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LARRY A. SAMOVAR San Diego State University, Emeritus

RICHARD E. PORTER California State University, Long Beach, Emeritus

EDWIN R. MCDANIEL San Diego State University

THIRTEENTH EDITION

Intercultural Communication: A Reader

Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States

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Intercultural Communication: A Reader, Thirteenth Edition

Larry A. Samovar, Richard E. Porter, Edwin R. McDaniel

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Table of Contents

Preface vi

Chapter 1 Approaches to Intercultural Communication 1

Using Intercultural Communication: The Building Blocks 4

EDWIN R. MCDANIEL, LARRY A. SAMOVAR, RICHARD E. PORTER

Dimensionalizing Cultures: The Hofstede Model in Context 19

GEERT HOFSTEDE

Culture and Conflict 34 HARRY C. TRIANDIS

Intercultural Communication in a Globalized World 45

BERNARD SAINT-JACQUES

Worldview in Intercultural Communication: A Religio-Cosmological Approach 56

SATOSHI ISHII, DONALD KLOPF, PEGGY COOKE

“Harmony without Uniformity”: An Asiacentric Worldview and Its Communicative Implications 65

YOSHITAKA MIIKE

Chapter 2 Identity: Issues of Belonging 81

Globalization and Intercultural Personhood 83 YOUNG YUN KIM

An Alternative View of Identity 95 GUO-MING CHEN

Living Within Whiteness: A Project Aimed at Undermining Racism 104

JOHN T. WARREN

American Indian Identity: Communicating Indian-ness 112

STEVEN B. PRATT, MERRY C. PRATT, LYNDA D. DIXON

We Don’t Talk Right. You Ask Him 119 JOAN WYNNE

International Marriages in Japan: Cultural Conflict and Harmony 126

STEVEN E. QUASHA, FUMIKO TSUKADA

Chapter 3 International Cultures: Understanding Diversity 144

The Spirituality of “Being” Grace, Tao, and Awaken in Intercultural Communication 146

MARY FONG

Chimerica: U.S.–China Communication for the Twenty-first Century 161

WENSHAN JIA, DEXIN TIAN, XUANZI B. JIA

Communicating with Indians 170 RAJESH KUMAR, ANAND KUMAR SETHI

When Face-to-Face Won’t Work: Use of Informal Intermediaries to Communicate Interpersonally in Sub-Saharan Africa 179

ANN NEVILLE MILLER

Russian Cultural Values and Workplace Communication Patterns 189

MIRA BERGELSON

Ladylike Men and Guyland: Cross-Cultural Accomplishments of Masculinities 198

JUSTIN CHARLEBOIS

iii

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Chapter 4 Co-cultures: Living in a Multicultural Society 206

Unum and Pluribus: Ideological Underpinnings of Interethnic Communication in the United States 208

YOUNG YUN KIM

Action-Oriented Interfaith Dialogue with Muslim Communities 222

POLLY A. BEGLEY

America in Black and Brown: Exploring Sources of Intercultural Tensions between Blacks and Latinos in the United States 232

PETER OGOM NWOSU

“Which Is My Good Leg?”: Cultural Communication of Persons with Disabilities 241

DAWN O. BRAITHWAITE, CHARLES A. BRAITHWAITE

In Plain Sight: Gay and Lesbian Communication and Culture 254

WILLIAM F. EADIE

Chapter 5 Intercultural Messages: Verbal and Nonverbal Communication 268

The Nexus of Language, Communication, and Culture 271

MARY FONG

Dialogue, Argument, and Cultural Communication Codes between Israeli-Jews and Palestinians 280

DONALD G. ELLIS, IFAT MAOZ

Mexican Dichos: Lessons Through Language 288

CAROLYN ROY

The Basis of Cultural Differences in Nonverbal Communication 293

PETER A. ANDERSEN

Monochronic and Polychronic Time 313 EDWARD T. HALL

Mexicans and Americans: A Different Sense of Space 320

NED CROUCH

Chapter 6 Cultural Contexts: The Influence of the Setting 327

Japanese Style of Decision Making in Business Organizations 331

KAZUO NISHIYAMA

Comparing and Contrasting German and American Business Cultures 339

MICHAEL B. HINNER

The Problem of Globalization: Jamaican Managers at the Intersection of Past and Present Cultural Challenges 356

MAURICE L. HALL

Health Journeys: Intersections Between Ancient Healing and Modern Medicine 366

POLLY A. BEGLEY, DEBBIE A. OCKEY

Culture and Communication in the Classroom 381

GENEVA GAY

Enculturation of Values in the Educational Setting: Japanese Group Orientation 400

EDWIN R. McDANIEL, ERIKO KATSUMATA

Intercultural Communication and the Global Classroom 413

CHARLES A. BRAITHWAITE

Chapter 7 Communicating Interculturally: Becoming Competent 422

Axioms for a Theory of Intercultural Communication Competence 424

BRIAN H. SPITZBERG

A Confucian Perspective of Communication Competence 435

XIAOSUI XIAO, GUO-MING CHEN

iv Table of Contents

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Harmony, Conflict and the Process of Argument in Chinese Societies 445

MICHAEL DAVID HAZEN, RUI SHI

The Social Construction of Demeanor through Deference Rituals 457

JUSTIN CHARLEBOIS

Discriminating Attitudes Toward Speech 464 AARON CASTELAN CARGILE

Chapter 8 Ethical Considerations: Prospects for the Future 473

A Communicative Approach to Intercultural Dialogue on Ethics 476

RICHARD EVANOFF

Worldview: The Ethical Dimension 481 NINIAN SMART

Cultural Diversity: A World View 490 THOMAS SOWELL

The Limits to Cultural Diversity 498 HARLAN CLEVELAND

Index 503

Table of Contents v

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Preface

I know quite certainly that I myself have no special talent; curiosity, obsession and dogged endurance, combined with self-criticism have brought me to my ideas.

—ALBERT EINSTEIN

Precision of communication is important, more important than ever, in our era of hair-trigger balances, when a false or misunderstood word may create as much disaster as a sudden thoughtless act.

—JAMES THURBER

A SIMPLE “THANK YOU” We begin, as we do with every new edition, with a simple “thank you.” Our gratitude is directed at all those educators and students who have seen our book through twelve previous editions. We are not being prosaic or trite when we make known our pride in this extraordinary honor. Hence, we trust you can understand why we are excited about this new edition and want to begin by expressing our appreciation to the thousands of individuals who have found some- thing of value in past presentations.

BLENDING THE NEW AND THE OLD We approached this new edition with the twin feel- ings of exhilaration and prudence. The excitement, as noted, was due to the recognition we have received during the last forty years—enough acknowledgment to warrant yet another new edition. Still, our sense of pride is moderated with a heavy dose of caution. As we proceeded, we wanted to preserve the basic framework and philosophy that has sustained us through the previous editions, while at the same time we needed to include topics that are new to the field. Here in our thirteenth edition we have bal- anced these two complementary positions—the past and present.

First, the new version of the book continues to reflect our belief that the basic core of the discipline should not be changed for the sake of being novel; such change would deprive the book of those funda- mental concepts that we have infused into all previ- ous editions. Second, a new book needs to reflect how intercultural theory has evolved since the last edition. We needed to present essays that mirror that change. We believe we have accomplished the blending of the old with the new in this edition. We have, as is the case in all past editions, even staked out some fresh territory for the field.

A POINT OF VIEW A constant theme in this edition is “globalization,” a term that can no longer be applied solely to interna- tional economic activities. Globalization has stimu- lated the growth of all developed nations and vastly increased the economic, political, and in many cases military aspirations of what are now called “emerging markets.” For instance, Brazil, Russia, India, and China, the “BRIC nations,” have issued joint commu- niqués indicating they expect developing nations to be given more influence over how world international financial systems are managed and increased partici- pation in world affairs. Russia has openly called for a new international currency to replace the U.S. dollar as the world reserve currency. India’s population reached 1.2 billion in 2010, and that country con- tinues to invest heavily in industrialization and edu- cation. China continues to assert itself across all aspects of international relations, and its military growth and modernization have become a concern to the United States.

As these emerging-market nations increase their economical and political influence, they will expect to play a larger role in the management and direction of the world community. This will exert pressure on the

vi

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established world order and currently normative be- haviors. The dominant nations of the West, led by the United States, will be faced with little choice but to engage these new players.

The changes and challenges brought about by globalization are not limited to the international sphere. Within the United States, people from a host of diverse cultures are coming together by both chance and design. These “meetings” are taking place in work- places, classrooms, health care facilities, tourist venues, and numerous other locations. Most encounters are positive and lead to productive relationships, but not all. For example, Arizona’s 2010 passage of legislation targeting illegal immigrants led to protests, sometimes destructive, across the country. Here was a conflict that clearly calls out for cultural awareness and understand- ing. Developing that awareness and transforming it into understanding is at the core of this book.

As a member of this multicultural globalized world, your ability to engage successfully in intercul- tural communication may be one of the most impor- tant skills you will ever develop, because now, more than ever before, you are being challenged by a future in which you will interact with people from a wide range of dissimilar cultural backgrounds.

Developing effective intercultural communication skills will require that you acquire new ways of think- ing and interacting. This will not be easy, for two very important reasons. First, because your view of the world is shaped by the perspective of your own cul- ture, it is often difficult to understand and appreciate many of the actions originating from other people, groups, and nations. Your cultural perceptions tend to condition you to see people and events through a highly selective lens. Second, to be a successful inter- cultural communicator you must be open to new and different communication experiences, have empathy toward cultures different from your own, develop a universalistic, realistic worldview, and learn to be tol- erant of views that differ from your own. These com- munication characteristics may be easy for you to read about, but translating them into action is a very diffi- cult task. Yet training in intercultural communication does offer you an arena in which to work on these skills. In short, it is your ability to change, to make adjustments in your communication habits and behav- ior, which gives you the potential to engage in success- ful and effective intercultural contacts.

OUR APPROACH The basic energizing motive for this book has remained the same since we became interested in the topic of intercultural communication over forty years ago. We believe that the ability to communicate effec- tively with people from other cultures and co-cultures benefits each of us as individuals and has the potential to benefit the nearly seven billion people with whom we share this planet. We have intentionally selected materials that will assist you in understanding those intercultural communication principles that are instru- mental to success when you interact with people from diverse cultures. Fundamental to our approach is the conviction that communication is a social activity; it is something people do to and with one another. The activity might begin with ideas or feelings, but they are manifested in our behaviors, be they verbal or non- verbal. In both explicit and implicit ways, the informa- tion and the advice contained in this book are usable; the ideas presented can be translated into action.

NEW FEATURES We have already noted that the study of intercultural communication is a vibrant and energetic discipline. As intercultural contacts became more intense and widespread, the field has been forced to adapt to these new dynamics. As it has continued to evolve, we have attempted to mature and adapt with it. In 1972, the first edition contained thirty-four articles and essays. In this new edition, we included forty-five, of which twenty-four are new to this volume. Of these, twenty were written exclusively for this edition. Furthermore, six authors from earlier editions have made revisions to their selections for this new volume.

In one sense, we could say that these twenty-five new essays are “new features.” But that point is obvi- ous. There are, however, two other changes that are deserving of the title of “new features.” First, in an attempt to broaden our theoretical base, we have in- corporated the work of international scholars from Russia, Germany, Korea, China, Japan, Kenya, Israel, Canada, United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and India who were able to complement and counterbalance the research of the academic community in the United States. Second, because of our long-held conviction that it is the deep structure of a culture that dictates how members of each culture view themselves and

Preface vii

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others, we have added a number of new essays that look at religion, worldview, identity, and spirituality. These enduring deep-structure elements carry a cul- ture’s most important beliefs, and are emotional, deeply felt concepts. They also have a profound influ- ence on how perceptions are shaped and how people communicate. For these reasons, we have added new selections that examine the deep structure elements of culture. Finally, realizing that we have been editing this book for over forty years, we have chosen to include the voices of new, young scholars who have added a fresh perspective that we have been able to combine with the basic core of the field.

UTILIZING THE BOOK As in the past, we intend this anthology to be for the general reader who is interested in learning about in- tercultural communication. Therefore, we have selected materials that are broadly based, comprehensive, and suitable for both undergraduate and graduate students. Although the level of difficulty might fluctuate from essay to essay, we have attempted to select essays aimed at the level found in most textbooks directed toward college and university students.

Intercultural Communication: A Reader is de- signed to meet three specific needs. The first comes from a canon that maintains that successful intercultural communication is a matter of highest importance if hu- mankind and society are to survive. Events during the past forty years have created a world that sees us be- coming increasingly linked together in a multitude of ways. From pollution to economics to health care, what happens to one culture potentially influences many other cultures. This book, then, is designed to serve as a basic anthology for courses concerned with the issues associated with human interaction. Our intention is to make this book both theoretical and practical so that the issues associated with intercultural communi- cation can be first understood and then acted upon.

Second, the book may be used as a supplemental text to existing service and basic communication skill courses and interpersonal communication courses. Third, the text provides resource material for courses in communication theory, small-group communication, organizational and business communication, and mass communication, as well as for courses in anthropology, health care, sociology, social psychology, social welfare,

social policy, business, and international relations. The long list of possible uses only underscores the increased level of intercultural interaction that is characteristic of what is often now called the “global village.”

ORGANIZATION The book is organized into eight closely related chap- ters. In Chapter 1, “Approaches to Understanding In- tercultural Communication,” our purpose is twofold: We acquaint you with the basic concepts of intercul- tural communication while at the same time arousing your curiosity and interest in the topic. Hence, the essays in this chapter are both theoretical and philo- sophical. The selections explain what intercultural communication is, why it is important, and how it operates. Chapter 2, “Cultural Identity: Issues of Be- longing,” has essays that demonstrate how different cultural and ethnic identities influence role expecta- tions, perceptions, and intercultural interaction. By reading various stories, you will be able to get an ap- preciation of how a person’s cultural identity helps shape his or her view of the world. Chapter 3, “Inter- national Cultures: Understanding Diversity,” describes the communication patterns of six cultures. We offer a sampling of cultures found in East Asia, India, Russia, the Middle East, Africa, and even the United States. We should add that in many other chapters of the book we examine additional international cultures in the health care, business, and educational setting. Chapter 4, “Co- Cultures: Living in Two Cultures,” moves us from the international arena to co-cultures that exist within the United States. For many of you these will be the groups you interact with on a daily basis. We need to point out once again that space constraints have limited the total number of co-cultures we could include. Yet we believe that through the selection of groups such as Latinos, African Americans, Asian Americans, persons with disabilities, and the LGBT community, you will get a summary of the cultural diversity found in those groups. In addition to those appearing in this chapter, additional international cultures and co-cultures are ex- amined in other chapters of the text

In Chapter 5, “Intercultural Messages: Verbal and Nonverbal Communication,” we study how verbal and nonverbal symbols are used (and vary) in intercultural communication. We offer readings that will introduce you to some of the difficulties you might encounter

viii Preface

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when your intercultural partner uses a different verbal or nonverbal coding system. We will look at how ver- bal idiosyncrasies and distinctions influence problem solving, speaking, perception, and understanding. As noted, this chapter is also concerned with nonverbal symbols and explains some of the cultural differences in movement, facial expressions, eye contact, silence, space, time, and the like.

Chapter 6, “Cultural Contexts: The Influence of Setting,” continues with the theme of how culture modifies interaction. This time, however, the interac- tion is examined within a specific context and environ- ment. The assumption is that the “rules” that influence how members of a culture behave in certain settings will fluctuate across cultures. To clarify this important issue, we have selected “places” such as Japan, Germany, Jamaica, Mexico, and the like where the cultures often follow rules that differ from those found in North Amer- ica. More specifically, we look at settings related to busi- ness groups, negotiations, health care, and education.

In Chapter 7, “Communicating Interculturally: Becoming Competent,” readings are offered that are intended to make you a more competent intercultural communicator. To help accomplish that purpose the chapter highlights some problems inherent in intercul- tural communication. These problems range from cul- tural differences in dealing with conflict to variations in interpersonal rituals. In addition, solutions are ad- vanced that are intended to provide you with knowl- edge about and suggestions for responding to these and other difficulties you might face when communi- cating with “strangers.”

Chapter 8, “Ethical Considerations: Prospects for the Future,” presents essays that deal with ethical and moral issues as well as the future directions and chal- lenges of intercultural communication. It is the intent of this chapter to ask you not to conclude your study of intercultural communication with the reading of a single book or the completion of one course. We be- lieve that the study of intercultural communication is a lifetime endeavor. Each time we want to share an idea or feeling with someone from another culture, we face a new and exhilarating learning experience.

ASSISTANCE As in the past, many people have helped us rethink and reshape this project. We express appreciation to

our Executive Editor, Monica Eckman, who managed to balance being amicable with being firm while guid- ing the manuscript from inception to conclusion. We also wish to thank our Assistant Editor, Rebekah Matthews, who was always able to anticipate our needs. From beginning to end, she saw to it that the manuscript was free of problems. Her being part of “our team” made this thirteenth edition a pleasur- able experience. And, as we do with each edition, we must call attention to our first editor, Rebecca Hay- den. Becky had enough courage and insight forty years ago to decide that intercultural communication should and would become a viable discipline. We also need to recognize the contribution of our pub- lisher, Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Although “cor- porate dynamics” and major alterations in the publishing business, have forced us to adapt to a never-ending stream of new people and “philoso- phies,” Wadsworth Cengage Learning has neverthe- less been consistent in its determination to produce and market a quality textbook.

In a culture that values change, this anthology would not have survived for nearly 40 years if we had not been fortunate enough to have so many scholars willing to contribute original essays to each edition. Here in the thirteenth edition, we acknowledge the work of Peter A. Andersen, Polly Begley, Mira Bergel- son, Charles Braithwaite, Dawn Braithwaite, Aaron Castelan Cargile, Justin Charlebois, Guo-Ming Chen, Peggy Cooke, Lynda D. Dixon, William F. Eadie, Donald G. Ellis, Richard J. Evanoff, Mary Fong, Maurice Hall, Michael David Hazen, Michael Hinner, Satoshi Ishii, Wenshan Jia, Xuanzi X. Jia, Eriko Kat- sumata, Young Yun Kim, Donald Klopf, Ifat Maoz, Yoshitaka Miike, Ann Neville Miller, Kazuo Nishiyama, Peter Nwosu, Debbie A. Ockey, Merry C. Pratt, Steven B. Pratt, Steven E. Quasha, Carolyn Roy, Bernard Saint-Jacques, Rui Shi, Brian H. Spitz- berg, Dexin Tian, Fumiko Tsukada, John T. Warren, and Xiasosui Xiao. We thank all of you for letting us share your voices with thousands of other people who share your commitment to intercultural matters.

Finally, we conclude the preface the way we started it. We again express our gratitude to the thou- sands of users of previous editions who have given the opportunity to “talk to them.” Although the con- tact has been somewhat intangible, we appreciate it all the same.

Preface ix

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1 Approaches to InterculturalCommunication I don’t much like him. I think I need to get to know him better. Abraham Lincoln

The curse of the human race is not that we are so different from one another, but that we are so alike. Salman Rushdie, The Enchantress of Florence

Although the ability to communicate effectively has long been an important aspect ofany social interaction between people from different cultures, within the past twodecades it has become essential. In the wake of the Berlin Wall falling on November 9, 1989, the power structure of the international community moved from a bipolar (United States and the Soviet Union) to a unipolar (United States) position. Now, the movement is rapidly toward a multipolar international arrangement. Responsible world leaders are working toward greater cooperation on all fronts—economic, political, and military. Presi- dent Obama’s policy of engaging other nations, even when their aims appear counter to U.S. interests, demonstrates this trend toward increased international integration and cross- cultural interaction.

Movement to a more global, interconnected community has been abetted by dramatic technological changes, such as digital communication advances that permit the uninter- rupted transfer of large amounts of data across national borders and breakthroughs in

K. Burns U.S. Census Bureau, Public Information Office (PIO)

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transportation that facilitate the rapid, economical movement of people and goods over vast distances. These events, often referred to collectively as “globalization,” have brought about unprecedented levels of interaction among people from different national, ethnic, and reli- gious cultural backgrounds. Media originating in one country are generally available throughout the world. Multinational and transnational organizations, replete with multi- cultural workforces, are now commonplace. An increasing number of international non- governmental organizations (NGOs) are engaged in emergency relief, humanitarian assistance, and charitable service work around the globe. World tourism, once available only to the wealthy, is a growth industry, with package tours to international destinations tailored to almost any budget. Nations with declining birthrates and aging populations are recruiting health care workers from abroad. Immigration, international marriage, and inter- country adoptions have added to U.S. cultural diversity. For example, for the ten-year period 1999–2010, U.S. State Department statistics report that over 178,000 children from other nations were adopted by U.S. families (“Total Adoptions,” 2010)1.

Broadly speaking, globalization has brought about the realization that modern socie- ties must learn to cooperate in or- der to prevent their mutual self- destruction. There is a growing per- ception that employment of force may result

in near-term so- lutions but will ultimately create problems that are more com- plex. Increased concern over the planet’s ecologi- cal degradation

resulting from climate change and pollution has raised awareness of the need for interna- tional cooperation on a scale previously unseen. There is also a recognition of the need to engage in global cooperative efforts on a number of other issues—nuclear arms, terror- ism, over-population, world poverty, and escalating competition for natural resources. Closer to home, the United States is faced with such culturally related domestic concerns as immigration, an aging population, growth of minority groups, and ideological divi- sions. Solutions, either whole or partial, to these circumstances will require increased in- tercultural understanding.

Before moving further into the study of culture and communication, we need to specify our approach to intercultural communication and recognize that other people in- vestigate quite different perspectives. For example, some scholars who examine mass me- dia are concerned with international broadcasting, worldwide freedom of expression, the premise of Western domination of media information, and the use of electronic technolo- gies for instantaneous worldwide communication. Other groups study international com- munication with an emphasis on communication between national governments—the communication of diplomacy, economic assistance, disaster relief, and even political pro- paganda. Still others are interested in the communication needed to conduct business on a global basis. Their concerns include such issues as cross-cultural marketing, negotiation

Broadly speaking, globalization has brought about the realization that modern societies must learn to cooperate in order to prevent their mutual self-destruction.

1Total Adoptions to the United States. (2010). Intercountry Adoption: Office of Children’s Issues, U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 13 April 2010 from http://adoption.state.gov/news/total_chart.html#

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CHAPTER 1 | Approaches to Intercultural Communication 3

styles, management, and conflict resolution, as well as daily communication within do- mestic, multinational, and transnational organizations.

Our focus, however, relates to the more personal aspects of communication: What happens when people from different cultures interact face to face? Thus, our approach explores the interpersonal dimensions of intercultural communication across different contexts. The essays we have selected for this edition focus on the variables of culture and communication that are most likely to influence an intercultural communication en- counter—those occasions when you attempt to exchange information, ideas, or feelings with someone from a culture different from your own.

Something as simple as an awareness of cultural variations in eye contact can help teachers achieve greater communication effectiveness in their multicultural classroom. An international businessperson who realizes that other cultures have different negotiation styles is more likely to acquire a contract satisfactory to both parties. Health care workers who understand that some people place more faith in traditional, natural remedies than in modern pharmaceuticals may be able to provide better medical treatment. In a cultur- ally diverse workforce, the manager who understands that there are variations in cultural values is more apt to be successful. United States Border Patrol agents working with their Mexican counterparts to stem the flow of narcotics and violence across the border will be well served by knowledge of Mexican etiquette and customs.

Succinctly, we believe that many cross-cultural problems can be resolved or avoided through an awareness and understanding of the components of intercultural communica- tion. This book, by applying those components to numerous cultures and contexts, is an effort to promote that understanding.

Your exploration of intercultural communication begins with a series of varied arti- cles designed to (1) introduce the philosophy underlying our concept of intercultural communication; (2) provide a general orientation to, and overview of, intercultural com- munication; (3) theorize about the linkage between culture and communication; (4) offer insight into innovations in the study and teaching of intercultural communication; and (5) demonstrate how perception can vary in contemporary society. Our objective is to give you an introduction to the diverse dimensions of intercultural communication that will help you to approach subsequent chapters with a mindset that makes further inquiry interesting, informative, and useful.

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Using Intercultural Communication: The Building Blocks EDWIN R. MCDANIEL • LARRY A. SAMOVAR • RICHARD E. PORTER

The initial essay, by the three editors of this text, is titled “Understanding Intercultural Communications: The Work- ing Principles.” This essay will introduce you to many of the specific subjects and issues associated with the study of intercultural communication. As a prologue, we use the context of “globalization,” our rapidly integrating global community, to demonstrate the importance of intercultural communication, both at home and abroad. Next, we discuss the purpose of communication, define it, and provide a re- view of its characteristics. Third, we offer an overview of culture—what it is and what it does. We then focus on some specific dimensions of culture that are germane to human communication—those components that constitute the study of intercultural communication. We exam- ine a number of major variables—percep- tual elements, cognitive patterns, verbal and nonverbal behaviors, and social con- texts—to help you better understand what happens when people from different cultural backgrounds engage in communi- cation. By understanding, at the outset of the book, what the study of intercultural communication entails, you will have a greater appreciation for subsequent essays.

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN A DYNAMIC WORLD You live in an era where intercultural communication skills are not just an asset; they are a requirement. Never before has it been so easy for people from dif- ferent nations and ethnicities to meet and interact. This increased intermingling is largely the product of the stunning advances in technology that now allow peo- ple to move quickly and easily across vast distances, both physically and virtually. As one example, 54.9 million international travelers visited the United States

in 2009, a phenomenon that produced approximately $17 billion in tax revenues (Office of Travel, 2010).

In addition to international travel, technology has vastly increased the number of virtual interac- tions. People all over the world now interact daily with others through the medium of modern telecom- munications—telephones, Internet, teleconferencing, etc. Not only has this facilitated international com- merce and tourism, but it has also made transborder interpersonal relations increasingly frequent. Your authors know of an international couple where one works in California and the other in Japan. They use e-mail to communicate daily, talk via Skype several

times a week, and travel to visit each other every two to three months, all the while dealing with their cultural and linguistic differences. Long- distance intercultural relationships, such as theirs, are becoming increas- ingly commonplace as distances across the global community con- tinue to shrink.

“Globalization,” “global society,” “world community,” “homogenized culture,” and similar terms have be-

come catchphrases used to characterize the increased economic and social integration of national populations and ethnicities. As a result, the requirement to under- stand cultural differences and communicate across cul- tural borders has increased exponentially. To help you understand the importance of this requirement, it is worthwhile to first look back and then look forward. By looking back to your grandparents and parents’ generations, you can discover how much more inter- cultural the world has become. And by looking at future projections of world events, you will realize how much more intercultural the world will become.

The requirement to understand cultural differences and communicate across cultural borders has increased exponentially.

This original essay appears here in print for the first time. All rights reserved. Permission to reprint must be obtained from the authors and the publisher. Dr. Edwin. R. McDaniel is affiliated with San Diego State University; Dr. Larry A. Samovar is Professor Emeritus in the School of Communication at San Diego State University; Dr. Richard E. Porter is Professor Emeritus in the Department of Communication Studies at California State University, Long Beach.

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Looking Back One of the most noticeable changes over the past two generations is just how international the world has be- come. As a result of media and transportation advances, you now have access to a wide variety of products and services from abroad. Depending on your location, U.S. cable TV companies now offer channels in Chinese, Japanese, Tagalog, Hindi, Punjabi, Spanish, Russian, and many other languages. For example, DISH TV has available more than 170 international channels in 28 different languages (“International,” 2010). A visit to your local supermarket will reveal a variety of ethnic foods, many imported from other parts of the world. In urban areas, small ethnic food stores have become the norm. For instance, in La Jolla, California, a small Ira- nian market sells a selection of fresh feta cheeses im- ported from France, Bulgaria, Denmark, and Greece, as well as delicious pistachios from Iran.

A heightened awareness of cul- ture in the U.S. armed forces is an- other significant change from the past. During the Vietnam conflict (1961–73) and the first Gulf War (1990–91), culture was an after- thought at best. However, fighting in Iran and Afghanistan has brought the importance of cultural under- standing into the spotlight and sever- al programs designed to instill cultural awareness have been developed. The U.S. Army has instituted the Human Terrain System, which co-locates civilian socio-cultural experts with commanders and staff to provide a source of knowledge on local peoples and their culture (“Human,” 2010). In order to acquire and effectively employ cultural knowledge, the U.S. Marine Corps established the Center for Advanced Operational Cultural Learning, which has the mission of training personnel in the application of language and culture to operations (“Center,” 2010).

Globalization has brought profound changes to the commercial sector, including the creation of numer- ous transnational corporations whose reach influences markets around the world. For example, Yum! Brands, the parent company of KFC, Pizza Hut, Taco Bell, Long John Silver, and others, employs over one million work- ers in more than 110 countries (“Taking”, 2009). In earlier years, international corporate managers came to

the United States to launch their careers, but now it is common to see U.S. managers heading to foreign loca- tions. In 2009, for instance, 24 percent of the graduates from MIT’s prestigious Sloan School of Management took positions abroad (“Job,” 2009). Among U.S. em- ployers, workplace diversity is a continuing source of concern, and training courses designed to make em- ployees aware of cultural differences and varied com- munication behaviors have become routine.

Residence abroad has also increased “because the globalization of industry and education tramples na- tional borders,” and among the developed nations, the foreign-born population exceeds 8 percent on average (“Others,” 2009). This international movement also includes students in higher education. Current esti- mates are that over three million students are studying in a country other than their own, and some 672,000 foreign students were attending U.S. universities in

2008 (“Leagues,” 2010; “And,” 2009). Contemporary U.S. demographics

probably represent the most easily no- ticeable change relating to cross- cultural issues. Quite simply, the United States has become much more multicultural over the past fifty years. A glance around your classroom will probably reveal a mix of people from different ethnicities, nationalities, age groups, and, less obvious, sexual pre-

ferences. Most of these classmates will be U.S. born, but some may be from other countries. This is because people born outside the United States constitute 13 percent of the total population, the largest percentage among the developed nations (“Ponzi,” 2009). And lest you think all immigrants work in low-wage, dirty jobs, the 2000 census indicated that “47 percent of scientists and engineers in America with PhDs” were foreign born (“Economics,” 2009, p. 84). Immigrants in the United States often group themselves together in urban areas, where they retain their language and culture, unlike their predecessors in the early twentieth century who were expected, and indeed often forced, to assim- ilate to the dominant U.S. culture. A particularly vivid example of contemporary U.S. cultural diversity was the 2010 census website, which could be accessed in over fifty languages (“United States,” 2010).

The preceding overview of selected changes arising from globalization was intended to make you

People born outside the United States constitute 13 percent of the total U.S. population, the largest percentage among the developed nations.

McDaniel • Samovar • Porter Using Intercultural Communication: The Building Blocks 5

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aware of how culture has become an important consideration in modern society. Now we turn our at- tention to the future, where culture and communication promise to play an even more vital role in our lives.

Looking Forward The financial crisis that began in 2007, which brought about the collapse of several large U.S. financial firms and weakened many international institutions, is a particularly salient example of how interrelated the world economy has become. Although the problems initially started in the United States, they quickly spread worldwide. Almost no nation, and certainly no developed country, has been unaffected by the problems. This economic interconnectedness will continue and grow in complexity. Already we see old icons taking on new personas—the Volvo brand, originally Swedish, is now owned by a Chinese com- pany; an Indian firm now owns Land Rover and Jaguar, once U.K. brands. Even greater changes are on the horizon as the members of the BRIC group of nations (Brazil, Russia, India, and China) continue their economic growth. According to some predic- tions, the BRIC group “will surpass the current lead- ing economies by the middle of this century, a tectonic shift that by this reckoning will eventually nudge the United States and Western Europe away from the center of world productivity and power” (Kramer, 2009, p. 2). This ever-increasing intercon- nectivity and shifting of the world economy will ne- cessitate greater cultural awareness among the workforces. The ability to work effectively with peo- ple from other nations and ethnicities, speaking dif- ferent languages and possessing varied values and beliefs, will become a common requirement.

Information technology has greatly increased pub- lic awareness of the seriousness of worldwide environ- mental issues. Climate change, whether natural or human induced, is producing often-catastrophic human disasters, such as the prolonged drought in southern Sudan, which has left thousands on the brink of starva- tion. Altered rainfall patterns are accelerating desertifica- tion in China and Africa. Pelagic pollution is having a detrimental impact on ocean marine life. Coral reefs are dying due to rising ocean temperatures, overfishing, and excessive runoff of silt and farm fertilizer. International efforts to slow and eliminate these environmentally ener- vating practices are proving problematic.

The December 2009 climate summit in Copen- hagen, Denmark was attended by over 100 heads of state and government, “[y]et from its opening the conference was marked by bitter divisions, confusion, and setbacks.” (“Summary,” 2009). The many global environmental issues will not be easily solved, but any successful resolutions will also require competent intercultural communication skills.

Changing environmental conditions are also creating “environmentally induced” migration— people driven from their traditional homelands as a result of environmental degradation (“New,” 2009). The International Organization for Migration esti- mates there may be upwards of 200 million environ- mental migrants by 2050, and as their means of livelihood are destroyed, many are likely to become long-term migrants (Warner et al., 2009).These refu- gees will be in addition to the numbers of immi- grants motivated by traditional causes—economic, religious and political persecution; armed conflict; and ethnic discrimination.

The likelihood of cultural conflicts arising from growing immigrant populations is obvious, and the potential is particularly high in Western Europe. There, immigrants already represent 10 percent of the total population, and antipathy toward immigrant communities appears to be on the rise (“Treacher- ous,” 2009). Evidence of the growing anxiety includes France’s barring of the Muslim veil and headscarf from public buildings and state schools (“War,” 2010), Switzerland’s decision to prohibit construction of minarets at mosques (“Swiss,” 2009), and consid- eration by Belgium of banning Islamic veils that cover the face (“Belgian,” 2010).

United States Demographics

Year 2005 2050

Total population (millions) 296 438

Population Groups*

White (non-Hispanic) 67% 47%

Hispanic 14% 29%

Black 13% 13%

Asian 5% 9% *Native American and Pacific Islanders not included.

Source: Passel & Cohen, 2008

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Changing demographics in the United States also present fertile ground for future clashes between people of varied cultures. According to multiple re- ports, minorities will represent the collective majority by 2050, and 19 percent of the total population will be foreign born (Passel & Cohen, 2008; “U.S. Census,” 2008). This demographic shift is expected to produce considerable social change as members of minority ethnicities continue to replace the white majority in political, commercial, and educational positions of power.

In the commercial sector, changes are already occurring. In states such as New Mexico and Califor- nia, where Hispanics constitute over 30 percent of the population, Spanish-language media programs are common, and several large U.S. retailers, including Walmart, have opened stores in Texas and Arizona specifically catering to the Hispanic market. Accord- ing to a Walmart press release, the new stores “feature a layout and product assortment designed to make it more relevant to local Hispanic customers” (Moreno, 2009; “New Supermercado,” 2009). This is an excel- lent example of how culture influences our lives. We are comfortable with the things we know and are drawn to them, but we are often uncomfortable with things we do not know and frequently avoid them.