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SE/CIAMPA, CompTIA Security+ Guide to Network Security Fundamentals, 6th Edition ISBN-978-1-337-28878-1 ©20XX Designer: XXX Text & Cover printer: Quad Graphics Binding: PB Trim: 7.375 x 9.125" CMYK
Security+ Guide to Network Security Fundamentals
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Security+ Guide to Network Security Fundamentals
INFORMATION SECURITY
Sixth Edition
Mark Ciampa
Sixth Edition
CIAMPA
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
CompTIA Security+ SY0-501 Exam Objectives
Security+ Exam Domain/Objectives Chapter Bloom’s Taxonomy 1.0: Threats, Attacks, and Vulnerabilities 1.1 Given a scenario, analyze indicators of compromise and determine the type of
malware. 2 Analyze
1.2 Compare and contrast types of attacks. 2 3 5 8
11 15
Understand Analyze Understand Apply/Understand Create Apply
1.3 Explain threat actor types and attributes. 1 Analyze/Apply 1.4 Explain penetration testing concepts. 13 Apply 1.5 Explain vulnerability scanning concepts. 13 Apply 1.6 Explain the impact associated with types of vulnerabilities. 1
3 4 5 9
10
Understand Understand Understand Understand Understand Understand
2.0: Technologies and Tools 2.1 Install and configure network components, both hardware- and software-based,
to support organizational security. 4 6 7 8
Apply Analyze Apply Analyze/Evaluate
2.2 Given a scenario, use appropriate software tools to assess the security posture of an organization.
8 13 14
Evaluate Analyze/Evaluate Evaluate
2.3 Given a scenario, troubleshoot common security issues. 15 Analyze 2.4 Given a scenario, analyze and interpret output from security technologies. 6
7 9
Analyze Analyze Analyze
2.5 Given a scenario, deploy mobile devices securely. 8 10 11
Apply/Evaluate Analyze/Create Analyze
2.6 Given a scenario, implement secure protocols. 4 5
Apply Analyze
3.0: Architecture and Design 3.1 Explain use cases and purpose for frameworks, best practices and secure
configuration guides. 1
15 Analyze Understand
3.2 Given a scenario, implement secure network architecture concepts. 6 7 8
13
Analyze Apply Apply/Evaluate Apply
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Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States
INFORMATION SECURITY
Mark Ciampa, Ph.D.
Sixth Edition
SECURITY+ GUIDE TO NETWORK SECURITY
CompTIA ®
FUNDAMENTALS
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Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
© 2018, 2015 Cengage Learning Unless otherwise noted, all content is © Cengage.
Security+ Guide to Network Security Fundamentals, Sixth Edition
Mark Ciampa
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ISBN: 978-1-337-28878-1 LLF ISBN: 978-1-337-68585-6
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Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Brief Contents INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................xv
PART 1
SECURITY AND ITS THREATS ..........................................................................1
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Security ................................................................................3
CHAPTER 2
Malware and Social Engineering Attacks ................................................. 51
PART 2
CRYPTOGRAPHY .......................................................................................... 97
CHAPTER 3
Basic Cryptography ..................................................................................... 99
CHAPTER 4
Advanced Cryptography and PKI ............................................................ 145
PART 3
NETWORK ATTACKS AND DEFENSES ....................................................... 189
CHAPTER 5
Networking and Server Attacks .............................................................. 191
CHAPTER 6
Network Security Devices, Design, and Technology ............................. 233
CHAPTER 7
Administering a Secure Network ............................................................ 281
CHAPTER 8
Wireless Network Security ....................................................................... 321
PART 4
DEVICE SECURITY....................................................................................... 371
CHAPTER 9
Client and Application Security ............................................................... 373
iii
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Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Brief Contents
CHAPTER 10
Mobile and Embedded Device Security ...................................................421
PART 5
IDENTITY AND ACCESS MANAGEMENT ....................................................469
CHAPTER 11
Authentication and Account Management ............................................471
CHAPTER 12
Access Management ..................................................................................521
PART 6
RISK MANAGEMENT ...................................................................................563
CHAPTER 13
Vulnerability Assessment and Data Security .........................................565
CHAPTER 14
Business Continuity ...................................................................................607
CHAPTER 15
Risk Mitigation ...........................................................................................651
APPENDIX A
CompTIA SY0-501 Certification Exam Objectives ...................................691
GLOSSARY ......................................................................................................... 713
INDEX .................................................................................................................741
iv
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Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Table of Contents INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................xv
PART 1
SECURITY AND ITS THREATS .....................................................1
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Security ...........................................................3 Challenges of Securing Information .................................................................. 8
Today’s Security Attacks ....................................................................................8 Reasons for Successful Attacks ........................................................................12 Difficulties in Defending Against Attacks ....................................................... 14
What Is Information Security? .......................................................................... 17 Understanding Security ....................................................................................18 Defining Information Security .........................................................................18 Information Security Terminology ..................................................................21 Understanding the Importance of Information Security ................................ 24
Who Are the Threat Actors? .............................................................................. 28 Script Kiddies ................................................................................................... 29 Hactivists ......................................................................................................... 29 Nation State Actors ..........................................................................................30 Insiders ............................................................................................................30 Other Threat Actors ..........................................................................................31
Defending Against Attacks ............................................................................... 32 Fundamental Security Principles .................................................................... 32 Frameworks and Reference Architectures ...................................................... 35
Chapter Summary .............................................................................................. 35
Key Terms ........................................................................................................... 37
Review Questions............................................................................................... 37
Case Projects ...................................................................................................... 46
CHAPTER 2
Malware and Social Engineering Attacks .............................51 Attacks Using Malware ...................................................................................... 53
Circulation........................................................................................................ 55 Infection ........................................................................................................... 61
v
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Table of Contentsvi
Concealment .................................................................................................... 65 Payload Capabilities .........................................................................................66
Social Engineering Attacks ................................................................................ 73 Psychological Approaches ............................................................................... 74 Physical Procedures .........................................................................................80
Chapter Summary .............................................................................................. 82
Key Terms ........................................................................................................... 84
Review Questions .............................................................................................. 84
Case Projects ...................................................................................................... 92
PART 2
CRYPTOGRAPHY ......................................................................97
CHAPTER 3
Basic Cryptography .................................................................99 Defining Cryptography .................................................................................... 101
What Is Cryptography? ................................................................................... 101 Cryptography and Security ............................................................................ 105 Cryptography Constraints ...............................................................................107
Cryptographic Algorithms ............................................................................... 108 Hash Algorithms .............................................................................................110 Symmetric Cryptographic Algorithms ........................................................... 113 Asymmetric Cryptographic Algorithms ......................................................... 116
Cryptographic Attacks ..................................................................................... 123 Algorithm Attacks ........................................................................................... 123 Collision Attacks ............................................................................................. 125
Using Cryptography ......................................................................................... 126 Encryption through Software ......................................................................... 127 Hardware Encryption .....................................................................................128
Chapter Summary ............................................................................................ 130
Key Terms ......................................................................................................... 132
Review Questions............................................................................................. 133
Case Projects .................................................................................................... 142
CHAPTER 4
Advanced Cryptography and PKI ........................................145 Implementing Cryptography .......................................................................... 147
Key Strength ....................................................................................................147 Secret Algorithms ...........................................................................................148
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Table of Contents vii
Block Cipher Modes of Operation ................................................................. 149 Crypto Service Providers................................................................................ 150 Algorithm Input Values .................................................................................. 151
Digital Certificates ........................................................................................... 152 Defining Digital Certificates ............................................................................ 152 Managing Digital Certificates .........................................................................154 Types of Digital Certificates ............................................................................158
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) ....................................................................... 165 What Is Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)? ....................................................... 166 Trust Models .................................................................................................. 166 Managing PKI ..................................................................................................168 Key Management ............................................................................................ 171
Cryptographic Transport Protocols ............................................................... 174 Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) .............................................................................. 174 Transport Layer Security (TLS) ....................................................................... 175 Secure Shell (SSH) ...........................................................................................176 Hypertext Transport Protocol Secure (HTTPS) ...............................................176 Secure/Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (S/MIME) ............................ 177 Secure Real-time Transport Protocol (SRTP) .................................................. 177 IP Security (IPsec) ........................................................................................... 177
Chapter Summary ............................................................................................ 179
Key Terms ......................................................................................................... 181
Review Questions............................................................................................. 181
Case Projects .................................................................................................... 187
PART 3
NETWORK ATTACKS AND DEFENSES ....................................189
CHAPTER 5
Networking and Server Attacks ..........................................191 Networking-Based Attacks ............................................................................. 193
Interception ....................................................................................................194 Poisoning ....................................................................................................... 196
Server Attacks .................................................................................................. 201 Denial of Service (DoS) ...................................................................................201 Web Server Application Attacks .................................................................... 203 Hijacking ........................................................................................................209 Overflow Attacks ............................................................................................ 213 Advertising Attacks ......................................................................................... 215 Browser Vulnerabilities ..................................................................................218
Chapter Summary ............................................................................................ 222
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Table of Contentsviii
Key Terms ......................................................................................................... 223
Review Questions............................................................................................. 223
Case Projects .................................................................................................... 229
CHAPTER 6
Network Security Devices, Design, and Technology .........233 Security Through Network Devices ............................................................... 235
Standard Network Devices ............................................................................ 236 Network Security Hardware .......................................................................... 246
Security Through Network Architecture ....................................................... 260 Security Zones ...............................................................................................260 Network Segregation ..................................................................................... 263
Security Through Network Technologies ...................................................... 265 Network Access Control (NAC) ...................................................................... 265 Data Loss Prevention (DLP)............................................................................ 267
Chapter Summary ............................................................................................ 269
Key Terms ......................................................................................................... 271
Review Questions............................................................................................. 271
Case Projects .................................................................................................... 279
CHAPTER 7
Administering a Secure Network ........................................281 Secure Network Protocols .............................................................................. 283
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) ........................................... 285 Domain Name System (DNS) ........................................................................ 286 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)............................................................................ 288 Secure Email Protocols ..................................................................................290 Using Secure Network Protocols ....................................................................291
Placement of Security Devices and Technologies ........................................ 292
Analyzing Security Data .................................................................................. 295 Data from Security Devices ........................................................................... 296 Data from Security Software ......................................................................... 297 Data from Security Tools ............................................................................... 298 Issues in Analyzing Security Data ................................................................. 298
Managing and Securing Network Platforms ................................................ 300 Virtualization .................................................................................................300 Cloud Computing ...........................................................................................304 Software Defined Network (SDN) ..................................................................306
Chapter Summary ............................................................................................ 309
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Table of Contents ix
Key Terms ......................................................................................................... 310
Review Questions............................................................................................. 311
Case Projects .................................................................................................... 318
CHAPTER 8
Wireless Network Security ..................................................321 Wireless Attacks ............................................................................................... 324
Bluetooth Attacks........................................................................................... 324 Near Field Communication (NFC) Attacks .....................................................327 Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Attacks ............................................. 330 Wireless Local Area Network Attacks .............................................................332
Vulnerabilities of IEEE Wireless Security ....................................................... 341 Wired Equivalent Privacy .............................................................................. 342 Wi-Fi Protected Setup .................................................................................... 343 MAC Address Filtering ................................................................................... 344 SSID Broadcasting .......................................................................................... 345
Wireless Security Solutions ............................................................................ 346 Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) ....................................................................... 347 Wi-Fi Protected Access 2 (WPA2) ................................................................... 349 Additional Wireless Security Protections .......................................................352
Chapter Summary ............................................................................................ 356
Key Terms ......................................................................................................... 359
Review Questions............................................................................................. 359
Case Projects .................................................................................................... 368
PART 4
DEVICE SECURITY ...................................................................371
CHAPTER 9
Client and Application Security ...........................................373 Client Security .................................................................................................. 375
Hardware System Security .............................................................................375 Securing the Operating System Software ...................................................... 379 Peripheral Device Security ............................................................................. 388
Physical Security .............................................................................................. 392 External Perimeter Defenses ......................................................................... 393 Internal Physical Access Security .................................................................. 395 Computer Hardware Security ....................................................................... 400
Application Security ......................................................................................... 401 Application Development Concepts ..............................................................402
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Table of Contentsx
Secure Coding Techniques .............................................................................404 Code Testing ...................................................................................................405
Chapter Summary ............................................................................................ 406
Key Terms ......................................................................................................... 409
Review Questions............................................................................................. 410
Case Projects .................................................................................................... 417
CHAPTER 10
Mobile and Embedded Device Security ..............................421 Mobile Device Types and Deployment .......................................................... 423
Types of Mobile Devices ................................................................................ 424
Mobile Device Risks ......................................................................................... 432 Mobile Device Vulnerabilities........................................................................ 432 Connection Vulnerabilities ............................................................................ 436 Accessing Untrusted Content ........................................................................ 436 Deployment Model Risks ............................................................................... 438
Securing Mobile Devices ................................................................................. 439 Device Configuration ..................................................................................... 439 Mobile Management Tools ............................................................................446 Mobile Device App Security ..........................................................................448
Embedded Systems and the Internet of Things ........................................... 449 Embedded Systems........................................................................................449 Internet of Things ...........................................................................................451 Security Implications ..................................................................................... 452
Chapter Summary ............................................................................................ 455
Key Terms ......................................................................................................... 457
Review Questions............................................................................................. 457
Case Projects .................................................................................................... 465
PART 5
IDENTITY AND ACCESS MANAGEMENT ................................469
CHAPTER 11
Authentication and Account Management .......................471 Authentication Credentials ............................................................................ 473
What You Know: Passwords .......................................................................... 475 What You Have: Tokens, Cards, and Cell Phones .......................................... 489 What You Are: Biometrics ............................................................................. 492 What You Do: Behavioral Biometrics ............................................................ 498
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Table of Contents xi
Where You Are: Geolocation .........................................................................499
Single Sign-on ................................................................................................... 500
Account Management ..................................................................................... 502
Chapter Summary ............................................................................................ 505
Key Terms .......................................................................................................... 506
Review Questions............................................................................................. 507
Case Projects .................................................................................................... 517
CHAPTER 12
Access Management .............................................................521 What Is Access Control? .................................................................................. 523
Access Control Terminology .......................................................................... 524 Access Control Models ....................................................................................527
Managing Access Through Account Management....................................... 533 Account Setup .................................................................................................533 Account Auditing ........................................................................................... 539
Best Practices for Access Control ................................................................... 540 Separation of Duties ......................................................................................540 Job Rotation ...................................................................................................540 Mandatory Vacations......................................................................................541 Clean Desk Policy ............................................................................................541
Implementing Access Control ........................................................................ 542 Access Control Lists (ACLs) ............................................................................ 542 Group-Based Access Control ......................................................................... 543
Identity and Access Services .......................................................................... 544 RADIUS ........................................................................................................... 545 Kerberos ......................................................................................................... 547 Terminal Access Control Access Control System+ (TACACS+) ...................... 548 Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) .............................................. 549 Security Assertion Markup Language (SAML) ............................................... 550 Authentication Framework Protocols ............................................................ 551
Chapter Summary ............................................................................................ 552
Key Terms ......................................................................................................... 554
Review Questions............................................................................................. 554
Case Projects .................................................................................................... 561
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Table of Contentsxii
PART 6
RISK MANAGEMENT ..............................................................563
CHAPTER 13
Vulnerability Assessment and Data Security ....................565 Assessing the Security Posture ...................................................................... 567
What Is Vulnerability Assessment? ............................................................... 567 Vulnerability Assessment Tools .....................................................................573
Vulnerability Scanning .................................................................................... 584
Penetration Testing ......................................................................................... 586
Practicing Data Privacy and Security ............................................................. 588 What Is Privacy? ............................................................................................. 589 Risks Associated with Private Data ...............................................................590 Maintaining Data Privacy and Security ......................................................... 592
Chapter Summary ............................................................................................ 596
Key Terms ......................................................................................................... 598
Review Questions............................................................................................. 598
Case Projects .................................................................................................... 604
CHAPTER 14
Business Continuity ..............................................................607 What Is Business Continuity? ......................................................................... 609
Business Continuity Planning (BCP) .............................................................609 Business Impact Analysis (BIA) ...................................................................... 611 Disaster Recovery Plan (DRP) .........................................................................612
Fault Tolerance Through Redundancy .......................................................... 615 Servers ........................................................................................................... 616 Storage ............................................................................................................617 Networks .........................................................................................................621 Power ............................................................................................................. 622 Recovery Sites ................................................................................................ 622 Data ................................................................................................................ 623
Environmental Controls .................................................................................. 628 Fire Suppression ............................................................................................ 628 Electromagnetic Disruption Protection ..........................................................631 HVAC ...............................................................................................................631
Incident Response ........................................................................................... 633 What Is Forensics? ......................................................................................... 633
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Table of Contents xiii
Incident Response Plan ................................................................................. 633 Forensics Procedures ..................................................................................... 634
Chapter Summary ............................................................................................ 640
Key Terms ......................................................................................................... 642
Review Questions............................................................................................. 643
Case Projects .................................................................................................... 649
CHAPTER 15
Risk Mitigation ......................................................................651 Managing Risk .................................................................................................. 653
Threat Assessment ........................................................................................ 654 Risk Assessment ............................................................................................ 656
Strategies for Reducing Risk ........................................................................... 664 Using Control Types.......................................................................................664 Distributing Allocation ..................................................................................666 Implementing Technology ............................................................................666
Practices for Reducing Risk............................................................................. 668 Security Policies .............................................................................................669 Awareness and Training ................................................................................ 675 Agreements .................................................................................................... 677 Personnel Management ................................................................................. 679
Troubleshooting Common Security Issues ................................................... 679
Chapter Summary ............................................................................................ 680
Key Terms ......................................................................................................... 682
Review Questions............................................................................................. 682
Case Projects .................................................................................................... 688
APPENDIX A
CompTIA SY0-501 Certification Exam Objectives ..............691
GLOSSARY ......................................................................................................... 713
INDEX ................................................................................................................. 741
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The number one concern of computer professionals today continues to be information security, and with good reason. Consider the evidence: over 1.5 billion Yahoo user accounts were compromised in just two separate attacks.1 A ransom of $1 million dollars was paid to unlock files that had been encrypted by ransomware.2 A global payment sys- tem used to transfer money between countries was compromised by attackers who stole $81 billion from the central bank of Bangladesh.3 It is estimated that global spending on products and services to prevent these attacks will exceed $1 trillion cumulatively between 2017 and 2021. But despite the huge sum spent on protection, cybercrime will still cost businesses over $6 trillion by 2021.4
As attacks continue to escalate, the need for trained security per- sonnel also increases. It is estimated that there are currently over 1.5 million unfilled security jobs worldwide and this will grow by 20 percent to 1.8 million by the year 2022.5 According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) “Occupational Outlook Handbook,” the job out- look for information security analysts through 2024 is expected to grow by 18 percent, faster than the average growth rate.6
To verify security competency, most organizations use the Comput- ing Technology Industry Association (CompTIA) Security+ certification, a vendor-neutral credential. Security+ is one of the most widely recog- nized security certifications and has become the security foundation for today’s IT professionals. It is internationally recognized as validat- ing a foundation level of security skills and knowledge. A successful Security+ candidate has the knowledge and skills required to identify threats, attacks and vulnerabilities; use security technologies and tools; understand security architecture and design; perform identity and access management; know about risk management; and use cryptography.
Security+ Guide to Network Security Fundamentals, Sixth Edition is designed to equip learners with the knowledge and skills needed to be information security professionals. Yet it is more than an “exam prep” book. While teaching the fundamentals of information security by using the CompTIA Security+ exam objectives as its framework, it takes a comprehensive view of security by examining in-depth the attacks against networks and computer systems and the necessary defense mechanisms. Security+ Guide to Network Security Fundamen- tals, Sixth Edition is a valuable tool for those who want to learn about security and who desire to enter the field of information security. It also provides the foundation that will help prepare for the CompTIA Security+ certification exam.
xv
INTRODUCTION
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Introductionxvi
Intended Audience This book is designed to meet the needs of students and professionals who want to master basic information security. A fundamental knowledge of computers and net- works is all that is required to use this book. Those seeking to pass the CompTIA Secu- rity+ certification exam will find the text’s approach and content especially helpful; all Security+ SY0-501 exam objectives are covered in the text (see Appendix A). Security+ Guide to Network Security Fundamentals, Sixth Edition covers all aspects of network and computer security while satisfying the Security+ objectives.
The book’s pedagogical features are designed to provide a truly interactive learning experience to help prepare you for the challenges of network and computer security. In addition to the information presented in the text, each chapter includes Hands-On Projects that guide you through implementing practical hardware, software, network, and Internet security configurations step by step. Each chapter also contains case stud- ies that place you in the role of problem solver, requiring you to apply concepts pre- sented in the chapter to achieve successful solutions.
Chapter Descriptions Here is a summary of the topics covered in each chapter of this book:
Chapter 1, “Introduction to Security,” introduces the network security fundamen- tals that form the basis of the Security+ certification. It begins by examining the cur- rent challenges in computer security and why security is so difficult to achieve. It then defines information security in detail and explores why it is important. Finally, the chapter looks at the fundamental attacks, including who is responsible for them, and defenses.
Chapter 2, “Malware and Social Engineering Attacks,” examines attacks that use different types of malware, such as viruses, worms, Trojans, and botnets. It also looks at the different types of social engineering attacks.
Chapter 3, “Basic Cryptography,” explores how encryption can be used to protect data. It covers what cryptography is and how it can be used for protection, and then examines how to protect data using three common types of encryption algorithms: hashing, symmetric encryption, and asymmetric encryption. It also covers how to use cryptography on files and disks to keep data secure.
Chapter 4, “Advanced Cryptography and PKI,” examines how to implement cryp- tography and use digital certificates. It also looks at public key infrastructure and key management. This chapter covers different transport cryptographic algorithms to see how cryptography is used on data that is being transported.
Chapter 5, “Networking and Server Attacks,” explores the different attacks that are directed at enterprises. It includes networking-based attacks as well as server attacks.
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Introduction xvii
Chapter 6, “Network Security Devices, Design, and Technology,” examines how to protect networks through standard network devices and network security hard- ware. It also covers implementing security through network architectures and network technologies.
Chapter 7, “Administering a Secure Network,” looks at the techniques for admin- istering a network. This includes understanding common network protocols and the proper placement of security devices and technologies. It also looks at analyzing secu- rity data and securing network platforms such as virtualization, cloud computing, and software defined networks.
Chapter 8, “Wireless Network Security,” investigates the attacks on wireless devices that are common today and explores different wireless security mechanisms that have proven to be vulnerable. It also covers several secure wireless protections.
Chapter 9, “Client and Application Security,” examines securing the client through hardware and peripherals through hardware and the operating system. It also looks at physical security to create external perimeter defenses and internal physical access security. This chapter also covers application security vulnerabilities and the development of secure apps.
Chapter 10, “Mobile and Embedded Device Security,” looks at the different types of mobile devices and the risks associated with these devices. It also explores how to secure these devices and the applications running on them. Finally, it examines how embedded systems and the Internet of Things devices can be secured.
Chapter 11, “Authentication and Account Management,” looks at authentication and the secure management of user accounts to enforce authentication. It covers the different types of authentication credentials that can be used to verify a user’s identity and how a single sign-on might be used. It also examines the techniques and technol- ogy used to manage user accounts in a secure fashion.
Chapter 12, “Access Management,” introduces the principles and practices of access control by examining access control terminology, the standard control mod- els, and managing access through account management. It also covers best practices, implementing access control, and identity and access services.
Chapter 13, “Vulnerability Assessment and Data Security,” explains what vulner- ability assessment is and examines the tools and techniques associated with it. It also explores the differences between vulnerability scanning and penetration testing. The chapter concludes with an examination of data privacy.
Chapter 14, “Business Continuity,” covers the importance of keeping business processes and communications operating normally in the face of threats and disrup- tions. It explores business continuity, fault tolerance, environmental controls, and inci- dent response.
Chapter 15, “Risk Mitigation,” looks at how organizations can establish and main- tain security in the face of risk. It defines risk and the strategies to control it. This chap- ter also covers practices for reducing risk and troubleshooting common security issues.
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Appendix A, “CompTIA SY0-501 Certification Examination Objectives,” provides a complete listing of the latest CompTIA Security+ certification exam objectives and shows the chapters and headings in the book that cover material associated with each objective, as well as the Bloom’s Taxonomy level of that coverage.
Features To aid you in fully understanding computer and network security, this book includes many features designed to enhance your learning experience.
• Maps to CompTIA Objectives. The material in this text covers all the CompTIA Security+ SY0-501 exam objectives.
• Chapter Objectives. Each chapter begins with a detailed list of the concepts to be mastered in that chapter. This list provides you with both a quick reference to the chapter’s contents and a useful study aid.
• Today’s Attacks and Defenses. Each chapter opens with a vignette of an actual security attack or defense mechanism that helps to introduce the material covered in that chapter.
• Illustrations and Tables. Numerous illustrations of security vulnerabilities, attacks, and defenses help you visualize security elements, theories, and concepts. In addition, the many tables provide details and comparisons of practical and theoretical information.
• Chapter Summaries. Each chapter’s text is followed by a summary of the concepts introduced in that chapter. These summaries provide a helpful way to review the ideas covered in each chapter.
• Key Terms. All the terms in each chapter that were introduced with bold text are gathered in a Key Terms list, providing additional review and highlighting key con- cepts. Key Term definitions are included in the Glossary at the end of the text.
• Review Questions. The end-of-chapter assessment begins with a set of review questions that reinforce the ideas introduced in each chapter. These questions help you evaluate and apply the material you have learned. Answering these questions will ensure that you have mastered the important concepts and provide valuable practice for taking CompTIA’s Security+ exam.
• Hands-On Projects. Although it is important to understand the theory behind network security, nothing can improve on real-world experience. To this end, each chapter provides several Hands-On Projects aimed at providing you with practical security software and hardware implementation experience. These proj- ects use the Windows 10 operating system, as well as software downloaded from the Internet.
• Case Projects. Located at the end of each chapter are several Case Projects. In these extensive exercises, you implement the skills and knowledge gained in the chapter through real design and implementation scenarios.
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Introduction xix
New to This Edition • Maps fully to the latest CompTIA Security+ exam SY0-501 • Completely revised and updated with expanded coverage on attacks and defenses • New chapter units: Security and Its Threats, Cryptography, Network Attacks and
Defenses, Device Security, Identity and Access Management, and Risk Management • Earlier coverage of cryptography and advanced cryptography • All new “Today’s Attacks and Defenses” opener in each chapter • New and updated Hands-On Projects in each chapter covering some of the latest
security software • More Case Projects in each chapter • Expanded Information Security Community Site activity in each chapter allows
learners to interact with other learners and security professionals from around the world
• All SY0-501 exam topics fully defined • Linking of each exam sub-domain to Bloom’s Taxonomy (see Appendix A)
Text and Graphic Conventions Wherever appropriate, additional information and exercises have been added to this book to help you better understand the topic at hand. Icons throughout the text alert you to additional materials. The following icons are0 used in this textbook:
The Note icon draws your attention to additional helpful material related to the subject being described.
Tips based on the author’s experience provide extra informa- tion about how to attack a problem or what to do in real-world situations.
The Caution icons warn you about potential mistakes or prob- lems, and explain how to avoid them.
Hands-On Projects help you understand the theory behind network security with activities using the latest security software and hardware.
The Case Projects icon marks Case Projects, which are scenario- based assignments. In these extensive case examples, you are asked to implement independently what you have learned.
Certification icons indicate CompTIA Security+ objectives covered under major chapter headings.
Hands-On Projects
Case Projects
Certification
Note
Tip
Caution
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Introductionxx
Instructor’s Materials Everything you need for your course in one place. This collection of book-specific lecture and class tools is available online. Please visit login.cengage.com and log in to access instructor-specific resources on the Instructor Companion Site, which includes the Instructor’s Manual, Solutions Manual, test creation tools, PowerPoint Presenta- tions, Syllabus, and figure files.
• Electronic Instructor’s Manual. The Instructor’s Manual that accompanies this textbook includes the following items: additional instructional material to assist in class preparation, including suggestions for lecture topics.
• Solutions Manual. The instructor’s resources include solutions to all end-of- chapter material, including review questions and case projects.
• Cengage Testing Powered by Cognero. This flexible, online system allows you to do the following: • Author, edit, and manage test bank content from multiple Cengage solutions. • Create multiple test versions in an instant. • Deliver tests from your LMS, your classroom, or wherever you want.
• PowerPoint Presentations. This book comes with a set of Microsoft PowerPoint slides for each chapter. These slides are meant to be used as a teaching aid for classroom presentations, to be made available to students on the network for chapter review, or to be printed for classroom distribution. Instructors are also at liberty to add their own slides for other topics introduced.
• Figure Files. All the figures and tables in the book are reproduced. Similar to Power- Point presentations, these are included as a teaching aid for classroom presentation, to make available to students for review, or to be printed for classroom distribution.
Total Solutions For Security To access additional course materials, please visit www.cengagebrain.com. At the cengagebrain.com home page, search for the ISBN of your title (from the back cover of your book) using the search box at the top of the page. This will take you to the product page where these resources can be found.
MindTap MindTap for Security+ Guide to Network Security Fundamentals, Sixth Edition is a per- sonalized, fully online digital learning platform of content, assignments, and services that engages students and encourages them to think critically, while allowing you to easily set your course through simple customization options.
MindTap is designed to help students master the skills they need in today’s workforce. Research shows employers need critical thinkers, troubleshooters, and creative problem solv- ers to stay relevant in our fast paced, technology-driven world. MindTap helps you achieve this with assignments and activities that provide hands-on practice, real-life relevance, and certification test prep. Students are guided through assignments that help them master basic knowledge and understanding before moving on to more challenging problems.
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Introduction xxi
The live virtual machine labs provide real-life application and practice as well as more advanced learning. Students work in a live environment via the Cloud with real servers and networks that they can explore. The IQ certification test preparation engine allows students to quiz themselves on specific exam domains, and the pre- and post-course assessments measure exactly how much they have learned. Readings, lab simulations, capstone projects, and videos support the lecture, while “In the News” assignments encourage students to stay current.
MindTap is designed around learning objectives and provides the analytics and reporting to easily see where the class stands in terms of progress, engagement, and completion rates.
Students can access eBook content in the MindTap Reader, which offers highlighting, note-taking, search and audio, as well as mobile access. Learn more at www.cengage.com/mindtap/.
Instant Access Code: (ISBN: 9781337289306) Printed Access Code: (ISBN: 9781337289313)
Lab Manual Hands-on learning is necessary to master the security skills needed for both Comp- TIA’s Security+ Exam and for a career in network security. Security+ Guide to Network Security Fundamentals Lab Manual, 6th Edition contains hands-on exercises that use fundamental networking security concepts as they are applied in the real world. Each chapter offers review questions to reinforce your mastery of network security topics and to sharpen your critical thinking and problem-solving skills. (ISBN: 9781337288798)
Bloom’s Taxonomy Bloom’s Taxonomy is an industry-standard classification system used to help iden- tify the level of ability that learners need to demonstrate proficiency. It is often used to classify educational learning objectives into different levels of complexity. Bloom’s Taxonomy reflects the “cognitive process dimension.” This represents a continuum of increasing cognitive complexity, from remember (lowest level) to create (highest level). There are six categories in Bloom’s Taxonomy as seen in Figure A.
In all instances, the level of coverage the domains in Security+ Guide to Network Security Fundamentals, Sixth Edition meets or exceeds the Bloom’s Taxonomy level indicated by CompTIA for that objective. See Appendix A for more detail.
Information Security Community Site Stay secure with the Information Security Community Site. Connect with students, profes- sors, and professionals from around the world, and stay on top of this ever-changing field.
Visit http://community.cengage.com/Infosec2/ to: • Download resources such as instructional videos and labs. • Ask authors, professors, and students the questions that are on your mind in the
Discussion Forums. • See up-to-date news, videos, and articles.
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Introductionxxii
Domain % of Examination 1.0 Threats, Attacks & Vulnerabilities 21%
2.0 Technologies & Tools 22%
3.0 Architecture & Design 15%
4.0 Identity & Access Management 16%
5.0 Risk Management 14%
6.0 Cryptography & PKI 12%
Total 100%
• Read regular blogs from author Mark Ciampa. • Listen to podcasts on the latest Information Security topics. • Review textbook updates and errata.
Each chapter’s Case Projects include information on a current security topic and ask the learner to post reactions and comments to the Information Security Com- munity Site. This allows users from around the world to interact and learn from other users as well as security professionals and researchers.
What’s New With Comptia Security+ Certification The CompTIA Security+ SY0-501 exam was updated in October 2017. Several significant changes have been made to the exam objectives. The exam objectives have been sig- nificantly expanded to more accurately reflect current security issues and knowledge requirements. These exam objectives place importance on knowing “how to” rather than just knowing or recognizing security concepts.
Here are the domains covered on the new Security+ exam:
Produce new or original work Design, assemble, construct, conjecture, develop, formulate, author, investigatecreate
Bloom’s Taxonomy
evaluate
analyze
apply
understand
remember
Justify a stand or decision appraise, argue, defend, judge, select, support, value, critique, weigh
Draw connections among ideas differentiate, organize, relate, compare, contrast, distinguish, examine, experiment, question, test
Use information in new situations execute, implement, solve, use, demonstrate, interpret, operate, schedule, sketch
Explain ideas or concepts classify, describe, discuss, explain, identify, locate, recognize, report, select, translate
Recall facts and basic concepts define, duplicate, list, memorize, repeat, state
Figure A Bloom’s taxonomy
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Introductionxxiv
About The Author Dr. Mark Ciampa is an Associate Professor of Information Systems in the Gordon Ford Col- lege of Business at Western Kentucky University in Bowling Green, Kentucky. Prior to this, he was an Associate Professor and served as the Director of Academic Computing at Vol- unteer State Community College in Gallatin, Tennessee for 20 years. Mark has worked in the IT industry as a computer consultant for businesses, government agencies, and educa- tional institutions. He has published over 20 articles in peer-reviewed journals and is also the author of 25 technology textbooks, including Security+ Guide to Network Security Fun- damentals 6e, CWNA Guide to Wireless LANs 3e, Guide to Wireless Communications, Security Awareness: Applying Practical Security in Your World 5e, and Networking BASICS. Dr. Ciampa holds a PhD in technology management with a specialization in digital communication systems from Indiana State University and has certifications in Security+ and HIT.
Acknowledgments A large team of dedicated professionals all contributed to the creation of this book. I am honored to be part of such an outstanding group of professionals. First, thanks go to Product Manager Kristin McNary for giving me the opportunity to work on this project and for providing her continual support, and to Associate Product Manager Amy Savino for answering all my questions. Also thanks to Senior Content Developer Michelle Ruelos Cannistraci who was very supportive, to Senior Content Product Manager Brooke Green- house who helped keep this fast-moving project on track, and to Dr. Andy Hurd who performed the technical reviews. To everyone on the team I extend my sincere thanks.
Special recognition again goes to the very best developmental editor, Deb Kaufmann, who is a true professional in every sense of the word. She made many helpful suggestions, found all my errors, watched every small detail, and even took on additional responsibilities so that this project could accelerate to be completed even before its deadlines. Without question, Deb is simply the very best there is.
And finally, I want to thank my wonderful wife, Susan. Her love, interest, support, and patience gave me what I needed to complete this project. I could not have written this book without her.
Dedication To Braden, Mia, Abby, Gabe, Cora, and Will.
To The User This book should be read in sequence, from beginning to end. Each chapter builds on those that precede it to provide a solid understanding of networking security funda- mentals. The book may also be used to prepare for CompTIA’s Security+ certification exam. Appendix A pinpoints the chapters and sections in which specific Security+ exam objectives are covered.
Hardware and Software Requirements Following are the hardware and software requirements needed to perform the end-of- chapter Hands-On Projects.
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Introduction
• Microsoft Windows 10 • An Internet connection and web browser • Microsoft Office
Free Downloadable Software Requirements Free, downloadable software is required for the Hands-On Projects in the following chapters.
Chapter 1: • Microsoft Safety Scanner • Oracle VirtualBox
Chapter 2: • Irongeek Thumbscrew • Refog Keylogger
Chapter 3: • OpenPuff Steganography • HashCalc • Jetico BestCrypt
Chapter 4: • Comodo Secure Email Certificate
Chapter 5: • Qualys Browser Check • GRC Securable
Chapter 6: • GlassWire • K9 Web Protection
Chapter 7: • VMware vCenter Converter • VMware Workstation Player
Chapter 8: • Xirrus Wi-Fi Inspector • Vistumbler
Chapter 9: • EICAR AntiVirus Test File
Chapter 10: • Prey Project • Bluestacks • Andy Android emulator • Lookout Security & Antivirus
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Introduction
Chapter 11: • Hashcat • HashcatGUI • BioID Facial Recognition Authenticator • GreyC-Keystroke • KeePass
Chapter 13: • Flexera Personal Software Inspector • Macrium Reflect • Nmap
Chapter 14: • Directory Snoop • Nmap
Chapter 15: • Browzar • UNetbootin • Linux Mint
References 1. Newman, Lilly, “Hack brief: Hackers breach a billion Yahoo accounts,” Wired, Dec. 14, 2016,
retrieved Jul. 3, 2017, https://www.wired.com/2016/12/yahoo-hack-billion-users/. 2. Chang, Ziv, Sison, Gilbert, Jocson, Jeanne, “Erebus resurfaces as Linux ransomware,”
TrendLabs Security Intelligence Blog, Jun. 19, 2017, retrieved Jul. 3, 2017, http://blog.trendmicro .com/trendlabs-security-intelligence/erebus-resurfaces-as-linux-ransomware/.
3. Corkery, Michael, and Goldstein, Matthew, “North Korea said to be target of inquiry over $81 million cyberheist,” New York Times, Mar. 22, 2017, retrieved Jul. 3, 2017, https://www. nytimes.com/2017/03/22/business/dealbook/north-korea-said-to-be-target-of-inquiry -over-81-million-cyberheist.html.
4. “Cybersecurity market report,” Cybersecurity Ventures, Q2 2017, retrieved Jul. 3, 2017, http://cybersecurityventures.com/cybersecurity-market-report/.
5. Nash, Kim, “Firms vie in hiring of cyber experts,” Wall Street Journal, May 15, 2017, retrieved Jul. 10, 2017, https://www.wsj.com/articles/for-many-companies-a- good-cyber-chief-is-hard-to-find-1494849600.
6. “Information security analysts: Occupational outlook handbook,” Bureau of Labor Statistics, Dec. 17, 2015, retrieved Jul. 3, 2017, https://www.bls.gov/ooh/computer-and-information -technology/information-security-analysts.htm.
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SECURITY AND ITS THREATS Chapter 1 Introduction to Security Chapter 2 Malware and Social Engineering Attacks
The security of the data and information contained on computers and digital devices today is threatened more than ever before, and the attacks are escalating every day. The chapters in this part introduce security and outline many of these threats. The chapters in later parts will give you the understanding and tools you need to defend against these attacks.
1
P A R T I
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INTRODUCTION TO SECURITY
After completing this chapter you should be able to do the following:
Explain the challenges of securing information
Define information security and explain why it is important
Identify the types of threat actors that are common today
Describe how to defend against attacks
CHAPTER 1
Today’s Attacks and Defenses
Almost everyone would assume that the director of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) would be well-versed in security procedures and would practice these to the letter of the law. This is because of the extreme danger that would result from a compromise or theft of highly classified information about active CIA agents or sensitive activities that are underway. The exposure of this information could result in a serious international incident or even the capture and torture of secret agents. However, a former CIA director who failed to follow basic security procedures put sensitive CIA information at risk.
Former CIA Director John Brennan had recently completed a sensitive 47-page SF-86 application to update his own top-secret government security clearance. These applications are used by the federal government for conducting a background check on individuals
3
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CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Security4
requesting such a security clearance. The forms contain a wealth of sensitive data about the person—criminal history, psychological records, any past drug use, information about the applicant’s interactions with foreign nationals—as well as information on their spouses, family members, and even friends. In the wrong hands this information could easily be used as blackmail material. Despite government restrictions Brennan routinely forwarded classified emails from his CIA email account to his less-secure personal AOL email account. One of the emails contained his own SF-86 application as an attachment, a serious breach of CIA security protocol.
An attacker who claimed to be under the age of 20 along with two friends decided to see if they could uncover classified CIA documents. The attacker first did a reverse lookup of Brennan’s public phone number to reveal that the phone was served by the carrier Verizon Wireless. The attacker called Verizon’s customer service number and pretended to be a Verizon technician. He said he had a customer lined up on a scheduled callback but was unable to access Verizon’s customer database on his own because “our tools were down.” So, could Verizon customer service give him the email address that was linked to Brennan’s phone number? The friendly and helpful Verizon customer service representative said, “Sure, no problem.” The pretender then asked if the Verizon representative would also give him the last four digits of the customer’s bank card that was on file. Once again, the representative was glad to help. By the time the call was over the pretender had Brennan’s Verizon account number, his four-digit personal identification number, the backup private mobile cellphone number on the account, his AOL email address, and the last four digits on his bank card.
The attacker now had the information that he needed. Knowing that Brennan had an AOL email account he next called AOL and said he was locked out of that account. The AOL representative asked him to verify his identity by answering two questions: the name and phone number associated with the account and the last four digits of the bank card on file— all of which had been provided by Verizon. The AOL representative then reset the password on the email account to a new password for the attacker.
The attacker then logged into Brennan’s AOL email account, where he read several dozen emails, some of which the director had forwarded from his government work email and that contained attachments. Among the attachments was Brennan’s own SF-86 application and a spreadsheet containing names and Social Security numbers of several U.S. intelligence officials. It is speculated that the spreadsheet might have been a list of guests who were visiting the White House when Brennan was the President’s counter- terrorism adviser. Another attachment was a letter from the U.S. Senate asking the CIA to halt its controversial use of torture tactics as interrogation techniques. The hacker posted screenshots of some of the documents on a Twitter account along with portions of the director’s AOL email contact list.
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Today our world is one in which citizens from all nations are compelled to continually protect themselves and their property from attacks by adversaries. Random shootings, suicide bombings, assassinations, and other types of physical violence occur almost daily around the world with no end in sight. To counteract this violence, new types of security defenses have been implemented. Passengers using public transportation are routinely searched. Borders are closely watched. Telephone calls are secretly monitored. These attacks and security defenses have significantly impacted how all of us work, play, and live.
These attacks are not just physical. One area that has also been an especially frequent target of attacks is information technology (IT). A seemingly endless array of attacks is directed at individuals, schools, businesses, and governments through desktop computers, laptops, and smartphones. Internet web servers must resist thousands of attacks every day. Identity theft using stolen electronic data has skyrocketed. An unprotected computer connected to the Internet may be infected in fewer than 60 seconds. Viruses, phishing, worms, and botnets—virtually unheard of just a few years ago—are now part of our everyday technology vocabulary.
The need to defend against these attacks directed toward our technology devices has created an element of IT that is now at the very core of the industry. Known as information security, it is focused on protecting the electronic information of enterprises and users.
Two broad categories of information security personnel are responsible for providing protection for an enterprise like a business or nonprofit organization. Information security managerial personnel administer and manage plans, policies, and people, while information security technical personnel are concerned with designing, configuring, installing, and maintaining technical security equipment. Within these two broad categories are four generally recognized security positions:
• Chief Information Security Officer (CISO). This person reports directly to the CIO (large enterprises may have more layers of management between this person and the CIO). This person is responsible for assessing, managing, and implementing security.
When Brennan realized that this information came from his AOL email account and that it had been compromised, he reset his AOL password. However, he failed to change the cell phone number and bank card number on file that was used to reset the password. Once the attacker discovered the password had been changed, he simply reset the password again, locking out Brennan. This back-and-forth of password resets was repeated three times between the attacker and the CIA director until he finally deleted the email account.
In one last act, the attacker called Brennan’s private mobile phone number that he had received from Verizon and told the former director of the CIA that he had been hacked. According to the attacker, the conversation was brief.1
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• Security manager. The security manager reports to the CISO and supervises technicians, administrators, and security staff. Typically, a security manager works on tasks identified by the CISO and resolves issues identified by technicians. This position requires an understanding of configuration and operation but not necessarily technical mastery.
• Security administrator. The security administrator has both technical knowledge and managerial skills. A security administrator manages daily operations of security technology, and may analyze and design security solutions within a specific entity as well as identifying users’ needs.
• Security technician. This position is generally an entry-level position for a person who has the necessary technical skills. Technicians provide technical support to configure security hardware, implement security software, and diagnose and troubleshoot problems.
Note
Individuals in these positions provide protection but are not the only employees responsible for security. It is the job of every employee—both IT and non-IT—to know and practice basic security defenses.
Note
The job outlook for security professionals is exceptionally strong. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) “Occupational Outlook Handbook,” the job outlook for information security analysts through 2024 is expected to grow by 18 percent, much faster than the average growth rate.2 One report states that by the end of the decade demand for security professionals worldwide will rise to 6 million, with a projected shortfall of 1.5 million unfilled positions.3
As attacks continue to escalate, the need for trained security personnel also increases. Unlike some IT positions, security is rarely offshored or outsourced: because security is such a critical element, security positions generally remain within the enterprise. In addition, security jobs typically do not involve “on-the-job training” where employees can learn as they go; the risk is simply too great.
Employment trends indicate that security personnel who also have a certification in security are in high demand. IT employers want and pay a premium for certified security personnel. An overwhelming majority of enterprises use the Computing
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Technology Industry Association (CompTIA) Security+ certification to verify security competency. Of the hundreds of security certifications currently available, Security+ is one of the most widely acclaimed. Because it is internationally recognized as validating a foundation level of security skills and knowledge, the Security+ certification has become the security baseline for today’s IT professionals.
Note
The value for an IT professional who holds a security certification is significant. The extra pay awarded to IT professions who hold an IT certification is 3.5 percent over someone who does not hold that certification. However, those who hold a security certification earn 8.7 percent more than their counterparts who do not have a security certification.4
The CompTIA Security+ certification is a vendor-neutral credential that requires passing the current certification exam SY0-501. A successful candidate has the knowledge and skills required to identify risks and participate in risk mitigation activities; provide infrastructure, application, operational and information security; apply security controls to maintain confidentiality, integrity, and availability; identify appropriate technologies and products; troubleshoot security events and incidents; and operate with an awareness of applicable policies, laws, and regulations. The CompTIA Security+ certification is aimed at an IT security professional who has a recommended background of a minimum of two years’ experience in IT administration with a focus on security.
Note
CompTIA Security+ meets the ISO 17024 standard and is approved by U.S. Department of Defense to fulfill Directive 8570.01-M requirements. It is also compliant with government regulations under the Federal Information Security Management Act (FISMA).
This chapter introduces the security fundamentals that form the basis of the Security+ certification. It begins by examining the current challenges in computer security. It then defines information security in detail and explores why it is important. Finally, the chapter looks at who is responsible for these attacks and the fundamental defenses against such attacks.
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CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Security8
Challenges of Securing Information Certification
1.6 Explain the impact associated with types of vulnerabilities.
A silver bullet refers to an action that provides an immediate solution to a problem by cutting through the complexity that surrounds it. Why shouldn’t there be such a silver bullet for securing computers? Why can’t users just install an improved hardware device or use a more secure version of software to stop attacks? Unfortunately, no single and simple solution exists for securing devices. This can be illustrated by looking at the different types of attacks that users face today as well as the reasons why these attacks are successful and the difficulties in defending against attacks.
Today’s Security Attacks Even though information security continues to rank as the number one concern of IT managers and tens of billions of dollars are spent annually on computer security, the number of successful attacks continues to increase. Consider the following examples of recent attacks:
• In order to demonstrate how easy it is to remotely control a car, a reporter drove a Jeep Cherokee outside St. Louis while two security researchers 10 miles away remotely connected to it and started manipulating its controls. The air conditioning on the Jeep suddenly switched to its maximum setting. Next, the car’s radio changed stations and the volume increased, even though the driver repeatedly tried to turn the volume down and change the station to no avail. Then the windshield wipers suddenly turned on and wiper fluid squirted out. While on an Interstate highway the driver pressed the accelerator but the Jeep instead started slowing down so that is was almost rammed from behind by a large truck. The researchers even remotely disabled the brakes so that the Jeep finally ended up in a ditch. The security researchers had taken advantage of the car’s Internet-connection feature that controls its entertainment and navigation systems, enables phone calls, and can be used to create a Wi-Fi hot spot. Due to a vulnerability, anyone could gain access remotely to the car’s control systems from virtually anywhere. This demonstration immediately caused the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) to recall 1.4 million vehicles to patch this vulnerability. This was the first time a car was recalled because of a security vulnerability.5
• A security researcher boarded a United Airlines flight from Denver to Syracuse with a stop in Chicago. On the second leg of the trip the researcher tweeted that he was probing the aircraft systems of his flight. The United Airlines’
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Cyber Security Intelligence Department, which monitors social media, saw the tweet, and alerted the FBI. According to the FBI, a special agent later examined the first-class cabin seat where the researcher was seated and found that he had tampered with the Seat Electronic Box (SEB), which is located under some passenger seats. This allowed him to connect his laptop to the in-flight entertainment (IFE) system via the SEB. Once he accessed the IFE he could then access other systems on the plane. The researcher claimed that he could have caused the airplane to change altitude after manipulating its software. United Airlines has permanently banned him from any future flights.6
• Yahoo announced that a then-record half a billion Yahoo accounts were compromised by attackers who gained unauthorized access to its web servers. Information stolen included names, email addresses, phone numbers, birth dates, answers to security questions, and passwords. Yahoo believed the breach occurred two years prior but had only recently discovered it. Two months later Yahoo announced that after an investigation into data provided by law enforcement officials and outside experts they determined that yet another previously undetected data breach compromised over 1 billion Yahoo user accounts three years earlier. It was not known how law enforcement officials came across this evidence, but security researchers speculate that it was discovered by someone who was watching for data on underground “dark web” markets that attackers use to buy and sell stolen data. If that was the case, then this data had been for sale for several years, and likely had been used by attackers in targeted attacks to gain access to other web accounts. Yahoo’s response to the attacks was, “We continuously enhance our safeguards and systems that detect and prevent unauthorized access to user accounts.”7
• It is not uncommon for attackers to install their malware onto a USB flash drive and then leave it in a parking lot, cafeteria, or another public place. An unsuspecting victim finds the drive and inserts it into her computer, either to discover the rightful owner or to snoop around its contents, suddenly finds her computer infected. Now the results can be even worse if the drive is a device called the USB Killer. Resembling a regular flash drive, the USB Killer, if inserted into any USB port, starts drawing power from the computer using a DC-to-DC converter. The flash drive stores the electricity in its capacitors, and when those reach a certain voltage level then USB Killer sends all the stored electricity back to the computer in a single burst. The result is that the computer is destroyed, typically burning up the motherboard. And if the computer is not destroyed on the first attempt, USB Killer will keep charging and sending the electricity over and over until the computer is “fried.”8
• The AVS WINVote voting machine passed state voting system standards and has been used in Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Mississippi. However, the security
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on the machine was alarmingly weak. Easily guessed passwords like admin, abcde, and shoup were used to lock down its administrator account and wireless network settings, as well as the voting results database. Because these passwords were hard-coded into the machines they could not be changed. The wireless network settings used to transmit results relied upon a configuration that could easily be broken in fewer than 10 minutes. These tabulating machines lacked even basic security like a firewall and exposed several Internet openings to attackers. In addition, WINVote ran a version of an operating system that had not received a security update since 2004.9
• The educational toy maker VTech revealed that millions of accounts containing information on children were stolen. Approximately 11.6 million accounts were compromised in an attack that included information on 6.4 million children. The data on children that was stolen included name, gender, birth date, profile photo, and progress log. As with many recent breaches, VTech did not know that it had been a victim until it was approached by a security research firm that had discovered the attack.10
• The European Space Agency (ESA) is an intergovernmental organization made up of 22 countries and states that explores space. They are involved in the International Space Station and launch unmanned space exploration missions to different planets through their spaceport in French Guiana. A group of attackers stole data from the ESA, including information on 8107 of its users, and then posted it online. Even though the ESA information regarding space exploration needed to be kept secure so that it was not altered, the passwords used by ESA scientists were alarmingly weak. Of the passwords exposed, 39 percent (or 3191) were only three characters long, such as 410, 832, 808, and 281. Only 22 total users had a strong password of a recommended length of 20 characters.11
• The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) reported that through its online Get Transcript program, used by taxpayers who need a transcript to view tax account transactions or line-by-line tax return information for a specific tax year, attackers were able to steal 104,000 tax transcripts while an additional 100,000 attempts were unsuccessful. The attacks were made possible because in order to access the information online the inquirer had only to prove their identity by entering personal information (Social Security number, date of birth, tax filing status, and street address) and out-of-wallet information (such as the amount of a current car payment). Both types of information can be easily obtained online from a variety of sources. Once attackers had the information they began filing fake tax returns under the victim’s name and stealing their tax refund. The IRS later revealed that the situation was much worse than first reported: up to 390,000 individuals had their tax information stolen out of 600,000 attempts.12
• Hyatt Hotels Corporation reported that cybercriminals successfully attacked restaurants, front desks, spas, and parking facilities at 250 of their hotels
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worldwide over a four-month period. The attacker’s software was installed on the Hyatt computers and could capture payment card details like cardholder names, card numbers, expiration dates, and verification codes when the cards were swiped. Other hotel chains have likewise been compromised. Security researchers speculate that attackers are keenly interested in attacking the hospitality industry. Hotels today are rarely owned by the big companies themselves, but instead the hotels are owned by separate investors with the hotel chains simply collecting management and franchise fees. This creates uneven security at the different hotels, and even within the hotels: hotel-based restaurants, spas, and gift shops are often owned and managed by third-party companies. While the hotel brands may require property owners to follow specific standards—such as using pillowcases of 100 percent Egyptian cotton with a 1500 thread count—they often do not have the same requirements for security. There is even speculation that the hotel brands are hesitant to mandate strict security guidelines, because if a hotel is attacked then the hotel brand may be legally liable. Another reason for the popularity of hacking hotels is that hotel brands cater to high-end, frequent business travelers. These customers often make charges on their trips using a corporate credit card and can be slower to spot unusual transactions compared to using their personal card. And many hotels keep multiple cards on file for their frequent guests. This makes it easy to not only check in and out, but also allows guests to use their door key card to make purchases instead of giving a specific credit card. Having multiple instances of credit card data scattered throughout the hotel makes for multiple targets for attackers.13
• Apple recently announced in one month a long list of security update patches. One of its operating systems patched 11 security vulnerabilities, most of them rated as critical while several vulnerabilities were ranked as serious. Another of its operating systems fixed 18 security flaws, with 13 of them related to its web browser. Apple also announced that it will pay those who uncover critical vulnerabilities found in the latest version of iOS and the newest iPhones. The rewards range up to $200,000 for critical flaws discovered in its hardware and software.14
Note
Like many software and hardware vendors, Apple maintains a lengthy online list of security vulnerabilities that have been corrected. Apple’s list going back to 2003 and earlier is at support.apple.com/en-us/HT201222.
The number of security breaches that have exposed users’ digital data to attackers continues to rise. From 2005 through early 2017, over 907 million electronic data records in the United States had been breached, exposing to attackers a range of
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personal electronic data, such as addresses, Social Security numbers, health records, and credit card numbers. Table 1-1 lists some recent major security breaches, according to the Privacy Rights Clearinghouse.15
Organization Description of security breach Number of identities exposed
Michigan State University, MI
A database was compromised that contained names, Social Security numbers, MSU identification numbers, and date of birth of current and former students and employees.
Potentially 400,000
Poway Unified School District, CA
The district inadvertently sent information to unauthorized recipients that included children’s names, nicknames, addresses, phone numbers, hearing and vision exam results, dates of birth, language fluency, academic test results, and occupation of parents.
70,000
University of Central Florida, FL
Unauthorized access to the university’s system exposed financial records, medical records, grades, and Social Security numbers.
63,000
Southern New Hampshire University, NH
Due to a third-party vendor’s configuration error a database that contained student information—student names, email addresses, and IDs, course name, course selection, assignment details and assignment score, instructor names and email addresses—was exposed.
140,000
Quest Diagnostics, NJ
An unknown error resulted in the exposure of the name, date of birth, lab results, and telephone numbers of customers.
34,000
Anchor Loans, CA A publicly exposed database revealed customers’ name, address, email address, Social Security number, check routing number, bank account number, bank statement data, birth date, and birth place.
Unknown
United States Navy Career Waypoints Database, DC
A re-enlistment approval database was stolen from a contractor’s laptop, which included the names and Social Security numbers of 134,386 current and former sailors.
134,000
Internal Revenue Service, DC
IRS employees sent unencrypted emails that contained different taxpayers’ personally identifiable information.
Potentially 28 million
Selected security breaches involving personal information in a one-month period
Table 1-1
Reasons for Successful Attacks Why do attacks like these continue to be successful, despite all the efforts to stop them? There are several reasons:
• Widespread vulnerabilities. Because vulnerabilities are so common in hardware and software, attackers can virtually choose which vulnerability to exploit for
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an attack. And because of the sheer number of vulnerabilities it is difficult to identify and correct all of them. This is made even worse by the fact that not all hardware and software can be corrected once a vulnerability is uncovered. Some devices, particularly consumer devices, have no support from the company that made the device (called lack of vendor support). This means that no effort is made to fix any vulnerabilities that are found. Other systems have no capabilities to receive security updates when a vulnerability is found. And some systems are so old (called end-of-life systems) that vendors have dropped all support for security updates, or else charge an exorbitant fee to provide updates.
Note
Microsoft provides two types of security support for its software. It offers mainstream support for a minimum of five years from the date of a product’s general availability and extended support for an additional five years. For example, Windows 10, which was released in July 2015, will have mainstream support until October 2020 and extended support until October 2025. After this time, Microsoft will no longer provide security updates, automatic fixes, updates, or online technical assistance.
• Configuration issues. Hardware and software that does have security features often are not properly configured, thus allowing attacks to be successful. Almost all devices come with out-of-the-box configuration settings, or default configurations. These are generally simple configurations that are intended to be changed by the user; however, often they are left in place. Some devices have weak configuration options that provide limited security choices. Users who incorrectly configure devices, known as a misconfiguration, find that these errors allow the device to be compromised. Misconfiguration is commonly seen in improperly configured accounts that are set up for a user that provide more access than is necessary, such as providing total access over the entire device when the access should be more limited.
• Poorly designed software. Successful attacks are often the result of software that is poorly designed and has architecture/design weaknesses. Software that allows the user to enter data but has improper input handling features does not filter or validate user input to prevent a malicious action. For example, a webpage on a web server with improper input handling that asks for the user’s email address could allow an attacker to instead enter a direct command that the server would then execute. Other software may not properly trap an error condition and thus provide an attacker with underlying access to the system. This is known as improper error handling. Suppose an attacker enters a string of characters that is much longer than expected. Because the software has not been designed for this event the program
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could crash or suddenly halt its execution and then display an underlying operating system prompt, giving an attacker access to the computer. A race condition in software occurs when two concurrent threads of execution access a shared resource simultaneously, resulting in unintended consequences. For example, in a program with two threads that have access to the same location in memory, Thread #1 stores the value A in that memory location. But since Thread #2 is also executing it may overwrite the same memory location with the value Z. When Thread #1 retrieves the value stored it is then given Thread #2’s Z instead of its own A.
• Hardware limitations. Hardware with limited resources (CPU, memory, file system storage, etc.) could be exploited by an attacker who intentionally tries to consume more resources than intended. This might cause the system to become slow or even unable to respond to other users, thus prevent valid users from accessing the device. This is called resource exhaustion.
• Enterprise-based issues. Often attacks are successful not because of compromised technology but because of the manipulation of processes that an enterprise performs. Vulnerable business processes, also called business process compromise (BPC), occurs when an attacker manipulates commonplace actions that are routinely performed. For example, late on a Friday afternoon an attacker in India could make a request to New York to have money transferred to Taiwan. Because these transactions are in different countries, time zones, and even on different days, it can be difficult for this process to be quickly verified. Another problem in the enterprise is the rapid acquisition and deployment of technology devices without proper documentation. This results in undocumented assets, or devices that are not formally identified, and results in system sprawl, or the widespread proliferation of devices across the enterprise. Often servers, computers, and other devices are purchased and quickly installed without adequate forethought regarding how they can be protected.
Difficulties in Defending Against Attacks The challenge of keeping computers secure has never been greater, not only because of continual attacks but also because of the difficulties faced in defending against these attacks. These difficulties include the following:
• Universally connected devices. Today virtually every technology device—not only traditional computers but even programmable thermostats and light bulbs—is connected to the Internet. Although this provides enormous benefits, it also makes it easy for an attacker halfway around world to silently launch an attack against a connected device.
• Increased speed of attacks. With modern tools at their disposal, attackers can quickly scan millions of devices to find weaknesses and launch attacks with unprecedented speed. Most attack tools initiate new attacks without any human participation, thus increasing the speed at which systems are attacked.
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• Greater sophistication of attacks. Attacks are becoming more complex, making it more difficult to detect and defend against them. Many attackers use common protocols to distribute their attacks, making it more difficult to distinguish an attack from legitimate traffic. Other attack tools vary their behavior so the same attack appears differently each time, further complicating detection.
• Availability and simplicity of attack tools. At one time an attacker needed to have an extensive technical knowledge of networks and computers as well as the ability to write a program to generate an attack. Today that is no longer the case. Modern software attack tools do not require sophisticated knowledge on the part of the attacker. In fact, many of the tools, such as the Kali Linux interface shown in Figure 1-1, have a graphical user interface (GUI) that allows the user to easily select options from a menu. These tools are generally freely available.
Figure 1-1 Menu of attack tools Source: Kali Linux
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In addition, attackers who create attacks tools will often then sell these tools to other attackers.
• Faster detection of vulnerabilities. Weaknesses in hardware and software can be more quickly uncovered and exploited with new software tools and techniques. Often an attacker may find a vulnerability and initiate an attack taking advantage of it even before users or security professionals are aware of the vulnerability. This is called a zero day attack, since there are no days of warning ahead of this new threat.
• Delays in security updating. Hardware and software vendors are overwhelmed trying to keep pace with updating their products against attacks. One antivirus software security institute receives more than 390,000 submissions of potential malware each day.16 At this rate the antivirus vendors would have to create and distribute updates every few seconds to keep users fully protected. This delay in distributing security updates adds to the difficulties in defending against attacks.
• Weak security update distribution. Vendors of mainstream products, such as Microsoft, Apple, and Adobe, have a system for notifying users of security updates for their products and distributing them on a regular basis, but few other software vendors have invested in these costly distribution systems. Users are generally unaware that a security update even exists for a product because there is no reliable means for the vendor to alert the user. Also, these vendors often do not create small security updates that patch the existing software; instead, they fix the problem in an entirely new version of the software—and then require the user to pay for the updated version that contains the patch.
Note
Smartphones, unlike computers and laptops, do not give the owner of the device the ability to download security updates. Instead, these must be sent out from the wireless carriers. Many carriers do not provide security updates on a timely basis, if at all.
• Distributed attacks. Attackers can use millions of computers or devices under their control in an attack against a single server or network. This “many against one” approach makes it virtually impossible to stop an attack by identifying and blocking a single source.
• Use of personal devices. Many enterprises allow employees to use and connect their personal devices to the company’s network. This has made it difficult for IT departments to provide adequate security for an almost endless array of devices that they do not own.
• User confusion. Increasingly, users are called upon to make difficult security decisions regarding their computer systems, sometimes with little or no
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What Is Information Security? Certification
5.3 Explain risk management processes and concepts.
Reason Description
Universally connected devices Attackers from anywhere in the world can send attacks.
Increased speed of attacks Attackers can launch attacks against millions of computers within minutes.
Greater sophistication of attacks Attack tools vary their behavior so the same attack appears differently each time.
Availability and simplicity of attack tools
Attacks are no longer limited to highly skilled attackers.
Faster detection of vulnerabilities Attackers can discover security holes in hardware or software more quickly.
Delays in security updating Vendors are overwhelmed trying to keep pace updating their products against the latest attacks.
Weak security update distribution Many software products lack a means to distribute security updates in a timely fashion.
Distributed attacks Attackers use thousands of computers in an attack against a single computer or network.
Use of personal devices Enterprises are having difficulty providing security for a wide array of personal devices.
User confusion Users are required to make difficult security decisions with little or no instruction.
Difficulties in defending against attacks Table 1-2
Before it is possible to defend against attacks, it is necessary to understand exactly what security is and how it relates to information security. Also, knowing the terminology used can be helpful when creating defenses for computers. Understanding the importance of information security is also critical.
information to guide them. It is not uncommon for a user to be asked security questions such as Do you want to view only the content that was delivered securely? or Is it safe to quarantine this attachment? or Do you want to install this add-on? With little or no direction, these untrained users are inclined to provide answers to questions without understanding the security risks.
Table 1-2 summarizes the reasons why it is difficult to defend against today’s attacks.
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Understanding Security What is security? The word comes from the Latin, meaning free from care. Sometimes security is defined as the state of being free from danger, which is the goal of security. It is also defined as the measures taken to ensure safety, which is the process of security. Since complete security can never be fully achieved, the focus of security is more often on the process instead of the goal. In this light, security can be defined as the necessary steps to protect from harm.
It is important to understand the relationship between security and convenience. As security is increased, convenience is often decreased. That is, the more secure something is, the less convenient it may become to use (security is said to be inversely proportional to convenience). This is illustrated in Figure 1-2. Consider a typical house. A homeowner might install an automated alarm system that requires a code to be entered on a keypad within 30 seconds of entering the house. Although the alarm system makes the house more secure, it is less convenient than just walking into the house. Thus, security may be understood as sacrificing convenience for safety.
Figure 1-2 Relationship of security to convenience
Security
Convenience
Defining Information Security Several terms are used when describing security in an IT environment: computer security, IT security, cybersecurity, and information assurance, to name just a few. Whereas each has its share of proponents and slight variations of meanings, the term information security may be the most appropriate because it is the broadest: protecting information from harm. Information security is often used to describe the tasks of securing information that is in a digital format, whether it be manipulated by a microprocessor (such as on a personal computer), preserved on a storage device (like a hard drive or USB flash drive), or transmitted over a network (such as a local area network or the Internet).
Information security cannot completely prevent successful attacks or guarantee that a system is totally secure, just as the security measures taken for a house can
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never guarantee complete safety from a burglar. The goal of information security is to ensure that protective measures are properly implemented to ward off attacks and prevent the total collapse of the system when a successful attack does occur. Thus, information security is first protection.
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