Digital wwnorton little seagull 3

Final Essay

Write a researched argument about any one issue discussed in Chapter Seventeen: Is College the Best Option? This final research essay allows you to explore your argument about the impact of pursuing a post-secondary education (i.e. career/vocational training versus a college degree, Liberal Arts major versus STEM major, the return on investment of post-secondary education, job market for college graduates or vocational school graduates in a specific field), but you are also taking into account what you have learned about this issue from the essays in Chapter Seventeen and your scholarly research findings. For this research essay, you are required to integrate arguments/information from at least two essays from Chapter Seventeen and at least two reliable scholarly/professional sources (i.e. journal articles; web sources approved by instructor) about your argument.

Begin by showing the conversation your paper is responding to (“they say”), have a clear statement of your own argument (“I say”), include quotes and incorporate them smoothly, point out possible objections to your argument, use appropriate transitions, and explain why the issue matters. You might also consider adding meta-commentary and finding ways to include your own voice, even though this is academic writing.

In your introduction, identify and discuss the topic you've chosen that is related to the benefits or disadvantages of college. This discussion in your introduction must include the viewpoints about the topic; that is, identify your side of the argument and the opposing side of the argument. Conclude your introduction paragraph with your thesis statement, which will state your main idea. Your thesis statement should answer the following question: what is your argument about the topic you’ve chosen about the benefits or disadvantages of college?

In six to ten body paragraphs, you will present and defend your argument, present and explain your opposition (i.e. counterargument/“naysayer”), and provide a rebuttal to disprove the opposition’s viewpoints. Remember: Your final research essay must reference at least two articles from “Chapter Seventeen: Is College the Best Option?” and at least two reliable scholarly/professional sources (i.e. journal articles or web sources approved by the instructor) related to your topic. In terms of organizing your body paragraphs, think of your final research essay as a written debate. Use the first two or three body paragraphs to make your argument (i.e. prove your thesis statement) with evidence from your sources. Then transition to one or two more body paragraphs in which you acknowledge and explain your opposition’s point of view (i.e. counterargument/naysayer); again, you will be referencing ideas from your sources. For more information about counterarguments/naysayers, refer to “Chapter 6: Skeptics May Object” of the textbook. After discussing the naysayer, use the last one or two body paragraphs to strengthen your argument while weakening your opposition’s perspective by rebutting, or arguing against, the opposition’s point of view; that is, you will be pointing out the flaws in the opposition’s reasoning.

Your conclusion (one brief paragraph, approximately five sentences) will include a reiteration of your argument (thesis statement), summary of the key points of your argument and your opposition, and an explanation of the importance of your position on the issue you’ve chosen regarding the benefits and/or disadvantages of college. Remember: Do not include new points, ideas, or evidence in the conclusion paragraph. If you did not present information in your body paragraphs, then you should not present that information as you wrap up your essay.

Include an MLA-style Works Cited page on a new page after your conclusion.

Essay 1 : https://www.brookings.edu/research/where-is-the-best-place-to-invest-102000-in-stocks-bonds-or-a-college-degree/

Essay 2 :https://drive.google.com/file/d/14d0L-LirvtroYle1WZo3lzXWhJ_UkWBl/view

Essay 3 : https://essay.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/09/26/two-years-are-better-than-four/

Essay 4 : in the attached doc (should everyone go to college)

The Little Seagull Handbook

Richard Bullock WRIGHT STATE UNIVERSITY

Michal Brody SONOMA STATE UNIVERSITY

Francine Weinberg

B

WRITE

RESEARCH

EDIT

T H I R D E D I T I O N

W. W. Norton & Company New York • London

W. W. Norton & Company has been independent since its founding in 1923, when William Warder Norton and Mary D. Herter Norton first published lectures delivered at the People’s Institute, the adult education division of New York City’s Cooper Union. The firm soon expanded its program beyond the Institute, publishing books by celebrated academics from America and abroad. By mid-century, the two major pillars of our publishing program — trade books and college texts — were firmly established. In the 1950s, the Norton family transferred control of the com- pany to its employees, and today — with a staff of 400 and a comparable number of trade, college, and professional titles published each year — W. W. Norton stands as the largest and oldest publishing house owned wholly by its employees.

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 by W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.

All rights reserved Printed in Canada

Editor: Marilyn Moller Associate editor: Tenyia Lee Assistant editor: Claire Wallace Project editor: Christine D’Antonio Manuscript editors: Beth Burke, Rebecca Caine, and Connie Parks Managing editor, College: Marian Johnson Managing editor, College Digital Media: Kim Yi Production manager: Ashley Horna Media editor: Erica Wnek Media project editor: Cooper Wilhelm Media editorial assistant: Ava Bramson Marketing manager, Composition: Megan DeBono Zwilling Design director: Rubina Yeh Text design: Lisa Buckley / Anna Palchik Photo editor: Nelson Colón Photo research: Dena Digilio Betz Page layout: Carole Desnoes Composition: Jouve Manufacturing: TransContinental

ISBN: 978-0-393-60263-0

W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10110 www.wwnorton.com

W. W. Norton & Company Ltd., 15 Carlisle Street, London W1D 3BS

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0

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Preface

This book began as an attempt to create a small handbook that would provide help with the specific kinds of writing college students are assigned to do, and to make it as user- friendly as possible. It’s been more successful than we ever imagined possible, and much to our surprise, it’s been adopted by many instructors who had been using much larger handbooks. These teachers tell us they like it because it’s got “just enough detail,” it’s easy to use, and it costs less than half what their former books cost. From our own experience as teachers, we’ve seen how much students prefer smaller books, and so, to paraphrase Elmore Leon- ard, we’ve tried to give the information college writers need — and to leave out the details they skip. We’ve also seen how important it is that a handbook be easy to use. To that end, the book is organized around the familiar categories of writing, researching, and editing, and it includes menus, directories, a glossary / index, and more to help students find the help they need. We’re pleased now to offer a third edition, with a new section on “Editing the Errors That Matter,” an updated MLA chapter that covers the new style introduced in 2016, two new genre chapters, and new coverage of the use of “singular they.”

Highlights

Help with the kinds of writing students are assigned — argu- ments, analyses, reports, narratives, and more. Brief chapters cover nine common genres, with models demonstrating each genre on the companion website.

Easy to use. Menus, directories, a glossary / index, and color- coded parts help students find the information they need. And a simple three- part organization — Write, Research, Edit — makes it easy for them to know where to look. Even the cover flaps are useful, with an Index of guidelines for Editing the Errors That Matter on the front flap and a Checklist for Revising and Editing on the back.

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Just enough detail, but with color- coded links that refer students to the glossary / index for more information if they need it.

User- friendly documentation guidelines for MLA, APA, Chicago, and CSE styles. Documentation directories lead students to the examples they need, color- coded templates show what information to include, and documentation maps show where to find the required detail. Model papers demonstrate each style, with a complete MLA paper and brief examples of the other three styles in the book and complete papers on the companion website.

A full chapter on paragraphs, a subject that other pocket hand- books cover in much less detail. But students write in paragraphs — and they’ll find the help they need in this handbook. [W-4]

Customizable. We’ve created templates to make it easy for you to add your own materials to the book—course outcomes statements, syllabi, school policies, student writing, and so on. And you can even customize the title and cover to replace our little seagull with your school mascot. We’ve already published a Little Duck Handbook, a Little Bobcat, Little Eagle, Little Aztec, and three Little Tigers—and we’ll be happy to do one for your school.

A full chapter on Englishes, from standard edited English to the varieties spoken in specific regions, communities, and academic contexts. [L-10]

Uniquely helpful guidance for students whose first language isn’t English, including chapters on idioms [L-3] and prepositions [L-5] and additional detail on articles, phrasal verbs, and modal verbs. The companion website and mobile version include links to glossa- ries of idioms and phrasal verbs, and the Coursepack includes exer- cises and handouts.

What’s New?

A new section on “Editing the Errors That Matter.” Covering 14 errors that teachers identified as ones that undermine a writer’s

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authority and weaken an argument, these chapters explain why each of these errors matters, describe how to spot them in a draft, and walk students through some ways of editing them out [E-1 to E-6].

New MLA style. The MLA chapter has been updated to explain the new core principles introduced in 2016 and to provide color-coded templates and models for documenting the kinds of sources college students most often cite [MLA-a to MLA-d].

Two new genre chapters. We’ve added new chapters on “Propos- als” and “Reflections,” two genres that students are often assigned or expected to write [W-12 and W-13].

New guidance on the use of “singular they.” We’ve tried to help students navigate the use of pronouns in academic writing in light of evolving conventions and notions of gender. You’ll find this new material in the chapter on “Pronouns” [S-6], of course, as well as in the chapters on “Words That Build Common Ground” [L-9] and “Editing Pronouns” [E-2].

What’s Online?

The entire handbook is available as as ebook — and is free when packaged with the print book (and comes with four years of access). Allows students to highlight, bookmark, and take notes — and includes exercises and links to full glossaries of idioms and phrasal verbs. Access it at digital.wwnorton.com/littleseagull3.

A companion website includes model papers, exercises and quiz- zes, links to glossaries of idioms and phrasal verbs, and more. Access the site at digital.wwnorton.com/littleseagull3.

InQuizitive for Writers, an adaptive learning tool that provides students with personalized practice editing out common errors— comma splices, pronoun reference, mixed constructions, and more, including all the topics found in the new handbook chapters on “Editing the Errors That Matter.” Personalized feedback and links to

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the Little Seagull ebook help students learn to edit what they write, and gamelike elements even make working with grammar fun. InQuizitive can be used to diagnose issues students need to practice or assigned to provide practice with particular issues you identify in your students’ writing.

A Norton Coursepack is available for most learning management systems, including Blackboard, Canvas, Moodle, Sakai, and D2L, pro- viding diagnostic quizzes; exercises; handouts for students whose primary language isn’t English; documentation guidelines; and more. Because it all works within your existing LMS, there’s no new system to learn. And it’s yours to customize and edit — you choose the con- tent you want to use, for your course. No extra costs, no registration codes. Access the coursepack at wwnorton.com/instructors.

norton/write. A free-and-open site with plagiarism tutorials, writing tips, model student writing, documentation guidelines, exercises — and more. Access the site at digital.wwnorton.com/littleseagull3.

Acknowledgments

It takes a big team to publish even a small handbook. We have benefitted from the astute comments and suggestions by a num- ber of reviewers: Gillian Andersen, Eastern New Mexico University; Evan Balkan, Community College of Baltimore County–Catonsville; Jason Barr, Blue Ridge Community College; Josh M. Beach, Univer- sity of Texas at San Antonio; Carole Chapman, Ivy Tech Community College–Southwest; Thomas Chester, Ivy Tech Community College– Marion; Jesseca Cornelson, Alabama State University; Michael Cripps, University of New England; Syble Davis, Houston Community Col- lege; Laura Ann Dearing, Jefferson Community and Technical College; Darren DeFrain, Wichita State University; Joann K. Deiudicibus, State University of New York at New Paltz; Christie Diep, Cypress College; Allison Dieppa, Florida Gulf Coast University; Clark Draney, College of Southern Idaho; Brenna Dugan, Owens Community College; Megan Egbert, Utah State University; Megan Fulwiler, The College of Saint

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Rose; Jonathan C. Glance, Mercer University; Carey Goyette, Clin- ton Community College; Opal Greer, Eastern New Mexico Univer- sity; Kendra Griffin, Aims Community College; Clinton Hale, Blinn College; Ann C. Hall, Ohio Dominican University; Joel B. Henderson, Chattanooga State Community College; Robert Hurd, Anne Arundel Community College; Geri (Geraldine) Jacobs, Jackson College; Anne Marie Johnson, Utah State University; Jo Johnson, Ivy Tech Commu- nity College–Fort Wayne; Debra S. Knutson, Shawnee State Univer- sity; Brian Leingang, Edison State Community College; Joseph Lemak, Elmira College; Matthew Masucci, State College of Florida–Venice; L. Adam Mekler, Morgan State University; Lora Meredith, Western Wyoming Community College; Tracy Ann Morse, East Carolina Uni- versity; Amy Nawrocki, University of Bridgeport; Eden Pearson, Des Moines Area Community College; Heather Pristash, Western Wyo- ming Community College; Glenda Pritchett, Quinnipiac University; Jonathan Purkiss, Pulaski Technical College; Paula Rash, Caldwell Community College; Louis Riggs, Hannibal-LaGrange University; Tony Russell, Central Oregon Community College; David Salomon, The Sage Colleges; Anthony Sams, Ivy Tech Community College; Karen Schwarze, Utah State University; Dixie A Shaw-Tillmon, The Univer- sity of Texas at San Antonio; Carol Singletary, Eastern New Mexico University; Linda Strahan, University of California, Riverside; Hannah Sykes, Rockingham Community College; Jarrod Waetjen, Northern Virginia Community College—Alexandria; Christy Wenger, Shepherd University; Jenny Williams, Spartanburg Community College. We are especially grateful to the following reviewers for their very helpful feedback on the new materials on “Editing the Errors That Matter”: Jason Barr, Blue Ridge Community College; Jesseca Cornelson, Alabama State University; Michael Cripps, University of New England; Syble Davis, Houston Community College; Laura Ann Dearing, Jefferson Community and Technical College; Darren DeFrain, Wichita State University; Allison Dieppa, Florida Gulf Coast University; Brenna Dugan, Owens Community College; Shonette Grant, Northern Virginia Community College; Kendra Griffin, Aims Community College; Anne Marie Johnson, Utah State University; Brian

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Leingang, Edison State Community College; Matthew Masucci, State College of Florida–Venice; L. Adam Mekler, Morgan State University; Lora Meredith, Western Wyoming Community College; Eden Pearson, Des Moines Area Community College; Glenda Pritchett, Quinnipiac University; Jonathan Purkiss, Pulaski Technical College; Paula Rash, Caldwell Community College; Tony Russell, Central Oregon Com- munity College; Dixie A. Shaw-Tillmon, The University of Texas at San Antonio; Hannah Sykes, Rockingham Community College; Jarrod Waetjen, Northern Virginia Community College–Alexandria. We owe a big thank you to all our friends at Norton, starting with Claire Wallace for her excellent editorial work on both the new chapters in the book and the editing exercises in InQuizitive for Writers. We are grateful as well to Tenyia Lee for her incredibly detailed work on all the documentation chapters. A deep bow goes to Erica Wnek for all her work on InQuizitive, the companion website, the coursepack, and the ebook—and to Ava Bramson as well. We are once again grateful to Carin Berger and Debra Morton Hoyt for yet another charming cover design. And we thank Megan DeBono Zwilling and Maureen Connelly for their work getting the word out about this book. Little books are always more complex than they look, and we are especially grateful to Christine D’Antonio and Ashley Horna for their expertise managing and producing The Little Seagull Handbook. Finally, we thank Marilyn Moller, the guiding intelligence behind all our textbooks. Rich thanks his students and colleagues at Wright State for all they’ve taught him about teaching and writing over the years, and the many writing teachers using the Little Seagull who have offered suggestions or invited him to campus: Kelly Ritter, Kristi McDuffie, and their graduate teaching assistants at the University of Illinois, Urbana–Champaign; Collie Fulford, Kathryn Wymer, and their stu- dents in ENG 3040 at North Carolina Central University; Kevin Moore at SUNY Cobleskill; and Mary S. Tuley at Fayetteville Technical Com- munity College. Finally, he thanks his wife, Barb, for her unwavering and good-humored support. Michal thanks her families and students

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in the United States and Mexico for always keeping her thinking. Fran thanks Marilyn for trading places with her so many years ago and her husband, Larry Strauss, for his confidence in her at all times. Hats off to you all.

Richard Bullock Michal Brody Francine Weinberg

How to Use This Book

Write. Research. Edit. Perhaps you’ve been assigned to write a paper that makes a case for why parking on campus should be free. Maybe you need to find sources for a report on organic farming in your state. Or you may just want to make sure that the punctuation in your cover letter is perfect before you apply for a new job. Whether you need to write, research, edit — or all three — this little handbook can help.

Ways of Using the Book

Menus. If you are looking for a specific chapter, start with the Brief Menu on the inside front cover; if you are looking for a specific sec- tion in a chapter, start with the Detailed Menu on the inside back cover.

Glossary / index. If you’re looking for definitions of key terms and concepts, turn to the combined glossary and index at the back of the book. Be aware also that words highlighted in tan throughout the book are defined in the glossary / index. Check the glossary / index when you aren’t sure which chapter covers a topic you’re looking for — for instance, guidance on when to use a and when to use the.

Color-coded organization. The parts of this book are color-coded for easy reference: red for write , blue for research , and yellow for editing .

Guidelines for common writing assignments. Chapters W-7 to W-15, cover nine kinds of writing you’ll likely be expected to do in many college classes. And you’ll find model papers demonstrating each of these kinds of writing on the companion website: digital .wwnoPton.aom/littleseagull3.

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xiv HoW To USE THIS Book

Checklist for revising and editing. On the back flap is a list of prompts to guide you as you revise and edit a draft — and that lead you to pages in the book where you’ll find help.

Help editing common errors that matter. We all make mistakes and need to learn how to edit them out. The front flap lists some of the ones that really matter and leads you to places in the book where you’ll find help spotting them in your writing and strategies for edit- ing them out.

MLA, APA, Chicago, and CSE guidelines. Color-coded chapters cover each style, with directories in the back of the book that lead to the specific examples you need. Color-coded templates show what information to include, and documentation maps show you where to find the information required. You’ll find a full MLA paper on pages 161–69 and model papers demonstrating each of the other styles on the companion website: digital.wwnoPton.aom/littleseagull3.

Scanning for information. Sometimes you may simply turn to a part of the book where you know that information you’re looking for is located. You could scan the red headings to find where the topic is explained. Or if you just want to find an example showing you what to do, you’ll find that examples are all marked by little red pointers ( ▶) to make them easy to spot.

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I think I did pretty well, considering I started out with nothing but a bunch of blank paper.

— Steve Martin

Write

2

W-1 Writing Contexts

Whenever we write, whether it’s an email to a friend, a toast at a wed- ding, or an essay, we do so within some kind of context — a rhetorical situation that helps shape our choices as writers. Whatever our topic, we have a purpose, a certain audience, a particular stance, a genre, and a medium to consider — and often as not, a design. This chapter discusses each of these elements and provides some questions that can help you think about some of the choices you have to make as you write.

W-1a Purpose

All writing has a purpose. We write to explore our thoughts, express our- selves, and entertain; to record words and events; to communicate with others; to persuade others to think or behave in certain ways. Here are some questions to help you think about your purpose(s) as you write:

• What is the primary purpose of the writing task — to entertain? inform? persuade? demonstrate knowledge? something else?

• What are your own goals?

• What do you want your audience to do, think, or feel? How will they use what you tell them?

• What does this writing task call on you to do? Do you have an assignment that specifies a certain genre or strategy — to argue

a position? report on an event? compare two texts?

• What are the best ways to achieve your purpose? Should you take a particular stance ? write in a particular medium ? use certain design elements?

W-1b Audience

What you write, how much you write, and how you phrase it are all influenced by the audience you envision. For example, as a student

3W-1c Genre

writing an essay for an instructor, you will be expected to produce a text with few or no errors, something you may worry less about in an email to a friend.

• What audience do you want to reach? What expectations do they have from you? What’s your relationship with them, and how does it affect your tone ?

• What is your audience’s background — their education and life experiences?

• What are their interests? What motivates them? Do they have any political attitudes or interests that may affect the way they read your piece?

• Is there any demographic information that you should keep in mind, such as race, gender, sexual orientation, religious beliefs, or economic status?

• What does your audience already know — or believe — about your topic? What do you need to tell them?

• What kind of response do you want from your audience? Do you want them to do or believe something? accept what you say? Something else?

• How can you best appeal to your audience? What kind of infor- mation will they find interesting or persuasive? Are there any design elements that will appeal to them?

W-1c Genre

Genres are kinds of writing. Reports, position papers, poems, letters, instructions — even jokes — are genres. Each one has certain features and follows particular conventions of style and presentation. Aca- demic assignments generally specify the genre, but if it isn’t clear, ask your instructor. Then consider these issues:

• What are the key elements and conventions of your genre? How do they affect the type of content you should include?

4 W-1d WritinG Contexts

• Does your genre require a certain organization or medium? Does it have any design requirements?

• How does your genre affect your tone , if at all?

• Does the genre require formal (or informal) language?

W-1d Topic

An important part of any writing context is the topic — what you are writing about. As you choose a topic, keep in mind your rhetorical situation and any requirements specified by your assignments.

• If your topic is assigned, what do the verbs in the assignment ask you to do: analyze ? compare ? summarize ? Something else?

• Does the assignment offer a broad subject area (such as the envi- ronment) that allows you to choose a limited topic within it (such as a particular environmental issue)?

• What do you need to do to complete the assignment? Do you need to do research? find illustrations?

• If you can choose a topic, think about what you are interested in. What do you want to learn more about? What topics from your courses have you found intriguing? What local, national, or global issues do you care about?

• Do you need to limit your topic to fit a specified time or length?

W-1e Stance and Tone

Whenever you write, you have a certain stance, an attitude toward your topic. For example, you might be objective, critical, passionate, or indifferent. You express (or downplay) that stance through your tone — the words you use and the other ways your text conveys an attitude toward your subject and audience. Just as you likely alter what you say depending on whether you’re speaking to a boss or a good friend, so you need to make similar adjustments as a writer. Ask yourself these questions:

5W-1f Media / Design

• What is your stance, and how can you best present it to achieve your purpose?

• How should your stance be reflected in your tone? Do you want to be seen as reasonable? angry? thoughtful? ironic? Something else? Be sure that your language — and even your font — convey that tone.

• How is your stance likely to be received by your audience ? Should you openly reveal it, or would it be better to tone it down?

W-1f Media / Design

We communicate through many media, both verbal and nonverbal: our bodies (we wave), our voices (we shout), and various technolo- gies (we write with a pencil, send email, tweet). No matter what the medium, a text’s design affects the way it is received and understood. Consider these questions:

• Does your assignment call for a certain medium or media — a printed essay? an oral report with visual aids? a blog?

• How does your medium affect the way you write and organize your text? For example, long paragraphs may be fine on paper, but bulleted phrases work better on slides.

• How does your medium affect your language? Do you need to be more formal or informal ?

• What’s the appropriate look for your writing situation? Should it look serious? whimsical? personal? Something else?

• What fonts and other design elements suit your writing context? Is there anything you should highlight by putting it in a box or italics?

• Would headings help you organize your material and help read- ers follow the text? Does your genre or medium require them?

• Will your audience expect or need any illustrations? Is there any information that would be easier to understand as a chart?

6

W-2 Academic Contexts

An argument on a psychology exam debating whether genes or envi- ronment do more to determine people’s intelligence, a report for a science course on the environmental effects of electricity- generating windmills on wildlife, a proposal for a multi media sales campaign in a marketing course — all of these are kinds of writing that you might be assigned to do in college classes. This chapter describes some of the elements expected in academic writing.

W-2a Key Elements of Academic Writing

Evidence that you’ve carefully considered the subject. You can use a variety of ways to show that you’ve thought seriously about the subject and done any necessary research, from citing authoritative sources to incorporating information you learned in class to pointing out connections among ideas.

A clear, appropriately qualified thesis. In academic writing, you’re expected to state your main point explicitly, often in a thesis statement, as MIT student Joanna MacKay does in an essay about selling human organs: “Governments should not ban the sale of human organs; they should regulate it.”

Often you’ll need to qualify your thesis statement to acknowl- edge exceptions or other perspectives. Here’s a qualified thesis from an essay by Michaela Cullington, a student at Marywood University: “Although some believe that texting has either a positive or negative effect on writing, it in fact seems likely that texting has no significant effect on student writing.” By adding qualifying words like seems likely and significant, the writer indicates that she’s not making a definitive claim about texting’s influence on student writing.

A response to what others have said. Whatever your topic, it’s likely that others have written or spoken about it. It’s almost

7W-2a Key elements of Academic Writing

always best to present your ideas as a response to what others have said — quoting , paraphrasing , or summarizing their ideas and then agreeing, disagreeing, or both.

For example, in an essay arguing that the American Dream is alive and well, University of Cincinnati student Brandon King presents the views of two economists who say that because wealth is concentrated in the hands “of a rich minority,” “the American Dream is no longer possible for most Americans.” He then responds by disagreeing, argu- ing that “the American Dream . . . is based on perception, on the way someone imagines how to be successful.”

Good reasons supported by evidence. You need to provide good reasons for your thesis and evidence to support those reasons. Joanna MacKay offers several reasons that sales of human kidneys should be legalized: a surplus exists; the risk to the donor is not great; and legalization would enable the trade in kidneys to be regulated, thereby helping many patients and donors. For that third reason, her evidence includes statistics about death from renal failure.

Acknowledgment of multiple perspectives. In any academic writing, you need to investigate and represent fairly the range of perspectives on your topic — to avoid considering issues in an overly simple “pro/con” way and, instead, to explore multiple positions as you research and write. Brandon King, for instance, looks at the American Dream from several angles: the ways it is defined, the effects of government policies on achieving it, the role of education, and so on.

Carefully documented sources. Clearly acknowledging sources and documenting them correctly both in your text and in a works cited or references list at the end is a basic requirement of aca- demic writing. If your text will appear online, you can direct readers to online sources by using hyperlinks, but your instructor may want you to document them formally as well.

A confident and authoritative stance . Your tone should convey confidence and establish your authority to write about your topic.

8 W-2b ACADeMiC Contexts

To do so, use active verbs (“X claims,” “Y and Z have found”), avoid such phrases as “I think,” and write in a direct style. Michaela Cul- lington establishes an authoritative stance in her essay on texting this way: “On the basis of my own research, expert research, and personal observations, I can confidently state that texting is not interfering with students’ use of standard written English and has no effect on their writing abilities in general.” Her simple, declarative sentences and strong, unequivocal language (”I can confidently state,” “has no effect”) send the message that she knows what she’s talking about.

An indication of why your topic matters. Help your readers understand why your topic is worth exploring — and why your writ- ing is worth reading. In an essay called “Throwing Like a Girl,” James Fallows explains why that topic matters, noting that his title reflects attitudes about gender that have potentially serious consequences.

Careful attention to correctness. You should almost always write in complete sentences, use appropriate capitalization and punctua- tion, check that your spelling is correct — and avoid any abbreviations used in texting.

W-2b Thinking about the Writing Context

• What genre does the assignment suggest — or require?

• What is your instructor’s purpose for this assignment? What is your purpose, apart from fulfilling those expectations?

• Who is your audience ?

• How can you convey a confident, authoritative stance ?

• What media are available, permitted, and appropriate? Are any required?

• What design issues need to be considered?

❯❯ To read the student essays cited in this chapter, go to digital.wwnorton.com/littleseagull3.

http://digital.wwnorton.com/littleseagull3
9

W-3 Writing Processes

To create anything, we generally break the work down into a series of steps. We follow a recipe (or the directions on a box) to bake a cake; we divide a piece of music into various singing parts to arrange it for a choir. So it is when we write. We rely on various processes to get from a blank page to a finished product. This chapter offers advice on some of these processes — from generating ideas to drafting to revising and editing.

W-3a Generating Ideas

The activities that follow can help you explore a topic — what you already know about it or how you might look at it in new ways.

• Brainstorming. Jot down everything that comes to mind about your topic, working either alone or with others. Look over your list, and try to identify connections or patterns.

• Freewriting. Write as quickly as you can without stopping for 5 to 10 minutes. Then underline interesting passages. Write more, using an underlined passage as your new topic.

• Looping. Write for 5 to 10 minutes, jotting down whatever you know about your subject. Then write a one-sentence summary of the most important idea. Use this summary to start another loop. Keep looping until you have a tentative focus.

• Clustering. Clustering is a way of connecting ideas visually. Write your topic in the middle of a page, and write subtopics and other ideas around it. Circle each item, and draw lines to connect related ideas.

• Questioning. You might start by asking What? Who? When? Where? How? and Why? You could also ask questions as if the topic were a play: What happens? Who are the participants? When does the action take place? How? Where? Why does this happen?

10 W-3b WritinG ProCesses

• Keeping a journal. Jotting down ideas, feelings, or the events of your day in a journal is a good way to generate ideas — and a journal is a good place to explore why you think as you do.

• Starting some research. Depending on your topic and purpose, you might do a little preliminary research to get basic information and help you discover paths you might follow.

W-3b Developing a Tentative Thesis

A thesis is a statement that indicates your main point, identifying your topic and the claim you are making about it. Here are some steps for developing a tentative thesis statement:

1. State your topic as a question. You may have a topic, such as “gaso- line prices.” But that doesn’t make a statement. To move from a topic to a thesis statement, start by turning your topic into a question: What causes fluctuations in gasoline prices?

2. Then turn your question into a position. A thesis statement is an assertion — it takes a stand or makes a claim. One way to estab- lish a thesis is to answer your own question: Gasoline prices fluctu- ate for several reasons.

3. Narrow your thesis. A good thesis is specific, telling your audience exactly what your essay will cover: Gasoline prices fluctuate because of production procedures, consumer demand, international politics, and oil companies’ policies. A good way to narrow a thesis is to ask and answer questions about it: Why do gasoline prices fluctuate? The answer will help you craft a narrow, focused thesis.

4. Qualify your thesis. Though you may sometimes want to state your thesis strongly and bluntly, often you need to acknowledge that your assertion may not be unconditionally true. In such cases, consider adding qualifying words such as may, very likely, and often to qualify your statement: Gasoline prices very likely fluctu- ate because of production procedures, consumer demand, international politics, and oil companies’ policies.

11W-3c organizing and Drafting

Whatever tentative thesis you start with, keep in mind that you may want to modify it as you proceed.

W-3c Organizing and Drafting

Organizing. You may want to use an outline to help organize your ideas before you begin to draft. You can create an informal outline by simply listing your ideas in the order in which you want to write about them.

Thesis statement

First main idea Supporting evidence or detail Supporting evidence or detail

Second main idea Supporting evidence or detail Supporting evidence or detail

An outline can help you organize your thoughts and see where more research is needed. As you draft and revise, though, stay flexible — and be ready to change direction as your topic develops.

Drafting. At some point, you need to write out a draft. As you draft, you may need to get more information, rethink your thesis, or explore some new ideas. But first, you just need to get started.

• Write quickly in spurts. Try to write a complete draft, or a complete section of a longer draft, in one sitting. If you need to stop in the middle, jot down some notes about where you’re headed so that you can pick up your train of thought when you begin again.

• Expect surprises. Writing is a form of thinking; you may end up somewhere you didn’t anticipate. That can be a good thing — but if not, it’s okay to double back or follow a new path.

• Expect to write more than one draft. Parts of your first draft may not achieve your goals. That’s okay — as you revise, you can fill in gaps and improve your writing.

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• Don’t worry about correctness. You can check words, dates, and spelling at a later stage. For now, just write.

W-3d Getting Response

As writers, we need to be able to look at our work with a critical eye, to see if our writing is doing what we want it to do. We also need to get feedback from other readers. Here is a list of questions for read- ing a draft closely and considering how it should or could be revised:

• Will the opening paragraph grab readers’ attention? If so, how does it do so? If not, how else might the piece begin?

• What is the thesis ? Is it stated directly? If not, should it be?

• Are there good reasons and sufficient evidence to support the thesis? Is there anywhere you’d like to have more detail?

• Are all quotations introduced with a signal phrase and docu- mented? Are they accurately quoted, and have any changes and omissions been indicated with brackets and ellipses?

• Is there a clear pattern of organization? Does each part relate to the thesis? Are there appropriate transitions to help readers follow your train of thought? Are there headings that make the structure of the text clear — and if not, should there be?

• Are there any visuals — tables, charts, photos? If so, are they clearly labeled with captions? If you did not create them yourself, have you cited your sources?

• Will the text meet the needs and expectations of its audience ? Where might they need more information or guidance?

• Is your stance on the topic clear and consistent throughout? Is the tone appropriate for your audience and purpose?

• Is the conclusion satisfying? What does it leave readers think- ing? How else might the text end?

• Is the title one that will attract interest? Does it announce your topic and give some sense of what you have to say?

13W-3f editing and Proofreading

W-3e Revising

Once you’ve studied your draft with a critical eye and gotten response from other readers, it’s time to revise. Start with global (whole-text) issues, and gradually move to smaller, sentence-level details.

• Give yourself time to revise. Set deadlines that will give you plenty of time to work on your revision. Try to get some distance. If you can, step away from your writing for a while and think about something else.

• Revise to sharpen your focus. Examine your thesis to make sure it matches your purpose and clearly articulates your main point. Does each paragraph contribute to your main point? Does your beginning introduce your topic and provide any necessary contex- tual information? Does your ending provide a satisfying conclusion?

• Revise to strengthen the argument. Make sure that all your key ideas are fully explained. If readers find some of your claims unconvincing, you may need to qualify them — or provide more reasons or evidence . If you add evidence, make sure that it all supports your point and includes any needed documentation.

• Revise to improve the organization. You may find it helpful to out- line your draft to see all the parts readily. If anything seems out of place, move it — or if need be, cut it completely. Check to see if you’ve included appropriate transitions or headings.

• Revise to be sure readers will understand what you’re saying. Make sure that you’ve defined any terms they may not know. If you don’t state a thesis directly, consider whether you should. Look closely at your title to be sure it gives a sense of what your text is about.

W-3f Editing and Proofreading

Your ability to produce clear, error-free writing shows something about your ability as a writer, so you should be sure to edit and proofread your work carefully. Editing is the stage when you work on

14 W-3f WritinG ProCesses

the details of your paragraphs, sentences, language, and punctuation to make your writing as clear, precise, and correct as possible. The following guidelines can help you check the paragraphs, sentences, and words in your drafts.

Editing paragraphs

• Does each paragraph focus on one point and have a topic sentence that announces that point? Does every sentence in the paragraph relate to that point?

• Where is the most important information in each paragraph — at the beginning? the end? in the middle?

• Check to see how your paragraphs fit together. Does each one follow smoothly from the one before it? Do you need to add . transitions ?

• How does the opening paragraph catch readers’ attention? How else might you begin?

• Does the conclusion provide a satisfactory ending? How else might you conclude?

For more help with paragraphs, see W-4 .

Editing sentences

• Check to see that each sentence is complete, with a subject and a verb , and that it begins with a capital letter and ends with a period, question mark, or exclamation point.

• Are your sentences varied? If they all start with the subject or are all the same length, try varying them by adding transitions or introductory phrases — or by combining some sentences.

• Be sure that lists or series are parallel in form — all nouns (lions, tigers, bears), all verbs (hop, skip, jump), and so on.

• Do many of your sentences begin with It or There? Sometimes these words help introduce a topic, but often they make a text vague.

15W-3f editing and Proofreading

For more help with sentences, see s-1 through s-9 .

Editing language

• Are you sure of the meaning of every word?

• Do your words all convey the appropriate tone?

• Is any of your language too general? For example, do you need to replace verbs like be or do with more specific verbs?

• Check all pronouns to see that they have clear antecedents.

• Have you used any clichés ? Your writing will almost always be better without such predictable expressions.

• Be careful with language that refers to other people. Edit out language that might be considered sexist or would otherwise stereotype any individual or group.

• Check for it’s and its. Use it’s to mean “it is” and its to mean “belonging to it.”

For more help with language, see L-1 through L-10 .

Proofreading

This is the final stage of the writing process, the point when you check for misspelled words, mixed-up fonts, missing pages, and so on.

• Use your computer’s grammar and spelling checkers, but be aware that they’re not very reliable. Computer programs rely on formulas and banks of words — so what they flag (or not) as mis- takes may not be accurate. For example, if you were to write “sea you soon,” the word sea would not be flagged as misspelled.

• Place a ruler or piece of paper under each line as you read. Use your finger or a pencil as a pointer.

• Try beginning with the last sentence and working backward.

• Read your text out loud to yourself — or better, to others. Ask someone else to read your text.

16 W-3g WritinG ProCesses

W-3g Collaborating

Even if you do much of your writing alone, you probably spend a lot of time working with others, either face-to-face or online. Here are some guidelines for collaborating successfully.

Working in a group

• For face-to-face meetings, make sure everyone is facing one another and is physically part of the group.

• Be respectful and tactful. This is especially important when col- laborating online. Without tone of voice, facial expressions, and other body language, your words carry all the weight. Remember also that what you write may be forwarded to others.

• When collaborating online, decide as a group how best to exchange drafts and comments. Group members may not all have access to the same equipment and software. Name files carefully.

• Each meeting needs an agenda — and careful attention to the clock. Appoint one person as timekeeper and another person as group leader; a third member should keep a record of the discus- sion and write a summary afterward.

Working on a group writing project

• Define the overall project as clearly as possible, and divide the work into parts.

• Assign each group member specific tasks with deadlines.

• Try to accommodate everyone’s style of working, but make sure everyone performs.

• Work for consensus, if not necessarily total agreement.

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W-4 Developing Paragraphs

Paragraphs help us organize our writing for our readers. Here one writer recalls when he first understood what a paragraph does.

I can remember picking up my father’s books before I could read. The words themselves were mostly foreign, but I still remem- ber the exact moment when I first understood, with a sudden clarity, the purpose of a paragraph. I didn’t have the vocabulary to say “paragraph,” but I realized that a paragraph was a fence that held words. The words inside a paragraph worked together for a common purpose. They had some specific reason for being inside the same fence. . . .

— Sherman Alexie, “The Joy of Reading and Writing”

This chapter will help you build “fences” around words that work together on a common topic. It offers tips and examples for compos- ing strong paragraphs.

W-4a Focusing on the Main Point

All the sentences in a paragraph should focus on one main idea, as they do in this paragraph from an article about the Mall of America.

There is, of course, nothing naturally abhorrent in the human impulse to dwell in marketplaces or the urge to buy, sell, and trade. Rural Americans traditionally looked forward to the excitement and sensuality of market day; Native Americans traveled long distances to barter and trade at sprawling, festive encampments. In Persian bazaars and in the ancient Greek agoras the very soul of the com- munity was preserved and could be seen, felt, heard, and smelled as it might be nowhere else. All over the planet the humblest of people have always gone to market with hope in their hearts and in expectation of something beyond mere goods — seeking a place where humanity is temporarily in ascendance, a palette for the senses, one another. — David Guterson, “Enclosed. Encyclopedic. Endured. One Week at the Mall of America”

18 W-4a DeveLoPinG PArAGrAPhs

Topic sentences. To help you focus a paragraph on one main point, state that point in a topic sentence . Often, but not always, you might start a paragraph with a topic sentence, as in this example from an essay about legalizing the sale of human kidneys.

Dialysis is harsh, expensive, and, worst of all, only temporary. Acting as an artificial kidney, dialysis mechanically filters the blood of a patient. It works, but not well. With treatment sessions lasting three hours, several times a week, those dependent on dialysis are, in a sense, shackled to a machine for the rest of their lives. Adding excessive stress to the body, dialysis causes patients to feel increasingly faint and tired, usually keeping them from work and other normal activities.

— Joanna MacKay, “Organ Sales Will Save Lives”

Sometimes, you may choose to put the topic sentence at the end of the paragraph. See how this strategy works in another paragraph in the essay about kidneys.

In a legal kidney transplant, everybody gains except the donor. The doctors and nurses are paid for the operation, the patient receives a new kidney, but the donor receives nothing. Sure, the donor will have the warm, uplifting feeling associ- ated with helping a fellow human being, but this is not enough reward for most people to part with a piece of themselves. In an ideal world, the average person would be altruistic enough to donate a kidney with nothing expected in return. The real world, however, is run by money. We pay men for donating sperm, and we pay women for donating ova, yet we expect others to give away an entire organ with no compensation. If the sale of organs were allowed, people would have a greater incentive to help save the life of a stranger.

Occasionally, the main point is so obvious that you don’t need a topic sentence. Especially in narrative writing, you may choose only to imply — not state — the main idea, as in this paragraph from an essay about one Latina writer’s difficulty in learning Spanish.