Difference matters allen

Difference Matters

Second Edition

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Difference Matters

COMMUNICATING SOCIAL IDENTITY

Second Edition

Brenda J. Allen University of Colorado at Denver

WAVELAND

PRESS, INC. Long Grove, Illinois

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For information about this book, contact: Waveland Press, Inc. 4180 IL Route 83, Suite 101 Long Grove, IL 60047-9580 (847) 634-0081 info@waveland.com www.waveland.com

Copyright © 2011, 2004 by Waveland Press, Inc.

10-digit ISBN 1-57766-673-9 13-digit ISBN 978-1-57766-673-8

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

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• • • • • • • • • • • • • To my students,

who are also my teachers

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Contents

Preface xi

1 Difference and Other Important Matters 1 Difference Matters 4

Why Difference Matters 5 Obstacles to Valuing Difference 6

Communicating Social Identity 10 Communicating 10 Social Identity 11

About Me 16 Overview of the Book 18 Reflection Matters 20

2 Power Matters 23 Conceptions of Power 24

Power and Knowledge 27 Rules of Right 27

Control in Organizations 28 Concertive Control 29 Hegemony 30 Ideology 32

Communicating Power 35 Language 35 Everyday Talk 35 Physical Appearance 36

Conclusion 37 Reflection Matters 38

3 Gender Matters 41 What Is Gender? 42 Why Gender Matters 43

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Constructing Gender in the United States 43 Historical Overview of Ideological Perspectives 43 Challenging Traditional Messages 45

Gender and Divisions of Labor 47 The Role of Education 50 Power Dynamics and Gender 52

Language 52 Communication Differences 54

Communicating Gender in Organizations 56 Emotion(al) Labor 59 Transgender Issues 60

Conclusion 61 Reflection Matters 62

4 Race Matters 65 What Is Race? 66 Why Race Matters 67 Constructing Race in the United States 70 Race and Labor 78 Communicating Race 83

Everyday Interactions 83 Personnel Procedures 87

Conclusion 90 Reflection Matters 91

5 Social Class Matters 93 What Is Social Class? 95 Why Social Class Matters 98 Constructing Social Class in the United States 100

The Myth of a Classless Society 102 Social Class and Labor 103

Communicating Social Class 105 Educational Settings 105 Communicating Class at Work 108

Conclusion 111 Reflection Matters 112

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Contents ix

6 Sexuality Matters 115 What Is Sexuality and Why Does It Matter? 116 Constructing Sexuality in the United States 118

Colonial Views on Sexuality 118 Victorian Era–Early 1900s 119 Sexual Revolutions 120 Concepts of Homosexuality 122 Sexual Orientation 124

Acquiring Information about Sexuality 128 Communicating Sexuality in Organizations 128

Expressing Sexuality at Work 129 Romantic Relationships 131 Sexual Harassment 132

Conclusion 133 Reflection Matters 134

7 Ability Matters 137 Why Ability Matters 138 What Is Disability? 141 Constructing Disability in the United States 142

Industrial Revolution 143 Eugenics 144 Medical Model of Disability 145 Social Model of Disability 146 Disability Movements 146

Communicating Ability 149 Interability Interactions at Work 156 Promising Practices 157 Conclusion 158 Reflection Matters 159

8 Age Matters 161 What Is Age? 162 Why Age Matters 163 Constructing Age in the United States 166

Concepts and Attitudes about Old Age 166 Concepts and Attitudes about Children 167 Birth Cohorts 169 Does Aging Mean Decline? 170

Communicating Age 171 Intergenerational Communication 171

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Communicating Age in Organizations 176 Hierarchies and Age Roles 176 Age Discrimination 177 Positive Aspects of Intergenerational Mixing 178

Conclusion 179 Reflection Matters 180

9 Communicating Social Identity 183 Difference Matters 183 Social Identities Are Social Constructions 184 Power Matters 184 Communication Rules! 185 Recommendations 185

Be Mindful 186 Be Proactive 189 Fill Your Communication Toolbox 194

Conclusion 197 Reflection Matters 197

Chapter Endnotes 199 Index 223

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Preface

Difference Matters: Communicating Social Identity describes and analyzes six categories of social identity that currently matter in the United States: gender, race, social class, ability, sexuality, and age. I explain how and why differ- ences within and between those categories matter. Throughout the book, I stress how communication helps constitute social identity, and I explore rela- tionships between social identity, discourse, and power dynamics. To illus- trate impacts of social identity issues, I offer overviews of historical developments. I also focus on various contexts, with an emphasis on organi- zations because they are prime sites of social identity construction.

Difference Matters is appropriate for communication courses or training programs that cover any or all of the six social identity categories that I explore, and for any curricula that delve into topics such as diversity, multicul- turalism, and intercultural communication. Because I highlight how humans enact difference within organizations, the book is especially appropriate for organizational communication courses at undergraduate and graduate levels. However, many other disciplines also can benefit from perspectives on com- municating difference, including business administration, human resources management, organizational behavior, education, sociology, ethnic studies, gender studies, media studies, disability studies, industrial psychology, health behavioral sciences, political science, and social psychology.

While developing this text, I considered my experiences with students who struggled with learning about theories, and who wanted to cut to the chase to learn information and skills for their everyday lives. I also remem- bered that students tend to prefer texts that are comprehensive, but easy to understand, and that make connections to the real world. This book honors those concerns while also covering theoretical perspectives that matter to most instructors. I employ an interactive style and share stories from my life to clar- ify some of my points. I hope that the content and approach of this book meet the needs of students and instructors alike. To assist instructors and enhance students’ learning, I have developed a Web site that contains ideas and resources for teaching difference matters: http://www.differencematters.info.

For this second edition of Difference Matters, I have updated statistics, incorporated recent research, and cited more examples of intersections of

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xii Preface

social identities. I also have provided new spotlights on media. In addition, I include tools throughout the text to help you to apply what you’re learning.

Acknowledgments This project was underway for several years, well before I realized that I

should write a book on difference matters. During that time, many people offered invaluable inspiration, guidance, and support. Although I never can adequately express my gratitude, I wish to acknowledge their contributions.

Countless students (who also were/are my teachers) were fundamental to the first edition of this book. Among those, I especially recognize Heidi Burgett, Margarita Olivas, Karen Ashcraft, and Jennifer Simpson for exhibit- ing passion and commitment to learning and teaching difference matters. They also gave me invaluable feedback as the book project unfolded. In addi- tion, research assistant Aaron Dimock located a wealth of literature that extended my scope of knowledge about social identity groups.

Many of my colleague-friends read and responded to portions of the manuscript and/or directed me to important information sources. Their input helped to deepen and strengthen the book. A million thanks to Patrice Buzzanell, Karen Tracy, George Cheney, Mark Orbe, Terry Rowden, Jim Barker, Jim Cohn, Dawn Braithwaite, Diane Grimes, Sally Thee, Omar Swartz, Phil Tompkins, Patrick Johnson, Deborah Burgess, Ralph Smith, Brett Anderson, Kurt Nordstrom, and Anna Spradlin.

A special thanks to Deborah Borisoff at New York University for extend- ing the first invitation for me to present a guest talk about difference matters. I also am grateful to other departments and universities that invited me to present my work, including Arizona State University, Western Michigan Uni- versity, the University of Utah, Wooster College, Colorado State University- Pueblo, Loyola Marymount University, Creighton University, the University of Texas-Austin, St. Edward’s University, and my alma mater, Howard University.