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Robert Merton's Goal Attainment Theory

Introduction to Criminology

Second Edition

3

Introduction to Criminology Why Do They Do It?

Second Edition

Pamela J. Schram California State University, San Bernardino

Stephen G. Tibbetts California State University, San Bernardino

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Schram, Pamela J., author. | Tibbetts, Stephen G., author.

Title: Introduction to criminology : why do they do it / Pamela J. Schram, California State University, San Bernardino, Stephen G. Tibbetts, California State University, San Bernardino.

Description: Second Edition. | Thousand Oaks : SAGE Publications, [2017] | Revised edition of the authors’ Introduction to criminology, [2014] | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2016040618 | ISBN 9781506347561 (pbk. : alk. paper)

Subjects: LCSH: Criminology.

Classification: LCC HV6025 .S38 2017 | DDC 364—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016040618

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Brief Contents

Preface Acknowledgments About the Authors Chapter 1: Introduction to Criminology Chapter 2: Measuring Crime Chapter 3: Classical School of Criminology Thought Chapter 4: Contemporary Classical and Deterrence Research Chapter 5: Early Positivism Chapter 6: Modern Biosocial Perspectives of Criminal Behavior Chapter 7: Psychological/Trait Theories of Crime Chapter 8: Social Structure Theories of Crime I Chapter 9: Social Structure Theories of Crime II Chapter 10: Social Process and Control Theories of Crime Chapter 11: Labeling Theory and Conflict/Marxist/Radical Theories of Crime Chapter 12: Feminist Theories of Crime Chapter 13: Developmental/Life-Course Perspectives Criminality Chapter 14: White-Collar Crime, Organized Crime, and Cybercrime Chapter 15: Hate Crimes, Terrorism, and Home Land Security Chapter 16: Drugs and Crime Glossary Notes Index

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Detailed Contents

Preface Acknowledgments About the Authors Chapter 1: Introduction to Criminology

Introduction Key Concepts to Understanding Criminology

What is a Crime? Case Study: Burke And Hare

What is Criminology and Criminal Justice? The Consensus and Conflict Perspectives of Crime

Learning Check 1.1 The Criminal Justice System

Law Enforcement Courts Corrections The Juvenile Justice System

Learning Check 1.2 Introduction to Comparative Criminology

Applying Theory To Crime: Motor Vehicle Theft Comparative Criminology: Motor Vehicle Theft Criminology Theory

Characteristics of Good Theories Learning Check 1.3

Three Requirements for Determining Causality Why Do They Do It? Diane and Rachel Staudte

Theory Informs Policies and Programs Victimology

Victim Precipitation Incidence/Prevalence of Victimization Child Abuse and Neglect Compensation/Restitution Victim Impact Statements

Learning Check 1.4 Victim Rights Awareness

Conclusion Key Terms Discussion Questions

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Web Resources Chapter 2: Measuring Crime

Introduction Crime Data From Law Enforcement Agencies Case Study: September 11, 2001, Victims

Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) Comparative Criminology: Child Abuse Why Do They Do It? Learning Check 2.1

Supplementary Homicide Reports The National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) Data Collection Limitations of NIBRS Hate Crime Data Data Collection Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted Statistics Data Collection

Crime Data from Victims of Crime: The National Crime Victimization Survey Learning Check 2.2

Limitations of the NCVS Comparing the NCVS with the UCR

Crime Data from Self-Report Surveys Monitoring the Future The National Survey on Drug Use and Health National Youth Survey—Family Study

Additional Approaches to Collecting Crime Data The National Youth Gang Survey

Applying Theory to Crime: Hate Crime Spatial Analyses of Crime

Learning Check 2.3 Conclusion Key Terms Discussion Questions Web resources

Chapter 3: Classical School of Criminology Thought Introduction Case Study: Deborah Jeane Palfrey Pre-Classical Perspectives of Crime and Punishment

Punishments under Pre-Classical Perspectives The Age of Enlightenment

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Learning Check 3.1 The Classical School of Criminology

Influences on Beccaria and His Writings Beccaria’s Proposed Reforms and Ideas of Justice Beccaria’s Ideas of the Death Penalty Beccaria’s Concept of Deterrence and the Three Key Elements of Punishment

Learning Check 3.2 Beccaria’s Conceptualization of Specific and General Deterrence Summary of Beccaria’s Ideas and Influence on Policy

Learning Check 3.3 Impact of Beccaria’s Work on Other Theorists

Jeremy Bentham The Neoclassical School of Criminology Why Do They Do It? The Harpe Brothers

Applying Theory to Crime: Other Assaults (Simple) Loss of Dominance of Classical/Neoclassical Theory Policy Implications

Comparative Criminology: Homicide Rates Conclusion Summary of Theories in Chapter 3 Key Terms Discussion Questions Web Resources

Chapter 4: Contemporary Classical and Deterrence Research Introduction Case Study: Wayne Rebirth of Deterrence Theory and Contemporary Research

Formal and Informal Deterrence Rational Choice Theory Learning Check 4.1 Applying Theory to Crime: Driving Under the Influence Comparative Criminology: Threats and Assaults Routine Activities Theory

The Three Elements of Routine Activities Theory Applications of Routine Activities Theory

Learning Check 4.2 Policy Implications Why Do They Do It? The Green River Killer Conclusion Summary of Theories in Chapter 4

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Key Terms Discussion Questions Web Resources

Chapter 5: Early Positivism Introduction Early Biological Theories of Behavior Case Study: Javier

Craniometry Phrenology

Physiognomy Lombroso’s Theory of Atavism and Born Criminals

Lombroso’s Theory of Crime Lombroso’s List of Stigmata Lombroso as the Father of Criminology and THE Father of the Positive School

Learning Check 5.1 Lombroso’s Policy Implications

Why Do They Do It? Dr. Harold Shipman Learning Check 5.2 AFTER Lombroso: The IQ-Testing Era

Goddard’s IQ Test Policy Implications

Sterilization Reexamining Intelligence

Applying Theory to Crime: Burglary Comparative Criminology: Burglary Body Type Theory: Sheldon’s Model of Somatotyping Learning Check 5.3 Learning Check 5.4 Policy Implications Case Study Revisited: Javier Conclusion Summary of Theories in Chapter 5 Key Terms Discussion Questions Web Resources

Chapter 6: Modern Biosocial Perspectives of Criminal Behavior Introduction Nature Versus Nurture: Studies Examining the Influence of Genetics and Environment Case Study: Faith and Hope

Family Studies

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Twin Studies Adoption Studies

Learning Check 6.1 Twins Separated at Birth

Learning Check 6.2 Cytogenetic Studies: The XYY Factor Hormones and Neurotransmitters: Chemicals That Determine Criminal Behavior Applying Theory to Crime: Aggravated Assault Comparative Criminology: Assault Brain Injuries Learning Check 6.3 Central and Autonomic Nervous System Activity Why Do They Do It? Charles Whitman Learning Check 6.4 Biosocial Approaches Toward Explaining Criminal Behavior

Behavioral Genetics Studies Diet/Nutrition Toxins

Policy Implications Conclusion Summary of Theories in Chapter 6 Key Terms Discussion Questions Web Resources

Chapter 7: Psychological/Trait Theories of Crime Introduction Early Psychological Theorizing Regarding Criminal Behavior

Freud’s Model of the Psyche and Implications for Criminal Behavior Case Study: Albert Fish

Hans Eysenck: Theory of Crime and Personality Lawrence Kohlberg: Moral Development

John Bowlby: Attachment Theory Example Case History: Derek B.

Modern Versions of Psychological Perspectives of Criminality IQ and Criminal Behavior

Learning Check 7.1 James Q. Wilson and Richard J. Herrnstein: Crime and Human Nature

Applying Theory to Crime: Rape Comparative Criminology: Sexual Offenses

Psychopathy and Crime

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Box 7.1 Mental Health and the Criminal Justice System Learning Check 7.2

Treatment Why Do They Do It? Ariel Castro

Mental Health Courts Insanity Defense

Learning Check 7.3 Conclusion Summary of Theories in Chapter 7 Key Terms Discussion Questions Web Resources

Chapter 8: Social Structure Theories of Crime I Introduction Early Theories of Social Structure: Early to Late 1800s

Early European Theorists: Comte, Guerry, and Quetelet Case Study: The Black Binder Bandit Durkheim and the Concept of Anomie Learning Check 8.1 Learning Check 8.2 Merton’s Strain Theory

Cultural Context and Assumptions of Strain Theory Learning Check 8.3

Evidence and Criticisms of Merton’s Strain Theory Variations of Merton’s Strain Theory

Cohen’s Theory of Lower-Class Status Frustration and Gang Formation Cloward and Ohlin’s Theory of Differential Opportunity

General Strain Theory Why Do They Do It? Christopher Dorner

Evidence and Criticisms of General Strain Theory Learning Check 8.4 Why Do They Do It? Gang Lu Applying Theory To Crime: Bank Robbery Summary of Strain Theories Policy Implications of Strain Theory Comparative Criminology: Bank Robbery Conclusion Summary of Theories in Chapter 8 Key Terms

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Discussion Questions Web Resources

Chapter 9: Social Structure Theories of Crime II Introduction The Ecological School and the Chicago School of Criminology

Cultural Context: Chicago in the1800s and Early 1900s Case Study: Los Angeles Gangs

Ecological Principles in City Growth and Concentric Circles Shaw and McKay’s Theory of Social Disorganization Learning Check 9.1

Reaction and Research for Social Disorganization Theory Applying Theory to Crime: Stalking Cultural and Subcultural Theories of Crime

Early Theoretical Developments and Research in Cultural/Subcultural Theory Learning Check 9.2 Comparative Criminology: Violence Against Females Criticisms of Cultural Theories of Crime Policy Implications Why Do They Do It? Whitey Bulger Conclusion Summary of Theories in Chapter 9 Key Terms Discussion Questions Web Resources

Chapter 10: Social Process and Control Theories of Crime Introduction Learning Theories Case Study: The Weavers

Differential Association Theory Learning Check 10.1 Differential Reinforcement Theory

Elements of Differential Reinforcement Theory Differential Reinforcement Theory Propositions

Applying Theory to Crime: Murder Psychological Learning Models

Operant Conditioning Comparative Criminology: Homicide

Bandura’s Theory of Imitation/Modeling Reaction to Differential Reinforcement Theory

Neutralization Theory

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Techniques of Neutralization Learning Check 10.2

Reaction to Neutralization Theory Control Theories Early Control Theories of Human Behavior

Thomas Hobbes’s Social Contract Emile Durkheim’s Idea of Collective Conscience Freud’s Concept of Id and Superego

Early Control Theories of Crime Reiss’s Control Theory Toby’s Concept of Stake in Conformity Nye’s Control Theory Reckless’s Containment Theory

Modern Social Control Theories Matza’s Drift Theory Hirschi’s Social Bonding Theory

Integrated Social Control Theories Tittle’s Control–Balance Theory Hagan’s Power–Control Theory

A General Theory of Crime: Low Self-Control Psychological Aspects of Low Self-Control Physiological Aspects of Low Self-Control

Learning Check 10.3 Why Do They Do It ? Jesse Pomeroy Conclusion Summary of Theories in Chapter 10 Key Terms Discussion Questions Web Resources

Chapter 11: Labeling Theory and Conflict/Marxist/Radical Theories of Crime Introduction Labeling Theory Case Study: The Flint, Michigan, Water Crisis Foundation of Labeling Theory

Frank Tannenbaum: The Dramatization of Evil Edwin M. Lemert: Primary and Secondary Deviance Howard S. Becker: The Dimensions of Deviance Edwin M. Schur: Defining Deviance Basic Assumptions of Labeling Theory

Learning Check 11.1

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Evaluating Labeling Theory Research on Labeling Theory Critiques of Labeling Theory

Why Do They Do It? Brian Banks and Wanetta Gibson Conflict Perspectives Applying Theory to Crime: Larceny-Theft The Conservative (Pluralist) Conflict Perspectives

George Vold: Group Conflict Theory Comparative Criminology: Larceny-Theft

Austin Turk: The Power to Define Criminal Behavior Richard Quinney: The Social Reality of Crime

Learning Check 11.2 The Radical Conflict Perspectives

Marxist Criminology William Chambliss and Robert Seidman and the U.S. Criminal Justice System

Additional Explanations of Crime Using a Marxist Framework Colvin and Pauly’s Integrated Structural-Marxist Theory Herman and Julia Siegel Schwendinger and Adolescent Subcultures Steven Spitzer and Problem Populations

Learning Check 11.3 Evaluating Conflict Theories

Research on Conflict Theories Critiques of Conflict Perspectives

Why Do They Do It? Ted Kaczynski Additional Critical Theories

Peacemaking Criminology Restorative Justice Perspective Left Realism

Policies Related to Labeling and Conflict Theories of Crime Conclusion Summary of Theories in Chapter 11 Key Terms Discussion Questions Web Resources

Chapter 12: Feminist Theories of Crime Introduction

A Brief History of Feminism in the United States Case Study: Gertrude Baniszewski

Key Terms of Feminist Perspectives Learning Check 12.1

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Feminist Perspectives on Gender Traditional or Conservative Perspective Liberal Feminism Radical Feminism Marxist and Socialist Feminism Postmodern Feminism

Learning Check 12.2 Additional Feminist Perspectives

Traditional Theories of Female Crime Comparative Criminology: Trafficking in Persons

Cesare Lombroso: Physical Attributes of Female Offenders W. I. Thomas: The Biology of Female Offending Sigmund Freud: Female Inferiority Otto Pollak: Hidden Female Criminality

Learning Check 12.3 Feminist Critiques of Previous Research Studying Women and Crime Liberation Thesis Applying Theory to Crime: Female Sex Offenders Power-Control Theory Feminist Perspectives on Understanding Crime and Criminal Behavior Why Do They Do It? Lavinia Fisher

Objectivity and Subjectivity Qualitative “Versus” Quantitative Analyses Feminist Criminology

Learning Check 12.4 Critiques of Feminist Theories Applying Theory to Crime: Robbery Comparative Criminology: Robbery Policies Based on Feminist Theories of Crime Conclusion Summary of Theories in Chapter 12 Key Terms Discussion Questions Web Resources

Chapter 13: Developmental/Life-Course Perspectives criminality Basic Concepts and Early Developmental Theory Case Study: The Teen Burglar Antidevelopmental Theory: Low Self-Control Theory Learning Check 13.1 Comparative Criminology: Child Abuse

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Modern Developmental/Life-Course Perspectives Sampson and Laub’s Developmental Model Moffitt’s Developmental Taxonomy

Why Do They Do It ? Henry Earl Thornberry’s Interactional Model of Offending

Applying Theory to Crime: Arson Learning Check 13.2 Policy Implications Comparative Criminology: Crime Rates Conclusion Summary of Theories in Chapter 13 Key Terms Discussion Questions Web Resources

Chapter 14: WHITE-COLLAR CRIME, ORGANIZED CRIME, AND CYBERCRIME Introduction What is White-Collar Crime? Definitions and History of White-Collar Crime Case Study: William T. Walters Why Do They Do It? Charles Ponzi Incidence and Impact of White-Collar Crime on Society Learning Check 14.1 Why Do They Do It ? Enron

Economic Costs Physical Costs Breakdown in Social Fabric

Types of White-Collar Crime Crimes Against the Environment

Learning Check 14.2 Labor Violations Transnational Comparisons of White-Collar/Corporate Crime

Comparative Criminology: Bribery Theoretical Explanations of White-Collar Crime Applying Theory to Crime: White-Collar Crime What is Organized Crime?

Definition of Organized Crime Historical Context of Organized Crime in the United States Types of Criminal Organizations The Mafia Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs

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Prison Gangs Urban Street Gangs

Criminal Justice Responses to Organized Crime Chicago Crime Commission The Wickersham Commission The Kefauver Committee

Comparative Criminology: Organized Crime The McClellan Committee The President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice Organized Crime Control Act of 1970 The President’s Commission on Organized Crime

Learning Check 14.3 Theoretical Explanations of Organized Crime

What is Cybercrime? Definition of Cybercrime Types of Cybercrime Identity Theft Child Pornography Internet Fraud Cyberstalking Criminal Justice Responses to Cybercrime Relevant Legislation Theoretical Explanations of Cybercrime

Learning Check 14.4 Conclusion Key Terms Discussion Questions Web Resources

Chapter 15: Hate Crimes, Terrorism, and Home land Security Introduction What Is a Hate Crime? Case Study: Charleston, South Carolina, Shooting

Definition of Hate Crimes Hate Groups Anti-Hate-Crime Legislation Hate Crime Statistics Act of 1990

Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 Church Arson Prevention Act of 1996 Campus Hate Crimes Right to Know Act of 1997 Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr., Hate Crimes Prevention Act of 2009

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Model State Legislation: Hate Crimes/Violence Against People Experiencing Homelessness Why Do They Do It? Matthew Shepard

Theoretical Explanations of Hate Crimes Learning Check 15.1 Multicide

Categories of Mass Killers School Attacks Disparity in Rates of Committing Multicide Across Race and Religious Ideology What Is Terrorism?

Definition of Terrorism Typologies of Terrorism Extent of Terrorism Historical Context of Modern Terrorism The French Revolution Late 19th and Early 20th Century Terrorism

Applying Theory to Crime: Terrorism Comparative Criminology: Terrorism

Contemporary Terrorism Current Context of Terrorism Organizational Networks

Financial Support Influence of the Media Domestic Terrorism

Theoretical Explanations of Terrorism Learning Check 15.2 What Is Homeland Security?

Origins of Homeland Security Definition of Homeland Security Homeland Security Organizational Network

Agencies Responsible for Homeland Security Why Do They Do It? Omar Mateen Bureaucratic Problems and Solutions Issues Related to Civil Liberties

The Torture Debate Human Rights The Constitution

USA PATRIOT Act of 2001 Learning Check 15.3 Policy Implications Conclusion

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Key Terms Discussion Questions Web Resources

Chapter 16: Drugs and Crime Introduction Commonly Abused Drugs

Depressants Case Study: Kenneth Saltzman Diagnosing Alcohol Problems

Narcotics Stimulants Other Drugs

Learning Check 16.1 Trends of Drug Use

Early History of Cocaine and Opioid Addiction Prohibition Era “Reefer Madness” The 1960s and the Baby Boomers The “War on Drugs” Era Current Trends Regarding Drug Use

Why Do They Do It? Ryan Thomas Haight The Drug-Crime Link Learning Check 16.2

The Tripartite Conceptual Framework Modern Policies Related to Reducing Drug Use

Interdiction Strategies Eradication Strategies

Comparative Criminology: Drugs Drug Courts Maintenance and Decriminalization Harm Reduction

Applying Theory to Crime: Drug Selling/Trafficking and Drug Use Learning Check 16.3 Recommendations for Future Policies Why Do They Do It? Pablo Escobar Conclusion Key Terms Discussion Questions Web Resources

Glossary

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Notes Index

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Preface

If you are considering a career in any aspect of criminal justice, and want to know more about the motivations and socio-psychological make-up of serious offenders, then this book is meant for you! Introduction to Criminology: Why Do They Do It? places a primary emphasis on applying the dominant theories in the existing criminological literature for why people commit crimes, and we also examine in detail many recent true (as well as many hypothetical) examples of serious crimes, and demonstrate theoretical applications for why they offended in those particular cases. While other textbooks do a decent job in discussing both the basic theories, as well as exploring the various types of crime, our book is distinctively unique in that it integrates various street crimes within each chapter, and applies theories that are appropriate in explaining such criminal activity. This is extremely important because most instructors never get to the latter typology chapters in a given semester or term. So our approach is to incorporate them into the theoretical chapters in which they apply directly to the theories that are being presented in the sections that they are most appropriate.

The emphasis on specific examples and true crime stories, such as notable serial killers and other recent crime stories, as well as utilizing established theoretical models to explain their offenses in each chapter, is another primary distinction of this book from that of most other criminology textbooks. Obviously, this book is meant to be used as a textbook in an introductory course in criminology, but due to the emphasis on applied theoretical explanations, this book is highly appropriate for higher-level undergraduate and graduate courses in criminological theory, as well as a reference for any person working in the field of criminal justice. This integration of true crimes (and some hypothetical examples) in this text occurs on both a general level, such as our Applying Crime to Theory section in each chapter, as well as more specific cases – the High Profile Crime sections—in each section, which often involve notable cases of serial killers, mass murderers, or other notorious example of offender/offending.

The subtitle of our book, “Why Do They Do It?” is the running theme in this book. Our goal in writing this book was to apply established theories of crime, which are often seen as abstract and hypothetical, to actual examples that have occurred, as well as to hypothetical examples that are quite likely to occur. To this end, we explore the various reasons of offending or the “why they do it” the subtitle for this book for various cases, from the first documented serial killers in the US—the Harpe Brothers in the late-1700s—to the most recent killers, such as California cop-killer/spree-killer Christopher Dorner in 2013 and Dylann Roof, a 21-year-old white male, entering the Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church in Charleston, South Carolina in 2015 and shooting numerous members. Importantly, theories will be applied throughout these discussions of the actual crimes. We shall see that some of the theories that applied to the earliest crimes also seem to apply to the most modern crimes as well.

Additionally, our textbook is unique from others because it does not include separate chapters on violent or property crimes, because we have worked those into each chapter, and applied them to the theories explored in those chapters. We strongly believe that by integrating discussions of such serious crimes—all of the FBI Index offenses of murder, rape, robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, motor vehicle theft, larceny, and arson,