentence 288

The Complex Sentence 289

The Compound-Complex Sentence 289

So Why Do the Four Sentence Types Matter? 290

Coordination, Subordination, and Emphasis 290

Coordination 290

Reversing the Order of Coordinate Clauses for Emphasis 291

So Why Does the Order of Coordinate Clauses Matter? 291

Subordination 292

Reversing Main and Subordinate Clauses 292

So Why Does It Matter What Goes in the Subordinate Clause? 293

Parallel Structure 293

So Why Does Parallel Structure Matter? 295

xvi Contents

Periodic and Cumulative Sentences: Two Effective Sentence Shapes 295

The Periodic Sentence: Delaying Closure for Emphasis 295

The Cumulative Sentence: Starting Fast 297

So Why Do Periodic and Cumulative Sentences Matter? 298

Cutting the Fat 298

Expletive Constructions 299

Static versus Active Verbs: “To Be” or “Not to Be” 299

Active and Passive Voices: Doing and Being Done To 301

About Prescriptive Style Manuals 302

Experiment! 303

CHAPTER 19 Common Grammatical Errors and How to Fix Them 305

Why Correctness Matters 306

The Concept of Basic Writing Errors (BWEs) 306

What Punctuation Marks Say: A Quick-Hit Guide 307

Nine Basic Writing Errors and How to Fix Them 309

BWE 1: Sentence Fragments 309

A Further Note on Dashes and Colons 311

BWE 2: Comma Splices and Fused (or Run-On) Sentences 311

BWE 3: Errors in Subject–Verb Agreement 314

A Note on Nonstandard English 315

BWE 4: Shifts in Sentence Structure (Faulty Predication) 316

BWE 5: Errors in Pronoun Reference 316

Ambiguous Reference 317

A Note on Sexism and Pronoun Usage 319

BWE 6: Misplaced Modifiers and Dangling Participles 319

BWE 7: Errors in Using Possessive Apostrophes 320

BWE 8: Comma Errors 321

BWE 9: Spelling/Diction Errors That Interfere with Meaning 323

Glossary of Grammatical Terms 325

CHAPTER 19 APPENDIX Answer Key (with Discussion) 330

CREDITS 339

INDEX 341

xvii

Writing Analytically focuses on ways of using writing to discover and develop ideas. That is, the book treats writing as a tool of thought—a means of undertaking sus- tained acts of inquiry and reflection.

For some people, learning to write is associated less with thinking than with ar- ranging words, sentences, and ideas in clear and appropriate form. The achievement of good writing does, of course, require attention to form, but writing is also a mental activity. Through writing we figure out what things mean (which is our definition of analysis). The act of writing allows us to discover and, importantly, to interrogate what we think and believe.

All the editions of Writing Analytically have evolved from what we learned while establishing and directing a cross-curricular writing program at a four-year liberal arts college (a program we began in 1989 and continue to direct). The clearest con- sensus we’ve found among faculty is on the kind of writing that they say they want from their students: not issue-based argument, not personal reflection (the “reaction” paper), not passive summary, but analysis, with its patient and methodical inquiry into the meaning of information. Yet most books of writing instruction devote only a chapter, if that, to analysis.

The main discovery we made when we first wrote this book was that none of the reading we’d done about thesis statements seemed to match either our own practice as writers and teachers or the practice of published writers. Textbooks about writing tend to present thesis statements as the finished products of an act of thinking—as inert statements that writers should march through their papers from beginning to end. In practice, the relationship between thesis and evidence is far more fluid and dynamic.

In most good writing, the thesis grows and changes in response to evidence, even in final drafts. In other words, the relationship between thesis and evidence is recip- rocal: the thesis acts as a lens for focusing what we see in the evidence, but the evi- dence, in turn, creates pressure to refocus the lens. The root issue here is the writer’s attitude toward evidence. The ability of writers to discover ideas and improve on them in revision depends largely on their ability to use evidence as a means of testing and developing ideas rather than just supporting them.

By the time we came to writing the third edition, we had begun to focus on ob- servation skills. We recognized that students’ lack of these skills is as much a prob- lem as thought-strangling formats like five-paragraph form or a too-rigid notion of thesis. We began to understand that observation doesn’t come naturally; it needs to be taught. The book advocates locating observation as a separate phase of thinking before the writer becomes committed to a thesis. Much weak writing is prematurely and too narrowly thesis driven precisely because people try to formulate the thesis before they have done much (or any) analyzing.

PREFACE

The solution to this problem sounds easy to accomplish, but it isn’t. As writers and thinkers, we all need to slow down—to dwell longer in the open- ended, exploratory, information-gathering stage. This requires specific tasks that will reduce the anxiety for answers, impede the reflex move to judgments, and encourage a more hands-on engagement with materials. Writing Analytically supplies these tasks for each phase of the writing and idea-generating process: making observations, inferring implications, and making the leap to possible conclusions.

WHAT’S NEW IN THIS EDITION

This edition of Writing Analytically marks the fourth time we’ve had the chance to revisit the book’s initial thinking on writing. The difficult but also exciting thing about repeatedly revising the same book is that the writer must keep learning how to see the logic of the book as a whole, even as new thinking rises from earlier thinking and threatens to displace it. We believe that we have now succeeded at what we couldn’t quite manage to do in the fourth edition—to integrate the early versions of the book, oriented largely toward thesis and evidence, with the later editions of the book, oriented toward observation and interpretation.

Here in brief (and in boldface) are the suggestions and criticisms to which this extensively rewritten and reorganized version of the book responds:

• Put back the definition-of-analysis chapter containing the five analytical moves, which disappeared in the third edition. This edition starts with a revised version of the older chapter, now called Analysis: What It Is and What It Does.

• Make things easier to find! Make core ideas stand out more clearly. And so . . . :

1. We have organized the book into four units to make the book’s arguments and advice clearer and more clearly incremental. These units are:

I. The Analytical Frame of Mind: Introduction to Analytical Methods

II. Writing the Analytical Essay

III. Writing the Researched Paper

IV. Grammar and Style

2. We have created separate chapters on matters that were not adequately pulled together and foregrounded in previous editions.

• The book’s observational strategies, such as 10 on 1 and The Method, now appear prominently in a single chapter called A Toolkit of Analytical Methods (Chapter 3).

• A revised chapter called Interpretation: What It Is, What It Isn’t, and How to Do It (Chapter 4) reunites materials on interpretation that were split up in the fourth edition.

• The book’s advice on analyzing and producing arguments now appears in a single chapter called Analyzing Arguments (Chapter 5).

xviii Preface

• A new chapter called Topics and Modes of Analysis (Chapter 6) adds explicit discussion of rhetorical analysis, acknowledging it as an ongoing topic of the book, and restores attention to ways of making the traditional rhetorical modes, such as comparison and contrast, more analytical.

• The book’s advice on organizing papers is now pulled together in a largely new chapter on organization called Structuring the Paper: Forms and Formats (Chapter 10), which also includes a new section on para- graphing. Readers will now know where to look for alternatives to five- paragraph form. The chapter invites readers to think of organization in terms of movement of mind at both the paper and paragraph levels.

• Get rid of the overstuffed first chapter and restore the unexpurgated version of counterproductive habits of mind as a separate chapter. Done. We recognize that in the fourth edition we attempted to do what all writers, not just our stu- dents, too often do—pack everything into the opening. The parts of this opening chapter have now been broken up and redistributed more logically. We have also reorganized and rewritten our chapter on counterproductive habits of mind, which now appears as Chapter 2. We continue to believe, as the chapter argues, that it is hard to develop new thinking skills without first becoming aware of what’s wrong with our customary modes of response.