Company cultures that spawn an ethically corrupt or amoral work climate encourage

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Fifth Edition

LINDA KLEBE TREVIÑO Distinguished Professor of Organizational Behavior and Ethics

Smeal College of Business

The Pennsylvania State University

KATHERINE A. NELSON Lecturer

Fox School of Business

Temple University

JOHNWILEY & SONS, INC.

MANAGING BUSINESS ETHICS

Straight Talk About How To Do It Right

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Treviño, Linda Klebe. Managing business ethics : straight talk about how to do it right / Linda Klebe Treviño, Katherine

A. Nelson. – 5th ed.

p. cm.

Includes index. ISBN 978-0-470-34394-4 (pbk.)

1. Business ethics. 2. Business ethics–Case studies. I. Nelson, Katherine A. II. Title.

HF5387.T734 2010

1740.4–dc22 2010020659

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

http://www.copyright.com

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BRIEF CONTENTS

SECTION I INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCING STRAIGHT TALK ABOUT MANAGING BUSINESS ETHICS: WHERE WE’RE GOING AND WHY 2

SECTION II ETHICS AND THE INDIVIDUAL

CHAPTER 2 DECIDING WHAT’S RIGHT: A PRESCRIPTIVE APPROACH 38

CHAPTER 3 DECIDING WHAT’S RIGHT: A PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH 71

CHAPTER 4 ADDRESSING INDIVIDUALS’ COMMON ETHICAL PROBLEMS 111

SECTION III MANAGING ETHICS IN THE ORGANIZATION

CHAPTER 5 ETHICS AS ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE 150

CHAPTER 6 MANAGING ETHICS AND LEGAL COMPLIANCE 207

CHAPTER 7 MANAGING FOR ETHICAL CONDUCT 255

CHAPTER 8 ETHICAL PROBLEMS OF MANAGERS 292

SECTION IV ORGANIZATIONAL ETHICS AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY

CHAPTER 9 CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY 322

CHAPTER 10 ETHICAL PROBLEMS OF ORGANIZATIONS 354

CHAPTER 11 MANAGING FOR ETHICS AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY IN A GLOBAL BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT 399

INDEX 449

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CONTENTS

PREFACE XIII

SECTION I

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCING STRAIGHT TALK ABOUT MANAGING BUSINESS ETHICS: WHERE WE’RE GOING AND WHY 2

Introduction 2

The Financial Disaster of 2008 4

Borrowing Was Cheap 4

Real Estate Became the Investment of Choice 5

Mortgage Originators Peddled ‘‘Liar Loans’’ 5

Banks Securitized the Poison and Spread It Around 6

Those Who Were Supposed to Protect Us Didn’t 7

Moving Beyond Cynicism 9

Can Business Ethics Be Taught 13

Aren’t Bad Apples the Cause of Ethical Problems in Organizations? 13

Shouldn’t Employees Already Know the Difference between Right and Wrong? 15

Aren’t Adults’ Ethics Fully Formed and Unchangeable? 16

This Book is about Managing Ethics in Business 19

Ethics and the Law 20

Why Be Ethical? Why Bother? Who Cares? 21

Individuals Care about Ethics: The Motivation to be Ethical 21

Employees Care about Ethics Employee Attraction and Commitment 23

Managers Care about Ethics 23

Executive Leaders Care about Ethics 24

Industries Care about Ethics 26

Society Cares about Ethics: Business and Social Responsibility 27

The Importance of Trust 27

The Importance of Values 29

How the Book is Structured 30

Conclusion 32

Discussion Questions 32

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Exercise: Your Cynicism Quotient 33

Notes 34

SECTION II

ETHICS AND THE INDIVIDUAL

CHAPTER 2 DECIDING WHAT’S RIGHT: A PRESCRIPTIVE APPROACH 38

Introduction 38

Ethical Dilemmas 38

Prescriptive Approaches to Ethical Decision Making in Business 39

Focus on Consequences (Consequentialist Theories) 40

Focus on Duties, Obligations, and Principles (Deontological Theories) 42

Focus on Integrity (Virtue Ethics) 46

Eight Steps to Sound Ethical Decision Making in Business 52

Step One: Gather the Facts 52

Step Two: Define the Ethical Issues 52

Step Three: Identify the Affected Parties (the Stakeholders) 53

Step Four: Identify the Consequences 54

Step Five: Identify the Obligations 56

Step Six: Consider Your Character and Integrity 56

Step Seven: Think Creatively about Potential Actions 57

Step Eight: Check Your Gut 58

Practical Preventive Medicine 58

Doing Your Homework 58

When You’re Asked to Make a Snap Decision 59

Conclusion 61

Discussion Questions 62

Exercise: Clarifying Your Values 63

Case: Pinto Fires 64

Notes 69

CHAPTER 3 DECIDING WHAT’S RIGHT: A PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH 71

Introduction 71

Ethical Awareness and Ethical Judgment 71

Individual Differences, Ethical Judgment, and Ethical Behavior 75

Ethical Decision-Making Style 76

Cognitive Moral Development 77

Locus of Control 84

Machiavellianism 85

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Moral Disengagement 86

Facilitators of and Barriers to Good Ethical Judgment 88

Thinking about Fact Gathering 88

Thinking about Consequences 89

Thinking about Integrity 91

Thinking about Your Gut 93

Unconscious Biases 94

Emotions in Ethical Decision Making 95

Toward Ethical Action 97

Revisiting the Pinto Fires Case: Script Processing and Cost-Benefit Analysis 102

Cost-Benefit Analysis 103

Conclusion 105

Exercise: Understanding Cognitive Moral Development 105

Discussion Questions 106

Notes 107

CHAPTER 4 ADDRESSING INDIVIDUALS’ COMMON ETHICAL PROBLEMS 111

Introduction 111

Identifying Your Values—and Voicing Them 112

People Issues 114

Discrimination 115

Harassment, Sexual and Otherwise 119

Conflicts of Interest 122

What Is It? 123

How We Can Think about This Issue 125

Why Is It an Ethical Problem? 126

Costs 126

Customer Confidence Issues 127

What Is It? 127

How We Can Think about This Issue 131

Why Is It an Ethical Problem? 131

Costs 131

Use of Corporate Resources 132

What Is It? 132

How We Can Think about This Issue 136

Why Is It an Ethical Problem? 136

Costs 136

When All Else Fails: Blowing the Whistle 137

When Do You Blow the Whistle? 139

How to Blow the Whistle 140

Conclusion 145

Discussion Questions 145

Notes 147

CONTENTS vii

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SECTION III

MANAGING ETHICS IN THE ORGANIZATION

CHAPTER 5 ETHICS AS ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE 150

Introduction 150

Organizational Ethics as Culture 151

What Is Culture? 151

Strong versus Weak Cultures 151

How Culture Influences Behavior: Socialization and Internalization 152

Ethical Culture: A Multisystem Framework 153

Alignment of Ethical Culture Systems 154

Ethical Leadership 156

Executive Leaders Create Culture 156

Leaders Maintain or Change Organizational Culture 157

Other Formal Cultural Systems 166

Selection Systems 166

Values and Mission Statements 168

Policies and Codes 169

Orientation and Training Programs 171

Performance Management Systems 172

Organizational Authority Structure 175

Decision-Making Processes 178

Informal Cultural Systems 180

Role Models and Heroes 180

Norms: ‘‘The Way We Do Things around Here’’ 182

Rituals 182

Myths and Stories 183

Language 185

Organizational Climates: Fairness, Benevolence, Self-Interest, Principles 187

Developing and Changing the Ethical Culture 188

How an Ethical Culture Can Become an Unethical Culture 189

Becoming a More Ethical Culture 190

A Cultural Approach to Changing Organizational Ethics 192

Audit of the Ethical Culture 193

A Cultural Systems View 193

A Long-Term View 194

Assumptions about People 194

Diagnosis: The Ethical Culture Audit 194

Ethical Culture Change Intervention 196

The Ethics of Managing Organizational Ethics 198

Conclusion 198

Discussion Questions 198

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Case: Culture Change at Texaco 199

Case: An Unethical Culture in Need of Change: Tap Pharmaceuticals 201

Notes 203

CHAPTER 6 MANAGING ETHICS AND LEGAL COMPLIANCE 207

Introduction 207

Structuring Ethics Management 208

Making Ethics Comprehensive and Holistic 210

Managing Ethics: The Corporate Ethics Office 211

Ethics and Compliance Officers 212

The Ethics Infrastructure 214

The Corporate Ethics Committee 215

Communicating Ethics 215

Basic Communications Principles 216

Evaluating the Current State of Ethics Communications 219

Multiple Communication Channels for Formal Ethics Communication 220

Interactive Approaches to Ethics Communication at USAA 222

Mission or Values Statements 224

Organizational Policy 226

Codes of Conduct 227

Communicating Senior Management Commitment to Ethics 227

Formal and Informal Systems to Resolve Questions and Report Ethical Concerns 235

Using the Reward System to Reinforce the Ethics Message 238

Evaluating the Ethics Program 239

Surveys 240

Values or Compliance Approaches 242

Globalizing An Ethics Program 243

Conclusion 245

Discussion Questions 245

Case: Improving an Ethical Culture at Georgia-Pacific 247

Appendix: How Fines Are Determined under the U.S. Sentencing Guidelines 252

Notes 253

CHAPTER 7 MANAGING FOR ETHICAL CONDUCT 255

Introduction 255

In Business, Ethics Is about Behavior 255

Practical Advice for Managers: Ethical Behavior 256

Our Multiple Ethical Selves 256

The Kenneth Lay Example 257

The Dennis Levine Example 259

Practical Advice for Managers: Multiple Ethical Selves 259

Rewards and Discipline 260

People Do What’s Rewarded and Avoid Doing What’s Punished 260

People Will Go the Extra Mile to Achieve Goals Set by Managers 261

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How Goals Combined with Rewards Can Encourage Unethical Behavior 262

Practical Advice for Managers: Goals, Rewards and Discipline 263

Recognize the Power of Indirect Rewards and Punishments 264

Can Managers Really Reward Ethical Behavior? 266

What about the Role of Discipline? 267

Practical Advice for Managers: Discipline 269

‘‘Everyone’s Doing It’’ 270

People Follow Group Norms 270

Rationalizing Unethical Behavior 270

Pressure to Go Along 271

Practical Advice for Managers: Group Norms 271

People Fulfill Assigned Roles 272

The Zimbardo Prison Experiment 273

Roles at Work 274

Conflicting Roles Can Lead to Unethical Behavior 275

Roles Can Also Support Ethical Behavior 275

Practical Advice for Managers: Roles 276

People Do What They’re Told 276

The Milgram Experiments 277

Obedience to Authority at Work 279

Practical Advice for Managers: Obedience to Authority 279

Responsibility Is Diffused in Organizations 279

‘‘Don’t Worry—We’re Taking Care of Everything’’ 280

Diffusing Responsibility in Groups 280

Diffusing Responsibility by Dividing Responsibility 281

Diffusing Responsibility by Creating Psychological Distance 282

Practical Advice for Managers: Personal Responsibility 283

Conclusion 284

Discussion Questions 285

Case: Sears, Roebuck, and Co.: The Auto Center Scandal 285

Notes 289

CHAPTER 8 ETHICAL PROBLEMS OF MANAGERS 292

Introduction 292

Managers and Employee Engagement 292

Managing the ‘‘Basics’’ 295

Hiring and Work Assignments 295

Performance Evaluation 296

Discipline 299

Terminations 301

Why Are These Ethical Problems? 303

Costs 303

Managing a Diverse Workforce 304

Diversity 305

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Harassment 306

Family and Personal Issues 307

Why Are These Ethical Problems? 309

Costs 309

The Manager as a Lens 310

The Buck Stops with Managers 310

Managers Are Role Models 313

Managing Up and Across 314

Honesty Is Rule One 315

Standards Go Both Ways 315

Conclusion 316

Discussion Questions 317

Notes 318

SECTION IV

ORGANIZATIONAL ETHICS AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY

CHAPTER 9 CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY 322

Introduction 322

Why Corporate Social Responsibility? 322

Types of Corporate Social Responsibility 329

Economic Responsibilities 329

Legal Responsibilities 330

Ethical Responsibilities 330

Philanthropic Responsibilities 331

Triple Bottom Line and Environmental Sustainability 334

Is Socially Responsible Business Good Business? 337

The Benefit of a Good Reputation 338

Socially Responsible Investors Reward Social Responsibility 338

The Cost of Illegal Conduct 339

The Cost of Government Regulation 340

What the Research Says about Social Responsibility and Firm Performance 343

Being Socially Responsible Because It’s the Right Thing to Do 346

Conclusion 348

Discussion Questions 348

Case: Merck and River Blindness 349

Notes 351

CHAPTER 10 ETHICAL PROBLEMS OF ORGANIZATIONS 354

Introduction 354

Managing Stakeholders 355

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Ethics and Consumers 356

Conflicts of Interest 357

Product Safety 365

Advertising 369

Ethics and Employees 373

Employee Safety 374

Employee Downsizings 378

Ethics and Shareholders 381

Ethics and the Community 386

Why Are These Ethical Issues 388

Costs 388

Conclusion 389

Discussion Questions 389

Notes 394

CHAPTER 11 MANAGING FOR ETHICS AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY IN A GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT 399

Introduction 399

Focus on the Individual Expatriate Manager 400

The Difficulties of Foreign Business Assignments 400

The Need for Structure, Training, and Guidance 400

Foreign Language Proficiency 401

Learning about the Culture 401

Recognizing the Power of Selective Perception 403

Assumption of Behavioral Consistency 404

Assumption of Cultural Homogeneity 404

Assumption of Similarity 405

Ethics-Related Training and Guidance 405

How Different Are Ethical Standards in Different Cultures—Really? 411

Development of Corporate Guidelines and Policies for Global Business Ethics 413

The Organization in a Global Business Environment 417

Deciding to Do Business in a Foreign Country 417

Development of a Transcultural Corporate Ethic 425

Conclusion 429

Discussion Questions 429

Case: Selling Medical Ultrasound Technology in Asia 431

Case: Google Goes to China 434

Appendix: Caux Round Table Principles for Business 440

Notes 444

INDEX 449

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PREFACE WHY DOES THE WORLD NEED ANOTHER BUSINESS ETHICS TEXT?

The popular business press is replete with feature stories describing ethical melt- downs and how those corporate misdeeds have eroded the public trust of business leaders and their organizations. As most of us learned at our parents’ knees, trust and reputation are built over many years and take but an instant to be destroyed. So here we stand at a crossroads. Is it going to be business as usual for business? Or are busi- nesspeople going to commit to regaining the trust of our peers, our families, and our fellow citizens?

In response to this crisis of trust, universities across the country are scrambling to design new courses that incorporate leadership, communication skills, the basics of human resources management, and ethics. That’s why we wrote this book; we want to make the study of ethics relevant to real-life work situations. We want to help businesspeople regain the trust that’s been squandered in the last few years.

This book is different from other business ethics texts in several key ways: First, it was written by an unusual team. Linda Trevi~no is Distinguished Professor of Orga- nizational Behavior and Ethics in the Management and Organization Department of the Smeal College of Business at the Pennsylvania State University. Her prolific re- search on the management of ethical conduct in organizations is published in the field’s best journals and is internationally known and referenced. She has more than 20 years of experience in teaching students and executives in university and non- university settings, and she also has experience as a corporate consultant and speaker on ethics and management issues. Kate Nelson is a full-time faculty member at the Fox School of Business at Temple University in Philadelphia, where she teaches management, business ethics, and human resources to undergraduates. Before joining Temple’s faculty, Kate worked for more than 30 years in strategic organizational communication and human resources at a variety of companies including Citicorp, Merrill Lynch, and Mercer HR Consulting. She also has worked as a consultant spe- cializing in ethics and strategic employee communications and has designed ethics programs for numerous organizations. We think that bringing together this diverse mix of theory and practice makes the book unique.

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Second, the approach of this book is pragmatic, and that approach is a di- rect response to complaints and suggestions we have heard from students, employees, and corporate executives. ‘‘Make it real,’’ they have said. ‘‘Tell us what we need to know to effectively manage people. Take the mystery out of this subject that seems so murky. Get to the point.’’ This book starts with the assumption that ethics in organizations is about human behavior in those organi- zations. We believe that behavior results from a number of factors, many of which can be influenced by managers and the organizations themselves. As a result, this book is organized into sections about individuals, managing in orga- nizational context, and organizations in their broader environment, the ethical dilemmas managers face, and how they might solve them. It also features philo- sophical and psychological factors of decision making, ethical culture, how man- agers can influence employees’ behavior through ethical leadership, what corporations are doing to encourage ethical behavior and corporate social re- sponsibility, and international business ethics.

Third, we have used a different mix of examples than is found in conventional business ethics texts. Most texts focus on high-level, corporate dilemmas: ‘‘Should senior executives be paid at a particular level? Should this industry do business in China? Should American environmental laws apply to American companies operat- ing overseas?’’

Although these are interesting issues, the vast majority of students and employees will never have to face them. However, they will have to hire, man- age, assess performance, discipline, fire, and provide incentives for staff, as well as produce quality products and services and deal effectively and fairly with customers, vendors, and other stakeholders. As a result, although we do feature some classic corporate ethics cases, many of the cases in this book center on the kinds of problems that most people will encounter during the course of their careers. All of the ‘‘hypothetical’’ cases in this text are based on actual incidents that have happened somewhere—it’s the real stuff that goes on every day in offices across the country.

Fourth, this book was developed with the help of students at a number of universities and with guidance from numerous managers and senior executives from various corporations and organizations. We have incorporated the latest re- search on ethics and organizational behavior into this text, and much of the ma- terial that appears within these pages has been tested in both university and corporate settings.

Fifth, we believe this book is easy to use because it is organized to be flexi- ble. It can be used alone to teach an ethics course, or it can be used as a supple- ment to a more conventional, philosophical text. The sections in this book basically stand alone and can be taught in a different sequence than is presented here, and the book also has many cases and vignettes you can use for class dis- cussion. Wiley will create custom versions of the text with selected chapters if requested to do so. To help teach this course, the instructor’s guide provides resources such as outlines, overheads, discussion questions, and additional cases

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for class discussion; it also supplies references to many other resources that can be used to teach the course.

ANOTE TO STUDENTS

This book was written for you. We have listened to your complaints and your wish lists and have tried to pare this complicated subject down to a di- gestible size. The cases that appear in this book all happened to people just like you, who were not as prepared to deal with the dilemmas as you will be after taking this course. Before you get into this book, we have one suggestion: know that regardless of how large an organization you find yourself in, you’re not some little cog in a giant wheel. You have the power to change not only your own behavior and knowledge of ethics but also the behavior and knowl- edge of the people you work with. Use that power: the job you save may be your own.

We also want to suggest that when interviewing for your next job, you try to make sure that you’re joining an organization that values ethics. Are ethics and val- ues described in the firm’s recruiting materials? Do organizational representatives talk about ethics and values during their interviews with you? When you ask about how their organization demonstrates ethics and values, does your interviewer respond enthusiastically, or does he or she look like a deer caught in headlights so you in- stantly know that he or she has never even considered this question before? It’s much easier to get into an ethical organization in the first place than try to get out of an unethical one later on.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It takes a lot of work by a lot of people to make a project like this come to- gether. We’ll begin with some joint thank-yous. Then, because this process has been so meaningful for each of us, we will separately share our more personal thanks.

We both offer our heartfelt appreciation to current and former executives who helped us with this and previous editions, in particular, Larry Axline, Jef- frey Braun, Jacquelyn Brevard, Earnie Broughton, Steve Church, Frank Daly, Srinivas Dixit, Ray Dravesky, Kent Druyvesteyn, Dennis Jorgensen, John O’Byrne, Joe Paterno, Robert Paul, Jo Pease, Shirley Peterson, Vin Sarni, Carl Skooglund, Nan Stout, Phil Tenney, and George Wratney. All shared their valu- able time and advice, some of them on multiple occasions. Their wisdom can be found throughout this book, but especially in Chapter 6. They helped bring the subject of managing business ethics to life.

We also wish to thank Gary Weaver (University of Delaware) for being our philosophy adviser for the first edition, and Dennis Gioia (Penn State faculty member and dear friend) for sharing his Pinto fire case and especially his reflections.

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John Wiley & Sons, Inc. is a fine publisher with a superb team. These people encouraged, nudged, nudged, and nudged again. We have many Wiley people to thank for helping to make this book a success.

The book’s past and present reviewers also contributed significantly to making this a better book, and we thank them as well. We also thank our students and partic- ularly Penn State undergraduate, MBA, and Executive MBA students who provide us with excellent feedback and advice semester after semester.

SPECIAL ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—FROM LINDA K. TREVIIÑO

I have always wondered what makes people do especially good and bad things. As the child of Holocaust survivors, I have a unique perspective on and curios- ity about such issues. My parents and their families escaped Nazi Germany be- fore Hitler began killing Jews en masse, but not before my maternal grandfather was severely beaten and not before my fraternal grandfather was taken to a con- centration camp (euphemistically referred to as a work camp at the time). My father’s family received papers allowing them to emigrate from Germany to the United States shortly before the war began (in spring 1939), allowing my grand- father to be released from the camp where he was being held. Both families landed in New York, where they survived through sheer grit, perseverance, and belief in the American dream. Although my family never dwelled on their expe- riences in Germany, I grew up with a special sensitivity and concern for equality and fair treatment. I traveled to Germany with my dad and brother about 30 years ago. We visited the tiny towns where Mom and Dad were born and met some wonderful German people who had helped them or at least tried to. I walked through a German village holding hands with the elderly woman who had been my maternal grandmother’s best friend and who urged the family to leave Germany because she anticipated the worst. I met another elderly woman who had cared for my father and aunt when they were children and who tried to take care of their home when they were forced to leave everything behind. These were special people, and the opportunity to connect with them holds a special place in my heart. So my family and background influenced me in ways I can’t fully grasp with my mind but in ways that I feel in my soul. And I know that my quest to understand what makes people do good and bad things has something to do with that influence.

Many special people have helped along the path that brought me to the writing of this book. I’ll begin by thanking my mentors in the doctoral program at Texas A&M University’s management department. Many thanks to Stuart Youngblood (now at Texas Christian University), Don Hellriegel, Richard Woodman, Dick Daft (now at Vanderbilt University), and Mary Zey, who encouraged my early theorizing and re- search in business ethics. They told me to go with my gut and to do what was impor- tant, and they supported my every step. My exceptional colleagues in the

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Management and Organizational Department at Penn State have also been supportive all along the way. They have read my papers and challenged me to think harder and make my work ever better.

My thanks also to the colleagues who have worked with me on ethics-related research over the years and who have been partners in learning about the manage- ment of business ethics: particularly Gail Ball, Michael Brown, Ken Butterfield, James Detert, David Harrison, Laura Hartman, Jennifer Kish Gephart, Don McCabe, Bart Victor, Gary Weaver, and more. This shared learning has contributed to the book in important ways.

Shortly after becoming a faculty member at Penn State, I had the good fortune to meet my friend and coauthor, Kate Nelson. I was intrigued by a brief Wall Street Journal article about Kate’s work at Citibank (you’ll read more about that later). We met and became fast friends, who (believe it or not) loved talking about business ethics. We decided to write an article together, and the rest, as Kate says, is history. Kate brought the real world into this book. She was also willing to tell me when I was getting too academic (not her words exactly). It became clearer and clearer to me that we were supposed to write this book together, and I’m very glad we did. Thanks, Kate!

The article became a book proposal that we first shared with publishers at the Academy of Management meeting in 1992 (almost 20 years ago now). Shortly there- after, Bill Oldsey (formerly publisher at John Wiley & Sons, Inc.) showed up in my office at Penn State. His enthusiasm for the book was immediate and infectious, and he talked us into writing a textbook rather than a trade book. I want to thank Bill for the special part he played.

Over the years, Penn State colleagues, administrators, and donors have contin- ued to support my efforts in the area of business ethics. I am grateful to the Cook family, especially the late Ann Cook, for supporting business ethics at Smeal and the Cook Fellowship that I held for a number of years. My thanks also to Mrs. Mercedes Shoemaker (and her late husband, Albert) for supporting the Shoemaker program in Business Ethics that has brought us wonderful speakers on the topic of business ethics year after year. Finally, I am especially grateful to Dean James Thomas for naming me …

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