• Analyzing the audience is central to the speechmaking process; consider your audience at every step of the way in preparing and presenting your speech. • Gather information about your audience by asking questions or surveying them more formally. • Summarize and analyze the information you have gathered.

Select and Narrow Your Topic

• Consider the audience: Who are your listeners and what do they expect? • Consider the occasion: What is the reason for the speech? • Consider your own interests and skills: What are your strengths?

Determine Your Purpose

• Decide whether your general speech purpose is to inform, to persuade, or

to entertain, or a combination of these goals. • Decide on your specific purpose:

What do you want your listeners to be able to do after you finish your speech? • Use your specific purpose to guide

you in connecting your message to your audience.

Develop Your Central Idea

• State your central idea for your speech in one sentence. • Your central idea should be a single idea

presented in clear, specific language. • Relate your central idea to your audience.

Generate Main Ideas

• Determine whether your central idea can be supported with logical divisions using a topical arrangement. • Determine whether your central idea can be supported with reasons the idea is true. • Determine whether your central idea can be supported with a series of steps.

Gather Supporting Material

• Remember that most of what you say consists of supporting material such

as stories, descriptions, definitions, analogies, statistics, and opinions.

• The best supporting material both clarifies your major ideas and holds your listeners’ attention. • Supporting material that is personal, concrete, and appealing to the listeners’

senses is often the most interesting.

Organize Your Speech

• Remember the maxim: Tell us what you’re going to tell us (introduction); tell us (body); and tell us what you told us (conclusion). • Outline your main ideas by topic, chronologically, spatially, by cause and effect, or by problem and solution. • Use signposts to clarify the overall structure of your message.

Rehearse Your Speech

• Prepare speaking notes and practice using them well in advance of your speaking date. • Rehearse your speech out loud, standing as you would stand while delivering your speech. • Practice with well-chosen visual aids that are big, simple, and appropriate for your audience.

Deliver Your Speech

• Look at individual listeners. • Use movement and gestures that fit your natural style of speaking.

Why Do You Need This New Edition? If you’re wondering why you should buy this new edition of Public Speaking: An Audience- Centered Approach, here are eight good reasons!

1. We’ve kept the best and improved the rest. The eighth edition of Public Speaking: An Audience-Centered Approach continues its unique focus on the importance of analyzing and considering the audience at every point in the speech- making process, but is now an easier-to-use and more effec- tive learning tool than ever.

2. We’ve streamlined the book to 16 chapters, so that every chapter can be covered during a standard semester. Chapter 1 now combines an introduction to public speaking with an overview of the audience-centered model. Chapter 6 now combines information on gathering supporting mate- rial with advice on how to integrate supporting material into a speech.

3. New end-of-chapter Study Guides are designed to help you retain and apply chapter concepts. Study Guides feature chapter summaries; “Using What You’ve Learned” questions posing realistic scenarios; “A Question of Ethics” to reinforce the importance of ethical speaking; and referrals to selected online resources that help you find resources to use in your own speeches.

4. More tables and Recap boxes summarize the content of nearly every major section in each chapter. These frequent reviews help you check understanding, study for exams, and rehearse material to aid retention.

5. The eighth edition continues our popular focus on control- ling speaking anxiety, developed through expanded and updated coverage of communication apprehension in Chapter 1 and reinforced with tips and reminders in “Confidently Connecting with Your Audience” features in the margins of every chapter.

6. New and expanded coverage of key communication theories and current research, including studies of anxiety styles in Chapter 1, introductions to social judgment theory in Chapter 14, and emotional response theory in Chapter 15, help you apply recent theories and findings.

7. Every chapter of the eighth edition boasts engaging fresh examples to help you connect concepts to your own life and interests, including new references to contemporary technology such as social media sites in Chapter 4 and iPads in Chapter 12.

8. New speeches, including Barack Obama’s inaugural speech, contribute to an impressive sample speech appendix that will inspire and instruct you as you work with your own material.

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Public Speaking

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8 Public SpeakingAN AUDIENCE-CENTERED APPROACH Steven A. Beebe Texas State University—San Marcos

Susan J. Beebe Texas State University—San Marcos

E D

IT IO

Allyn & Bacon Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River

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Editor-in-Chief, Communication: Karon Bowers Development Editor: Sheralee Connors Editorial Assistant: Megan Sweeney Marketing Manager: Blair Tuckman Media Producer: Megan Higginbotham Project Manager: Anne Ricigliano Project Coordination, Text Design, and Electronic Page Makeup: Nesbitt Graphics, Inc. Cover Design Manager: Anne Nieglos Cover Designer: Joseph DePinho Cover Art: William Low Manufacturing Buyer: Mary Ann Gloriande Printer and Binder: Quad Graphics/Dubuque Cover Printer: Lehigh-Phoenix Color/Hagerstown

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Beebe, Steven A.

Public speaking : an audience-centered approach / Steven A. Beebe, Susan J. Beebe. — 8th ed. p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-205-78462-2 (alk. paper)

1. Public speaking. 2. Oral communication. I. Beebe, Susan J. II. Title. PN4129.15.B43 2012 808.5’1—dc22

2010054152

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Printed in the United States. To obtain permission to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, 501 Boylston Street, Suite 900, Boston, MA 02116, fax: (617) 671-2290. For information regarding permissions, call (617) 671-2295 or e-mail: permissionsus@pearson.com.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10—QGD—14 13 12 11

ISBN-13: 978-0-205-78462-2 www.pearsonhighered.com ISBN-10: 0-205-78462-3

Dedicated to our parents, Russell and Muriel Beebe and Herb and Jane Dye

And to our children, Mark, Matthew, and Brittany Beebe

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1 Speaking with Confidence 3 2 Speaking Freely and Ethically 35 3 Listening to Speeches 49 4 Analyzing Your Audience 77 5 Developing Your Speech 111 6 Gathering and Using Supporting Material 133 7 Organizing Your Speech 161 8 Introducing and Concluding Your Speech 183 9 Outlining and Revising Your Speech 203

10 Using Words Well: Speaker Language and Style 217 11 Delivering Your Speech 235 12 Using Presentation Aids 265 13 Speaking to Inform 289 14 Understanding Principles of Persuasive Speaking 315 15 Using Persuasive Strategies 337 16 Speaking for Special Occasions and Purposes 373

Epilogue 390

Appendix A Speaking in Small Groups 392

Appendix B Speeches for Analysis and Discussion 400

Brief Contents

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Contents

Preface xxiii

Speaking with Confidence 3 Why Study Public Speaking? 4

Empowerment 4 ● Employment 4

The Communication Process 5 Communication as Action 5 ● Communication as Interaction 6 ● Communication as Transaction 7

The Rich Heritage of Public Speaking 7 LEARNING FROM GREAT SPEAKERS Martin Luther King Jr. 8

Improving Your Confidence as a Speaker 9

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SAMPLE OUTLINE 24

Gather Visual Supporting Material 25

Organize Your Speech 25

Select and Narrow Your Topic 20 Determine Your Purpose 21

Determine Your General Purpose 21 ● Determine Your Specific Purpose 21

Develop Your Central Idea 22 Generate the Main Ideas 22 Gather Supporting Material 23

Gather Interesting Supporting Material 23

Understand Your Nervousness 10 ● How to Build Your Confidence 13

CONFIDENTLY CONNECTING WITH YOUR AUDIENCE Begin with the End in Mind 17

An Overview of Audience-Centered Public Speaking 17 Consider Your Audience 19

Gather and Analyze Information about Your Audience 19 ● Consider the Culturally Diverse Backgrounds of Your Audience 19

Rehearse Your Speech 27

Deliver Your Speech 27

SAMPLE SPEECH 29

STUDY GUIDE 30

SPEECH WORKSHOP Improving Your Confidence as a Public Speaker 33

Speaking Freely and Ethically 35 Speaking Freely 37

Free Speech and the U.S. Constitution 37 ● Free Speech in the Twentieth Century 37 ● Free Speech in the Twenty-first Century 38

Speaking Ethically 39 Have a Clear, Responsible Goal 39

LEARNING FROM GREAT SPEAKERS Mohandas Gandhi 40

Use Sound Evidence and Reasoning 40 ● Be Sensitive to and Tolerant of Differences 41 ● Be Honest 41 ● Don’t Plagiarize 42

CONFIDENTLY CONNECTING WITH YOUR AUDIENCE Remember That You Will Look More Confident Than You May Feel 42

SAMPLE ORAL CITATION 44

Speaking Credibly 44

STUDY GUIDE 46

SPEECH WORKSHOP Avoiding Plagiarism 47

Listening to Speeches 49 Overcoming Barriers to Effective Listening 51

Managing Information Overload 52 ● Overcoming Personal Concerns 53 ● Reducing Outside Distractions 53 ● Overcoming Prejudice 54 ● Using Differences between Speech Rate and Thought Rate 54 ● Managing Receiver Apprehension 55

How to Become a Better Listener 55 Listen with Your Eyes as Well as Your Ears 56 ● Listen Mindfully 57

LEARNING FROM GREAT SPEAKERS César Chávez 58

Listen Skillfully 59 ● Listen Ethically 62

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Improving Listening and Critical Thinking Skills 63 Separate Facts from Inferences 63 ● Evaluate the Quality of Evidence 64 ● Evaluate the Underlying Logic and Reasoning 65

Analyzing and Evaluating Speeches 65 Understanding Criteria for Evaluating Speeches 66 ● Identifying and Analyzing Rhetorical Strategies 68 ● Giving Feedback to Others 69 ● Giving Feedback to Yourself 70

CONFIDENTLY CONNECTING WITH YOUR AUDIENCE Look for Positive Listener Support 71

STUDY GUIDE 72

SPEECH WORKSHOP Evaluating a Speaker’s Rhetorical Effectiveness 74

Analyzing Your Audience 77 Gathering Information about Your Audience 79 Analyzing Information about Your Audience 80

Look for Audience Member Similarities 81 ● Look for Audience Member Differences 82 ● Establish Common Ground with Your Audience 82

Adapting to Your Audience 82

LEARNING FROM GREAT SPEAKERS Winston Churchill 83

CONFIDENTLY CONNECTING WITH YOUR AUDIENCE Learn as Much as You Can about Your Audience 83

Analyzing Your Audience before You Speak 84 Demographic Audience Analysis 84 ● Psychological Audience Analysis 94 ● Situational Audience Analysis 96

Adapting to Your Audience as You Speak 99

DEVELOPING YOUR SPEECH STEP BY STEP Consider Your Audience 99

Identifying Nonverbal Audience Cues 100 ● Responding to Nonverbal Cues 101 ● Strategies for Customizing Your Message to Your Audience 101

Analyzing Your Audience after You Speak 103 Nonverbal Responses 104 ● Verbal Responses 104 ● Survey Responses 104 ● Behavioral Responses 105

STUDY GUIDE 106

SPEECH WORKSHOP Developing Communication Strategies to Adapt to Your Audience 108

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Developing Your Speech 111 Select and Narrow Your Topic 112

Guidelines for Selecting a Topic 113

CONFIDENTLY CONNECTING WITH YOUR AUDIENCE Select an Interesting Topic 113

LEARNING FROM GREAT SPEAKERS Frederick Douglass 115

Strategies for Selecting a Topic 115 ● Narrowing the Topic 117

DEVELOPING YOUR SPEECH STEP BY STEP Select and Narrow Your Topic 117

Determine Your Purpose 118 General Purpose 118 ● Specific Purpose 119

DEVELOPING YOUR SPEECH STEP BY STEP Determine Your Purpose 121

Develop Your Central Idea 121 A Complete Declarative Sentence 122 ● Direct, Specific Language 122

DEVELOPING YOUR SPEECH STEP BY STEP Develop Your Central Idea 123 ● A Single Idea 123 ● An Audience-Centered Idea 123

Generate and Preview Your Main Ideas 124 Generating Your Main Ideas 124 ● Previewing Your Main Ideas 125

Meanwhile, Back at the Computer . . . 126

DEVELOPING YOUR SPEECH STEP BY STEP Generate Your Main Ideas 127

STUDY GUIDE 128

SPEECH WORKSHOP Strategies for Selecting a Speech Topic 130

Gathering and Using Supporting Material 133 Sources of Supporting Material 134

Personal Knowledge and Experience 134 ● The Internet 134 ● Online Databases 135 ● Traditional Library Holdings 137 ● Interviews 139

Research Strategies 141 Develop a Preliminary Bibliography 141 ● Locate Resources 142 ● Assess the Usefulness of Resources 142 ● Take Notes 143

DEVELOPING YOUR SPEECH STEP BY STEP Gather Supporting Material 143

Identify Possible Presentation Aids 144

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Types of Supporting Material 144 Illustrations 145

LEARNING FROM GREAT SPEAKERS Eleanor Roosevelt 146

Descriptions and Explanations 147 ● Definitions 148 ● Analogies 149 ● Statistics 150 ● Opinions 152

CONFIDENTLY CONNECTING WITH YOUR AUDIENCE Prepare Early 153

The Best Supporting Material 154

STUDY GUIDE 156

SPEECH WORKSHOP Identifying a Variety of Supporting Material for Your Speech 158

Organizing Your Speech 161 Organizing Your Main Ideas 163

CONFIDENTLY CONNECTING WITH YOUR AUDIENCE Organize Your Message 163

Organizing Ideas Topically 163 ● Ordering Ideas Chronologically 164 ● Arranging Ideas Spatially 166 ● Organizing Ideas to Show Cause and Effect 166

LEARNING FROM GREAT SPEAKERS Desmond Tutu 166

Organizing Ideas by Problem-Solution 167 ● Acknowledging Cultural Differences in Organization 169

Subdividing Your Main Ideas 170 Integrating Your Supporting Material 170

Prepare Your Supporting Material 170 ● Organize Your Supporting Material 171

DEVELOPING YOUR SPEECH STEP BY STEP Organize Your Speech 172

Incorporate Your Supporting Material into Your Speech 173

Developing Signposts 173

SAMPLE INTEGRATION OF SUPPORTING MATERIAL 173

Transitions 174 ● Previews 175 ● Summaries 176

Supplementing Signposts with Presentation Aids 177

STUDY GUIDE 178

SPEECH WORKSHOP Organizing Your Ideas 180

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Introducing and Concluding Your Speech 183 CONFIDENTLY CONNECTING WITH YOUR AUDIENCE Be Familiar with Your

Introduction and Conclusion 184

Purposes of Introductions 184 Get the Audience’s Attention 184 ● Give the Audience a Reason to Listen 185 ● Introduce the Subject 185 ● Establish Your Credibility 186 ● Preview Your Main Ideas 186

Effective Introductions 187 Illustrations or Anecdotes 187 ● Startling Facts or Statistics 188 ● Quotations 188 ● Humor 189 ● Questions 190 ● References to Historical Events 191 ● References to Recent Events 192 ● Personal References 192 ● References to the Occasion 192 ● References to Preceding Speeches 193

Purposes of Conclusions 193 Summarize the Speech 193 ● Provide Closure 194

Effective Conclusions 195 Methods Also Used for Introductions 196 ● References to the Introduction 196 ● Inspirational Appeals or Challenges 196

LEARNING FROM GREAT SPEAKERS Patrick Henry 197

STUDY GUIDE 198

SPEECH WORKSHOP Developing the Introduction and Conclusion to Your Speech 200

Outlining and Revising Your Speech 203 Developing Your Preparation Outline 204

The Preparation Outline 204 ● Sample Preparation Outline 206

Revising Your Speech 207

SAMPLE PREPARATION OUTLINE 208

Developing Your Delivery Outline and Speaking Notes 209 The Delivery Outline 210

SAMPLE DELIVERY OUTLINE 210

Sample Delivery Outline 211 ● Speaking Notes 212

CONFIDENTLY CONNECTING WITH YOUR AUDIENCE Use Your Well-Prepared Speaking Notes When You Rehearse 212

LEARNING FROM GREAT SPEAKERS Mark Twain 213

STUDY GUIDE 214

SPEECH WORKSHOP Outlining Your Speech 215

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Using Words Well: Speaker Language and Style 217 Differentiating Oral and Written Language Styles 218 Using Words Effectively 219

Use Specific, Concrete Words 219 ● Use Simple Words 220 ● Use Words Correctly 220 ● Use Words Concisely 221

Adapting Your Language Style to Diverse Listeners 221 Use Language That Your Audience Can Understand 222 ● Use Appropriate Language 222 ● Use Unbiased Language 222

Crafting Memorable Word Structures 223 Creating Figurative Images 224 ● Creating Drama 225 ● Creating Cadence 225

LEARNING FROM GREAT SPEAKERS John F. Kennedy 228

Analyzing an Example of Memorable Word Structure 228

Using Memorable Word Structures Effectively 229

CONFIDENTLY CONNECTING WITH YOUR AUDIENCE Use Words to Manage Your Anxiety 229

STUDY GUIDE 230

SPEECH WORKSHOP Conducting a “Language Style Audit” of Your Speech 232

Delivering Your Speech 235 The Power of Speech Delivery 236

Listeners Expect Effective Delivery 236 ● Listeners Make Emotional Connections with You through Delivery 237 ● Listeners Believe What They See 238

Methods of Delivery 238 Manuscript Speaking 238 ● Memorized Speaking 239 ● Impromptu Speaking 240 ● Extemporaneous Speaking 241

Characteristics of Effective Delivery 242

LEARNING FROM GREAT SPEAKERS Marcus Tullius Cicero 242

Eye Contact 243 ● Gestures 243 ● Movement 246 ● Posture 247 ● Facial Expression 248 ● Vocal Delivery 248 ● Personal Appearance 253

Audience Diversity and Delivery 253

DON’T GET LOST IN TRANSLATION 255

Rehearsing Your Speech: Some Final Tips 256 CONFIDENTLY CONNECTING WITH YOUR AUDIENCE Re-create the Speech Environment When You Rehearse 257

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DEVELOPING YOUR SPEECH STEP BY STEP Rehearse Your Speech 257

Delivering Your Speech 257

DEVELOPING YOUR SPEECH STEP BY STEP Deliver Your Speech 257

Responding to Questions 258

STUDY GUIDE 261

SPEECH WORKSHOP Improving Your Speech Delivery 263

Using Presentation Aids 265 The Value of Presentation Aids 266

LEARNING FROM GREAT SPEAKERS Ronald Reagan 267

Types of Presentation Aids 268 Three-Dimensional Presentation Aids 268 ● Two-Dimensional Presentation Aids 269 ● PowerPoint™ Presentation Aids 274 ● Tips for Using PowerPoint™ 275 ● Audiovisual Aids 277

CONFIDENTLY CONNECTING WITH YOUR AUDIENCE Practice with Your Presentation Aids to Boost Your Confidence 277

Guidelines for Developing Presentation Aids 279 Make Them Easy to See 279 ● Keep Them Simple 279 ● Select the Right Presentation Aid 280 ● Do Not Use Dangerous or Illegal Presentation Aids 280

Guidelines for Using Presentation Aids 280 Rehearse with Your Presentation Aids 281 ● Make Eye Contact with Your Audience, Not with Your Presentation Aids 281 ● Explain Your Presentation Aids 281 ● Do Not Pass Objects among Members of Your Audience 282 ● Use Animals with Caution 282 ● Use Handouts Effectively 282 ● Time the Use of Visuals to Control Your Audience’s Attention 283 ● Use Technology Effectively 284 ● Remember Murphy’s Law 284

STUDY GUIDE 285

SPEECH WORKSHOP A Checklist for Using Effective Presentation Aids 287

Speaking to Inform 289 Types of Informative Speeches 290

LEARNING FROM GREAT SPEAKERS Oprah Winfrey 291

Speeches about Objects 292 ● Speeches about Procedures 293 ● Speeches about People 294 ● Speeches about Events 295 ● Speeches about Ideas 295

Strategies to Enhance Audience Understanding 296 Speak with Clarity 296 ● Use Principles and Techniques of Adult Learning 297 ● Clarify Unfamiliar Ideas or Complex Processes 298 ● Appeal to a Variety of Learning Styles 299

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Strategies to Maintain Audience Interest 300 Motivate Your Audience to Listen to You 300 ● Tell a Story 301 ● Present Information That Relates to Your Listeners 301 ● Use the Unexpected 301

SAMPLE INFORMATIVE SPEECH 302

Strategies to Enhance Audience Recall 303 Build In Redundancy 303 ● Make Your Key Ideas Short and Simple 304 ● Pace Your Information Flow 304 ● Reinforce Key Ideas 304

Developing an Audience-Centered Informative Speech 305 Consider Your Audience 305 ● Select and Narrow Your Informational Topic 305 ● Determine Your Informative Purpose 306 ● Develop Your Central Idea 306 ● Generate Your Main Ideas 306

CONFIDENTLY CONNECTING WITH YOUR AUDIENCE Focus on Your Information Rather Than on Your Fear 307

Gather Your Supporting Materials 307 ● Organize Your Speech 307 ● Rehearse Your Presentation 307 ● Deliver Your Speech 307

STUDY GUIDE 309

SPEECH WORKSHOP Developing a Vivid Word Picture 311

Understanding Principles of Persuasive Speaking 315 Persuasion Defined 314

Changing or Reinforcing Audience Attitudes 314 ● Changing or Reinforcing Audience Beliefs 315 ● Changing or Reinforcing Audience Values 315 ● Changing or Reinforcing Audience Behaviors 316

How Persuasion Works 316 Aristotle’s Traditional Approach: Using Ethos, Logos, and Pathos to Persuade 316 ● ELM’S Contemporary Approach: Using a Direct or Indirect Path to Persuade 317

How to Motivate Listeners 319 Use Cognitive Dissonance 319 ● Use Listener Needs 322 ● Use Positive Motivation 324 ● Use Negative Motivation 324

How to Develop Your Persuasive Speech 326 Consider the Audience 326 ● Select and Narrow Your Persuasive Topic 327

LEARNING FROM GREAT SPEAKERS Elizabeth Cady Stanton 327

Determine Your Persuasive Purpose 328 ● Develop Your Central Idea and Main Ideas 328 ● Gather Supporting Material 331

CONFIDENTLY CONNECTING WITH YOUR AUDIENCE Breathe to Relax 332

Organize Your Persuasive Speech 332 ● Rehearse and Deliver Your Speech 332

STUDY GUIDE 333

SPEECH WORKSHOP Developing a Persuasive Speech 335

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Using Persuasive Strategies 337 Enhancing Your Credibility 338

Elements of Your Credibility 338 ● Phases of Your Credibility 339

Using Logic and Evidence to Persuade 340 Understanding Types of Reasoning 341 ● Persuading the Culturally Diverse Audience 345 ● Supporting Your Reasoning with Evidence 347 ● Using Evidence Effectively 348 ● Avoiding Faulty Reasoning 349

Using Emotion to Persuade 351

LEARNING FROM GREAT SPEAKERS Franklin Delano Roosevelt 351

Tips for Using Emotion to Persuade 352 ● Using Emotional Appeals: Ethical Issues 355

Strategies for Adapting Ideas to People and People to Ideas 356 Persuading the Receptive Audience 356 ● Persuading the Neutral Audience 357 ● Persuading the Unreceptive Audience 357

CONFIDENTLY CONNECTING WITH YOUR AUDIENCE Enhance Your Initial Credibility 358

Strategies for Organizing Persuasive Messages 359 Problem–Solution 360 ● Refutation 361 ● Cause and Effect 362 ● The Motivated Sequence 363

SAMPLE PERSUASIVE SPEECH 366

STUDY GUIDE 369

SPEECH WORKSHOP Adapting Ideas to People and People to Ideas 371

Speaking for Special Occasions and Purposes 373 Public Speaking in the Workplace 374

Group Presentations 374 ● Public-Relations Speeches 377

CONFIDENTLY CONNECTING WITH YOUR AUDIENCE Seek a Variety of Speaking Opportunities 378

Ceremonial Speaking 378 Introductions 378 ● Toasts 379 ● Award Presentations 379 ● Nominations 380 ● Acceptances 380 ● Keynote Addresses 381 ● Commencement Addresses 382 ● Commemorative Addresses and Tributes 382 ● Eulogies 383

After-Dinner Speaking: Using Humor Effectively 383

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LEARNING FROM GREAT SPEAKERS Dave Barry 384

Humorous Topics 384 ● Humorous Stories 385 ● Humorous Verbal Strategies 386 ● Humorous Nonverbal Strategies 387

STUDY GUIDE 388

SPEECH WORKSHOP Introducing a Speaker 389

Epilogue 390

Speaking in Small Groups 392 Solving Problems in Groups and Teams 393

1. Identify and Define the Problem 393 ● 2. Analyze the Problem 394 ● 3. Generate Possible Solutions 394 ● 4. Select the Best Solution 395 ● 5. Test and Implement the Solution 395

Participating in Small Groups 395 Come Prepared for Group Discussions 395 ● Do Not Suggest Solutions before Analyzing the Problem 396 ● Evaluate Evidence 396 ● Help Summarize the Group’s Progress 396 ● Listen and Respond Courteously to Others 396 ● Help Manage Conflict 396

Leading Small Groups 397 Leadership Responsibilities 397 ● Leadership Styles 398

Speeches for Analysis and Discussion 400 I Have a Dream, Martin Luther King Jr. 400 Delivering the Gift of Freedom to Future Generations (Inaugural Address), Barack Obama 402 Find Your Passion, and Find a Way to Get Paid to Follow It, Anne Lynam Goddard 406 Sticky Ideas: Low-Tech Solutions to a High-Tech Problem, Richard L. Weaver, II 410

Land of the Free Because of the Homeless, Shaunna Miller 414

Endnotes 417 Index 431

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The eighth edition of Public Speaking: An Audience-Centered Approach is writ-ten to be the primary text in a course intended to help students become bet-ter public speakers. We are delighted that since the first edition of the book was published two decades ago, educators and students of public speaking have found our book a distinctively useful resource to enhance public-speaking skills. We’ve worked to make our latest edition a preeminent resource for helping students enhance their speaking skills by adding new features and retaining the most success- ful elements of previous editions.

New to the Eighth Edition We’ve refined and updated the book you are holding in your hands to create a pow- erful and contemporary resource for helping speakers connect to their audience. We’ve added several new features and revised features that both instructors and stu- dents have praised.

Streamlined Organization In response to suggestions from instructors who use the book, we’ve consolidated re- lated topics to reduce the book to a total of 16 chapters, allowing instructors to in- clude every chapter during a standard semester. Chapter 1 now offers a preview of the audience-centered speaking model as well as introducing students to the history and value of public speaking and starting the process of building their confidence as public speakers. Chapter 6 now not only shows stu- dents how to gather sup- porting material, but also immediately provides them advice and examples for ef- fective ways to integrate their supporting materials into a speech.

Preface

Learn, compare,

collect the

facts! . . . Always

have the courage to

say to yourself—

I am ignorant.

—IVAN PETROVICH PAVLOV

132

Sources of Supporting Material Personal Knowledge and

Experience The Internet Online Databases Traditional Library Holdings Interviews

Research Strategies Develop a Preliminary Bibliography Locate Resources Assess the Usefulness of Resources

Take Notes Identify Possible Presentation Aids

Types of Supporting Material Illustrations Descriptions and Explanations Definitions Analogies Statistics Opinions

The Best Supporting Material

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6 Gathering and UsingSupporting Material

A pple pie is your specialty. Your family and friends relish your flaky crust,spicy filling, and crunchy crumb topping. Fortunately, not only do you havea never-fail recipe and technique, but you also know where to go for the best ingredients. Fette’s Orchard has the tangiest pie apples in town. For your crust,

you use only Premier shortening, which you buy at Meyer’s Specialty Market. Your

crumb topping requires both stone-ground whole-wheat flour and fresh creamery

butter, available on Tuesdays at the farmer’s market on the courthouse square.

Chapter 6 covers the speech-development step highlighted in Figure 6.1 on

page 134: Gather Supporting Material. Just as making your apple pie requires

that you know where to find specific ingredients, creating a successful speech re-

quires a knowledge of the sources, research strategies, and types of supporting

material that speechmakers typically use.

After studying this chapter you should be able to do the following:

1. List five potential sources of supporting material for a speech.

2. Explain five strategies for a logical research process.

3. List and describe six types of supporting material.

4. List and explain six criteria for determining the best supporting material to use in a speech.

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133

Alexandra Exter (1882–1949), Sketch for a Scenic Design, ca. 1924, gouache on paper. Photo: M. E. Smith/Private Collection. © DeA Picture Library/Art Resource, N. Y.

xxiii

xxiv Preface

Updated Features In the eighth edition, we have added more marginal Recap boxes and tables to summarize the content of nearly every major section in each chapter. Students can use the Recaps and tables to check their understanding, review for exams, and to reference key advice as they prepare their speeches.

New End-of-Chapter Study Guides We’ve provided a new, consolidated Study Guide at the end of each chapter. This practical feature helps students to review and check their understanding of chapter topics. The Study Guide summarizes the content of each major section of the chapter; restates the chapter’s best ideas for being an audience-centered speaker; poses discussion- sparking scenarios that show how chapter concepts might apply in real speaking and ethical situations; and points readers in the direction of relevant online resources that they can use as speakers.

Purposes of Introductions It is important to begin and end your speech in a way that is memorable and that also provides the repetition audiences need. A good introduction gets the audience’s attention, gives the audience a reason to listen, intro- duces your subject, establishes your credibility, and pre- views your main ideas.

Introducing your subject and previewing the body of your speech can be accomplished by includ- ing your central idea and preview statement in the introduction.

Being Audience-Centered ● Introductions and conclusions provide audiences

with important first and final impressions of speaker and speech.

● As a speaker, your task is to ensure that your in- troduction convinces your audience to listen to you.

● A credible speaker is one whom the audience judges to be a believable authority and a compe-

k E bli hi dibili l i

Being Audience-Centered ● If your audience is linguistically diverse or com-

posed primarily of listeners whose first language is not English, it may be preferable not to use humor in your introduction. Because much humor is cre- ated verbally, it may not be readily understood and it rarely translates well.

Using What You’ve Learned ● Nakai is planning to give his informative speech on

Native American music, displaying and demon- strating the use of such instruments as the flute, the Taos drum, and the Yaqui rain stick. He asks you to suggest a good introduction for the speech. How do you think he might best introduce his speech?

A Question of Ethics ● Marty and Shanna, who are in the same section of a

public-speaking class, are discussing their upcoming speeches. Marty has discovered an illustration that she thinks will make an effective introduction. When she tells Shanna about it, Shanna is genuinely enthu- siastic In fact she thinks it would make a great in-

STUDY GUIDE

198 CHAPTER 8 Introducing and Concluding Your Speech

TABLE 4.3 Adapting Your Message to Different Types of Audiences

Type of Audience Example How to Be Audience-Centered

Interested Mayors who attend a talk by the gov- ernor about increasing security and reducing the threat of terrorism

Acknowledge audience interest early in your speech; use the interest they have in you and your topic to gain and maintain their attention.

Uninterested Junior-high students attending a lecture about retirement benefits

Make it a high priority to tell your lis- teners why your message should be of interest to them. Remind your listeners throughout your speech how your mes- sage relates to their lives.

Favorable A religious group that meets to hear a group leader talk about the importance of their beliefs

Use audience interest to move them closer to your speaking goal; you may be more explicit in telling them in your speech conclusion what you would like them to do.

Unfavorable Students who attend a lecture by the university president explaining why tuition and fees will increase 15 percent next year

Be realistic in what you expect to ac- complish; acknowledge listeners’ oppos- ing point of view; consider using facts to refute misperceptions they may hold.

Voluntary Parents attending a lecture by the new principal at their children’s school

Anticipate why listeners are coming to hear you, and speak about the issues they want you to address.

Captive Students in a public-speaking class Find out who will be in your audience and use this knowledge to adapt your message to them.

We’ve updated the extended example that appears in Developing Your Speech Step by Step boxes throughout the book. We’ve also updated our popular Learning from Great Speakers features, which identify specific tips and lessons students can learn from great speakers, and our practical Speech Workshop worksheets, which end each chapter and guide students in implementing chapter advice. These worksheets are designed as aids to help students with what they are most concerned about: developing and delivering their own speeches with confidence.

New Speeches We’ve added new annotated student speeches and speech examples throughout the book. In addition, nearly every speech in our revised Appendix B is new, selected to provide readers with a variety of positive models of effective speeches.

R E

C A

P Adapting to Your Audience To ethically use information to help an audience understand your message, consider your:

• listeners

• speech goal

• speech content

• delivery

Avoid pandering to listeners or making up information.

Organizing Your Ideas Use this worksheet to help you identify the overall organizational strategy for your speech.

GENERAL PURPOSE:

____ To inform

____ To persuade

____ To entertain

SPECIFIC PURPOSE:

At the end of my speech, the audience will be able to ___________________________

SPEECH WORKSHOP 180 CHAPTER 7 Developing Your Speech

Preface xxv

New Examples and Illustrations New examples and illustrations integrated in every chapter provide both classic and contemporary models to help students master the art of public speaking. As in previous editions, we draw on both stu- dent speeches and speeches delivered by well-known people.

New Material in Every Chapter In addition to these new and expanded features, each chapter has been revised with new examples, illustrations, and references to the latest research conclusions. Here’s a summary of the changes and revisions we’ve made:

Chapter 1: Speaking with Confidence ● The chapter now includes a preview of the audience-centered speaking

process to offer a more complete introduction to public speaking. ● New research on biological causes and effects of speech anxiety provides

advice for channeling physiological arousal in ways that help the speaker. ● A new discussion of anxiety styles helps readers choose confidence-building

tips that are most effective for their style. ● A new figure and a new discussion of the timing of speech anxiety help speak-

ers to time their use of confidence-building strategies for maximum effect.

Chapter 2: Speaking Freely and Ethically ● A revised and updated discussion of free speech helps students understand

the evolution of interpretation of the First Amendment. ● New examples throughout the chapter keep material current and relevant to

readers. ● A new section, Speaking Credibly, reinforces the importance of ethics and

remaining audience-centered and connects concepts across chapters of the book.

Chapter 3: Listening to Speeches ● A new introduction to working memory theory helps students understand

how to cope with information overload that can impede listening. ● A new summary of research on the importance of awareness of one’s own

listening guides students to assess how well they stay on-task as listeners. ● The chapter is streamlined by removing discussion of note-taking, a skill

most students at this level have learned in other contexts. ● A new Listening Ethically section helps to reinforce the importance of ethics

introduced in the previous chapter.

Chapter 4: Analyzing Your Audience ● Our discussion of methods for gathering information has been updated to

include use of the Internet and social media. ● New definitions of race, ethnicity, and culture help readers to clarify the im-

portance of adapting to the audience’s cultural diversity.

Chapter 5: Developing Your Speech ● A new speech, in the Developing Your Speech Step by Step featured in several

chapters, provides an extended example of how to implement audience- centered speechmaking concepts.

Speech Assignment Given

A nx

ie ty

L ev

You Begin Your Speech

Speech

High

Low

● Updated lists of potential speech topics can spark students’ own topic brainstorms. ● New material helps students to clarify and distinguish among the general purpose,

specific purpose, and central idea of their speeches. ● New examples throughout the chapter keep material current and relevant to readers.

Chapter 6: Gathering and Using Supporting Material ● This streamlined chapter combines two previously separate chapters to show students

not only where to find supporting material but also how to most effectively use the material they find.

● A thoroughly updated section on sources of information guides students to use Inter- net sources, online databases, traditional library holdings and more, without rehashing research basics students have learned in other contexts.

● The revised end-of-chapter Speech Workshop offers students structured guidance for planning their use of supporting materials.

Chapter 7: Organizing Your Speech ● New examples provide clear demonstrations of how to use popular organizational

patterns, establish main ideas, integrate supporting material, and signal transitions with signposts.

Chapter 8: Introducing and Concluding Your Speech ● New examples of effective introductions and conclusions from both student and

seasoned speakers show students how to implement the techniques described in the chapter.

Chapter 9: Outlining and Revising Your Speech

● We’ve moved our discussion of editing to Chapter 10, where it helps students to focus on the process of rehearsing with a preparation outline as a way to guide them in revising their speeches.

● We’ve included a new Sample Preparation Outline and Delivery Outline to give students complete models of the best practices in organization and revision.

Chapter 10: Using Words Well: Speaker Language and Style

● A discussion of editing your speech, formerly in Chapter 9, helps students to under- stand how to make their speeches more effective by keeping their words concise.

● New examples throughout the chapter clarify discussions of memorable word struc- tures, including similes, metaphors, inversion, suspension, parallelism, antithesis, and alliteration.

Chapter 11: Delivering Your Speech

● New information offers guidance in using eye contact effectively. ● A new table summarizes recommendations for working with a translator when speak-

ing to audiences who do not speak English. ● We’ve streamlined the chapter by removing discussion of adapting speech delivery for

television. ● A revised end-of-chapter Speech Workshop offers students structured guidance for

evaluating how to improve their speech delivery.

xxvi Preface

Chapter 12: Using Presentation Aids ● Updated information on two-dimensional presentation aids suggests more effective,

economical technological alternatives when using photographs, slides, and overhead transparencies.

● We’ve added new information on the latest research about using PowerPoint™. ● New discussions of using video aids and audio aids include references to current stor-

age technology, such as iPods and iPads, as well as current content sources, such as YouTube.

Chapter 13: Speaking to Inform ● A new section shows readers how to appeal to a variety of listener learning styles when

speaking to inform. ● Another new section shows the applicability of every step of the audience-centered

model of public speaking to informative speeches.

Chapter 14: Understanding Principles of Persuasive Speaking ● A clarified definition helps students to understand key elements of persuasion. ● New and expanded discussion of ELM persuasion theory and how it compares to Aris-

totle’s classical theory focuses on how persuasive speakers can effectively apply both theories.

● A new discussion and figure on social judgment theory help students to apply theoret- ical concepts to their own real-life speaking situations.

● An expanded section How to Develop Your Persuasive Speech shows students how to apply every step of the audience-centered speaking model to their persuasive speeches.

Chapter 15: Using Persuasive Strategies ● Our updated discussion of credibility helps students to plan how to establish and sup-

port their own credibility at various phases of their speech. ● New examples help to clarify explanations of strategies for organizing persuasive

messages, including refutation, cause and effect, and the motivated sequence. ● A new Sample Persuasive Speech gives students a complete model of how to use the

motivated sequence and other principles of persuasion.

Chapter 16: Speaking for Special Occasions and Purposes ● New chapter opening examples reinforce the value of public speaking with dollars-

and-cents evidence. ● New examples throughout the chapter demonstrate models of speeches for ceremonial

occasions including award acceptances, commencement addresses, and eulogies, as well as humorous speaking.

Successful Features Retained in This Edition The goal of the eighth edition of Public Speaking: An Audience-Centered Approach remains the same as that of the previous seven editions: to be a practical and user-friendly guide to help speakers connect their hearts and minds with those of their listeners. While adding powerful new features and content to help students become skilled public speakers, we have also endeavored

Preface xxvii

to keep what students and instructors liked best. Specifically, we retained five areas of focus that have proven successful in previous editions: our audience-centered approach; our focus on over- coming communication apprehension; our focus on ethics; our focus on diversity; and our focus on skill development. We also continue our partnership with instructors and students by offer- ing a wide array of print and electronic supplements to support teaching and learning.

Our Audience-Centered Approach The distinguishing focus of the book is our audience-centered approach. Over 2,300 years ago, Aristotle said, “For of the three elements in speechmaking—speaker, subject, and person ad- dressed—it is the last one, the hearer, that determines the speaker’s end and object.” We think Aristotle was right. A good speech centers on the needs, values, and hopes of the audience, who should be foremost in the speaker’s mind during every step of the speech development and de- livery process. Thus, in a very real sense, the audience writes the speech. Effective and ethical public speaking does not simply tell listeners only what they want to hear—that would be a manipulative, speaker-centered approach. Rather, the audience-centered speaker is ethically responsive to audience interests without abandoning the speaker’s end and object.

It is not unusual or distinctive for a public-speaking book to discuss audience analysis. What is unique about our audience-centered approach is that our discussion of audience analy- sis and adaptation is not confined to a single chapter; rather, we emphasize the importance of considering the audience throughout our entire discussion of the speech preparation and delivery process. From the opening overview of the public-speaking process until the final chapter, we illuminate the positive power of helping students relate to their audience by keep- ing their listeners foremost in mind.

Preparing and delivering a speech also involves a sequence of steps. Our audience-centered model integrates the step-by-step process of speech preparation and delivery with the ongoing

process of considering the audience. Our audience-centered model of public speaking, shown here and intro- duced in Chapter 1, reappears throughout the text to remind students of the

steps involved in speech preparation and delivery, while simultaneously emphasizing the importance of considering the audience. Viewing the

model as a clock, the speaker begins the process at the 12 o’clock position with “Select and Narrow Topic” and moves around the

model clockwise to “Deliver Speech.” Each step of the speech preparation and delivery process touches the center portion of the model, labeled “Consider the Audience.” Arrows connect- ing the center with each step of the process illustrate how the audience influences each of the steps involved in designing and presenting a speech. Arrows pointing in both directions around the central process of “Consider the Audience” repre- sent how a speaker may sometimes revise a previous step be-

cause of further information or thought about the audience. A speaker may, for example, decide after having gathered support-

ing material for a speech that he or she needs to go back and revise the speech purpose. Visual learners will especially appreciate the

illustration of the entire public-speaking process provided by the model. The colorful, easy-to-understand synopsis will also be appreci-

ated by people who learn best by having an overview of the entire process before beginning the first step of speech preparation.

After introducing the model in the very first chapter of the book, we continue to emphasize the centrality of considering the audience by revisiting it at appropriate points throughout the book. A highlighted version of the model appears in several chapters, as a visual reminder of the place the chapter’s topic occupies in the audience-centered speech- making process. Similarly, highlighted versions appear in Developing Your Speech Step by Step boxes. Another visual reminder comes in the form of a miniature version of the model, the icon shown here in the margin. When you see this icon, it will remind you that the material

xxviii Preface

Deliver Speech

Generate Main Ideas

Develop Central

Idea

Gather Supporting

Material

Select and Narrow Topic

Rehearse Speech

Determine Purpose

Organize Speech

CONSIDER THE

AUDIENCE

CONSIDER THE

AUDIENCE

presented has special significance for considering your audience.

Our Focus on Communication Apprehension One of the biggest barriers that keeps a speaker, especially a novice public speaker, from connecting to his or her audience is apprehension. Fear of failure, forgetting, or fumbling words is a major distraction. In this edition, we help students to overcome their apprehension of speaking to others by focusing on their listeners rather than on their fear. We’ve updated and expanded our discussion of communication appre- hension in Chapter 1, adding the most contemporary research conclusions we can find to help stu- dents overcome the anxiety that many people experience when speaking publicly. To help students integrate confidence-boosting strategies through their study of public speaking, we offer students powerful pointers for managing anxiety in the Confidently Connecting with Your Audience features found in the margins of each chapter. To provide yet additional help for managing apprehension, we’ve distilled several seminal ideas keyed to our audience-centered model on the inside back cover. So, from Chapter 1 until the literal last page in the book, we help stu- dents manage their apprehension.

Our Focus on Ethics Being audience-centered does not mean that a speaker tells an audience only what they want to hear; if you are not true to your own values, you will have become a manipulative, unethical communicator rather than an audience-centered one. Audience-centered speakers articulate truthful messages that give audience members free choice in responding to a message, while they also use effective means of ensuring message clarity and credibility.

From the first chapter onward, we link being an audience-centered speaker with being an ethical speaker. Our principles and strategies for being rhetorically skilled are anchored in eth- ical principles that assist speakers in articulating a message that connects with their audience. We not only devote an entire chapter (Chapter 2) to being an ethical speaker, but we also offer reminders, tips, and strategies for making ethical speaking and listening an integral part of human communication. As part of the Study Guide at the end of each chapter, students and in- structors will find questions to spark discussion about and raise awareness of ethical issues in effective speechmaking.

Our Focus on Diversity Just as the topic of audience analysis is covered in most public-speaking textbooks, so is diversity. Sometimes diversity is discussed in a separate chapter; sometimes it is presented in “diversity boxes” sprinkled throughout a book. We choose to address diversity not as an add-on to the main discussion but rather as an integral part of being an audience-centered speaker. To be audience- centered is to acknowledge the various ethnic and cultural backgrounds, attitudes, beliefs, values, and other differences present when people assemble to hear a speech. We suggest that inherent in the process of being audience-centered is a focus on the diverse nature of listeners in contempo- rary audiences. The topic of adapting to diverse audiences is therefore not a boxed afterthought but is integrated into every step of our audience-centered approach.

Preface xxix

CONFIDENTLY CONNECTING WITH YOUR AUDIENCE

Look for Positive Listener Support Audience members want you to do well. Many if not most listeners will express their support for your ideas with eye contact, nods of the head, and supportive facial expressions. Make a point to look for these reinforcing nonverbal cues as you deliver your message. (But don’t forget to main- tain eye contact with all members of the audi- ence.) Let these signs of positive support from your listeners remind you that listeners want you to succeed.

Our Focus on Skill Development We are grateful for our ongoing collaboration with public-speaking teachers, many of whom have used our audience-centered approach for nearly two decades. We have retained those skill- development features of previous editions that both teachers and students have applauded. What instructors tell us most often is “You write like I teach” or “Your book echoes the same kind of advice and skill development suggestions that I give my students.” We are gratified by the continued popularity of Public Speaking: An Audience-Centered Approach.

Clear and Interesting Writing Style Readers have especially valued our polished prose, concise style, and engaging, lively voice. Students tell us that reading our book is like having a conversation with their instructor.

Outstanding Examples Not only do students need to be told how to speak effectively, they need to be shown how to speak well. Our powerful and interesting examples, both classic and contemporary and drawn from both student speakers and famous orators, continue to resonate with student speakers.

Built-in Learning Resources We’ve retained the following built-in pedagogical features of previous editions:

● Chapter outlines ● Learning objectives ● Crisply written narrative summaries ● End-of-chapter speech workshop worksheets that students can use to apply speaking

principles from the chapter to their own speeches.

In the eighth edition, we have added more Recap boxes and tables to summarize the content of nearly every major section in each chapter. We’ve also provided a new, consolidated Study Guide at the end of each chapter.

Our Partnership with Instructors and Students Public speaking students rarely learn how to be articulate speakers only from reading a book. Students learn best in partnership with an experienced instructor who can guide them through the process of being an audience-centered speaker. And experienced instructors rely on the some support from textbook publishers. To support instructors and students who use Public Speaking: An Audience-Centered Approach, Pearson offers various supplements, described in the following pages. For more information about all of our book- and course-specific supplements for public speaking, as well as to view samples, please visit www.mycoursetoolbox.com.

xxx Preface

Name of Supplement

Available in Print

Available Online

Instructor or Student Supplement Description

Instructor’s Classroom Kits, Volumes I and II (Vol. I ISBN: 0205032524 Vol. II ISBN: 0205032451)

✓ ✓ Instructor Supplement

Pearson’s unparalleled Classroom Kit includes every instruction aid a public speaking professor needs to manage the classroom. Organized by chapter, each volume contains materials from the Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank, as well as slides from the PowerPoint™ Presentation Package that accompanies this text.

The fully updated Instructor’s Manual, prepared by Joy Daggs, Columbia College, offers a chapter-by-chapter guide to teaching Public Speaking, including chapter overviews, chapter summaries, learning objectives, lecture outlines, discussion questions, activities, online teaching plans, and handout masters.

The Test Bank, prepared by Steve P. Strickler, Southwest Oklahoma State University, contains multiple choice, true/ false, completion, short answer, and essay questions. Each question has a correct answer and is referenced by page and difficulty level. Electronic copies of all of the resources are available on Pearson’s Instructor’s Resource Center at www.pearsonhighered.com/irc (access code required).

MyTest (ISBN: 0205828116)

✓ Instructor Supplement

This flexible, online test generating software includes all questions found in the Test Bank section of the Classroom Kits, allowing instructors to create their own personalized exams. Instructors can also edit any of the existing test questions and even add new questions. Other special features of this program include random generation of test questions, creation of alternate versions of the same test, scrambling of question sequence, and test preview before printing. Available at www.pearsonmytest.com (access code required).

PowerPoint™ Presentation Package (ISBN: 0205055648)

✓ Instructor Supplement

This text-specific package, prepared by Kim Higgs, University of North Dakota, provides a basis for your lecture with visually enhanced PowerPoint™ slides for each chapter of the book. In addition to providing key concepts and select art, these presentations bring the content to life with pedagogically valuable text animations as well as detailed instructor notes. Available at www.pearsonhighered.com/irc (access code required).

Pearson’s ClassPrep ✓ Instructor Supplement

New from Pearson, ClassPrep makes lecture preparation simpler and less time-consuming. It collects the very best class presentation resources—art and figures from our texts, videos, lecture activities, audio clips, classroom activities, and much more—in one convenient online destination. You may search through ClassPrep’s extensive database of tools by content topic (arranged by standard topics within the public speaking curriculum) or by content type (video, audio, activities, etc.). You will find ClassPrep in the Instructor’s section of MySpeechLab (access code required).

Contemporary Classic Speeches DVD (ISBN: 0205405525)

✓ Instructor Supplement

This exciting supplement includes over 120 minutes of video footage in an easy-to-use DVD format. Each speech is accompanied by a biographical and historical summary that helps students understand the context and motivation behind each speech. Speakers featured include Martin Luther King Jr., John F. Kennedy, Barbara Jordan, the Dalai Lama, and Christopher Reeve. Please contact your Pearson representative for details; some restrictions apply.

Pearson’s Public Speaking Video Library

✓ Instructor Supplement

This series of videos contains a range of different types of speeches delivered on a multitude of different topics, allowing you to choose the speeches best suited for your students. Please contact your Pearson representative for details and a complete list of videos and their contents to choose which would be most useful in your class. Samples from most of our public speaking videos are available on www.mycoursetoolbox.com. Some restrictions apply.

Preface xxxi

Resources in Print and Online

xxxii Preface

A Guide for New Public Speaking Teachers, Fifth Edition (ISBN: 0205828108)

✓ ✓ Instructor Supplement

Prepared by Jennifer L. Fairchild, Eastern Kentucky University, this guide helps new teachers prepare for and teach the introductory public speaking course effectively. It covers such topics as preparing for the term, planning and structuring your course, evaluating speeches, utilizing the textbook, integrating technology into the classroom, and much more (available for download at www.pearsonhighered.com/irc; access code required).

Public Speaking in the Multicultural Environment, Second Edition (ISBN: 0205265111)

✓ Student Supplement

Prepared by Devorah A. Lieberman, Portland State University, this booklet helps students learn to analyze cultural diversity within their audiences and adapt their presentations accordingly (available for purchase).

The Speech Outline (ISBN: 032108702X)

✓ Student Supplement

Prepared by Reeze L. Hanson and Sharon Condon of Haskell Indian Nations University, this workbook includes activities, exercises, and answers to help students develop and master the critical skill of outlining (available for purchase).

Multicultural Activities Workbook (ISBN: 0205546528)

✓ Student Supplement

By Marlene C. Cohen and Susan L. Richardson of Prince George’s Community College, this workbook is filled with hands-on activities that help broaden the content of speech classes to reflect the diverse cultural backgrounds. The checklists, surveys, and writing assignments all help students succeed in speech communication by offering experiences that address a variety of learning styles (available for purchase).

Speech Preparation Workbook (ISBN: 013559569X)

✓ Student Supplement

Prepared by Jennifer Dreyer and Gregory H. Patton of San Diego State University, this workbook takes students through the stages of speech creation–from audience analysis to writing the speech–and includes guidelines, tips, and easy- to-fill-in pages (available for purchase).

Study Card for Public Speaking (ISBN: 0205441262)

✓ Student Supplement

Colorful, affordable, and packed with useful information, the Pearson Study Cards make studying easier, more efficient, and more enjoyable. Course information is distilled down to the basics, helping students quickly master the fundamentals, review a subject for understanding, or prepare for an exam. Because they are laminated for durability, they can be kept for years to come and pulled out whenever students need a quick review (available for purchase).

Pearson's Public Speaking Study Site

✓ Student Supplement

This open access student Web resource features practice tests, learning objectives, and Web links organized around the major topics typically covered in the Introduction to Public Speaking course. The content of this site has even been correlated to the table of contents for your book (available at www.abpublicspeaking.com).

VideoLab CD-ROM (ISBN: 0205561616)

✓ Student Supplement

This interactive study tool for students can be used independently or in class. It provides digital video of student speeches that can be viewed in conjunction with corresponding outlines, manuscripts, note cards, and instructor critiques. Following each speech there are a series of drills to help students analyze content and delivery (available for purchase).

MySpeechLab ✓ Instructor & Student Supplement

MySpeechLab is a state-of-the-art, interactive and instructive solution for public speaking courses. Designed to be used as a supplement to a traditional lecture course or to completely administer an online course, MySpeechLab combines a Pearson eText, MySearchLab™, MediaShare, multimedia, video clips, activities, research support, tests and quizzes to completely engage students. MySpeechLab can be packaged with your text and is available for purchase at ww.myspeechlab.com (access code required). See next page for more details.

Name of Supplement

Available in Print

Available Online

Instructor or Student Supplement Description

Designed to amplify a traditional course in numerous ways or to administer a course online, MySpeechLab (www.myspeechlab.com) combines pedagogy and assessment with an array of multimedia activities—videos, speech preparation tools, assessments, research support, multiple newsfeeds—to make learning more effec- tive for all types of students. Now featuring more resources, including a video upload tool (MediaShare), this new release of MySpeechLab is visually richer and even more interactive than the previous ver- sion—a leap forward in design with more tools and features to enrich learning and aid students in classroom success.

Teaching and Learning Tools NEW VERSION! Pearson eText Identical in content and design to the printed text, a Pearson eText provides students with access to their text whenever and wherever they need it. In addition to contextually placed multimedia features in every chapter, our new Pearson eText allows students to take notes and highlight, just like a traditional book. The Pearson eText of this book is also available for the iPad.

Videos and Video Quizzes Interactive videos provide students with the opportunity to watch and evaluate sample speeches, both student and professional. Select videos are annotated with instructor feedback or include short, assignable quizzes that report to the instructor’s gradebook. Professional speeches include classic and contemporary speeches, as well as video segments from communication experts.

MyOutline MyOutline offers step-by-step guidance for writing an effective out- line, along with tips and explanations to help students better understand the elements of an outline and how all the pieces fit together. Outlines that students create can be downloaded to their computer, emailed as an attachment, or saved in the tool for future editing. Instructors can either select from several templates based on our texts, or they can create their own outline template for students to use.

Topic Selector This interactive tool helps students get started generating ideas and then narrowing down topics. Our Topic Selector is question based, rather than drill-down, in order to help students really learn the process of selecting their topic. Once they have determined their topic, students are directed to credible online sources for guidance with the research process.

Self-Assessments Online self assessments including the PRCA-24 and the PRPSA provide students with opportunities to assess and confirm their comfort level with speaking publicly. Instructors can use these tools to show learning over the duration of the course via MyPersonalityProfile, Pearson’s online self-assessment library and analysis tool. MyPersonalityProfile enables instructors to assign self-assessments, such as the PRPSA, at the beginning and end of the course so students can compare their results and see where they’ve improved.

Study Plan Pre- and Post-tests for each chapter test students on their knowledge of the material in the course. The tests generate a customized study plan for further assessment and focus students on areas in which they need to improve.

Speech Evaluation Tools Instructors have access to a host of Speech Evaluation Tools to use in the classroom. An additional assortment of evaluation forms and guides for students and instructors offer further options and ideas for assessing presentations.

Save time and improve results with

Preface xxxiii

Building Speaking Confidence Center In this special section of MySpeechLab, stu- dents will find self-assessments, strategies, video, audio, and activities that provide additional guidance and tips for overcoming their speech apprehension—all in one convenient location.

ABC News RSS Feed MySpeechLab provides online feeds from ABC news, updated hourly, to help students choose and research their speech topics.

Cutting Edge Technology MediaShare With this new video upload tool, students are able to upload their speeches for their instructor and classmates to watch (whether face-to-face or online) and provide online feedback and comments at time-stamped intervals, including the option to include an evalua- tion rubric for instructors and/or students to fill out. Instructors can also opt to include a final grade when reviewing a student’s video. Grades can be exported from MediaShare to a SCORM-compliant.csv spreadsheet that can be imported into most learning management sys- tems. Structured much like a social networking site, MediaShare can help promote a sense of community among students.

AmericanRhetoric.com Partnership This exclusive partnership with AmericanRhetoric.com, allows students to access great speeches of our time directly from MySpeechLab (without link- ing out to another site and without advertisements or commercials!). Many speeches are also accompanied by assessment questions that ask students to evaluate specific elements of those speeches.

NEW! Audio Chapter Summaries Every chapter includes an audio chapter summary for online streaming use, perfect for students reviewing material before a test or instructors reviewing material before class.

Online Administration No matter what course management system you use—or if you do not use one at all, but still wish to easily capture your students’ grades and track their performance—Pearson has a MySpeechLab (www.myspeechlab.com) option to suit your needs. Contact one of Pearson’s Technology Specialists for more information and assistance.

A MySpeechLab access code is provided at no additional cost when packaged with selected Pearson Communication texts or can be purchased separately. To get started, contact your local Pearson Publisher’s Representative at www.pearsonhighered.com/replocator.

xxxiv Preface

Acknowledgments Writing a book is a partnership not only with each other as co-authors, but with many people who have offered us the benefit of their experience and advice about how to make this the best possible teaching and learning resource. We appreciate all of the authors and speakers we have quoted or referenced; their words and wisdom have added resonance to our knowledge and richness to our advice. We are grateful for our students, colleagues, adopters, friends, and the skilled editorial team at Allyn & Bacon.

Many talented reviewers have helped us shape the content and features of this edition. These talented public speaking teachers have supplemented our experience to help us make decisions about how to present and organize the content of this book. We express our sincere appreciation to the following reviewers who have shared their advice, wisdom, and expertise:

Reviewers of the eighth edition: John S. France, Owens State Community College; Kristina Galyen, University of Cincin- nati; Tina Harris, University of Georgia; Kherstin Khan-Brockbank, Fresno City College; Christine Mixan, University of of Nebraska at Omaha; Barbara Monaghan, Berkeley Col- lege; Karen O’Donnell, Finger Lakes Community College; Jamille Watkins-Barnes, Chicago State University; Marcy Wong, Indian River State College.

Reviewers of previous editions: Melanie Anson, Citrus College; Richard Armstrong, Wichita State University; Nancy Arnett, Brevard Community College; David E. Axon, Johnson County Community Col- lege; Ernest W. Bartow, Bucks County Community College; John Bee, University of Akron; Jaima L. Bennett, Golden West College; Donald S. Birns, SUNY—Albany; Tim Borchers, Moorhead State University; Barry Brummett, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee; John Buckley, University of Tennessee; Thomas R. Burkholder, University of Nevada—Las Vegas; Judy H. Carter, Amarillo College; Mark Chase, Slippery Rock University; Marilyn J. Cris- tiano, Paradise Valley Community College; Dan B. Curtis, Central Missouri State Univer- sity; Ann L. Darling, University of Illinois, Urbana—Champaign; Conrad E. Davidson, Minot State University; Terrence Doyle, Northern Virginia Community College; Gary W. Eckles, Thomas Nelson Community College; Thomas G. Endres, University of St. Thomas; Richard I. Falvo, El Paso Community College; Darla Germeroth, University of Scranton; Donna Goodwin, Tulsa Community College; Myra G. Gutin, Rider University; Larry Haa- panen, Lewis-Clark State College; Dayle C. Hardy-Short, Northern Arizona University; Carla J. Harrell, Old Dominion University; Phyllis Heberling, Tidewater Community College; James L. Heflin, Cameron University; Susan A. Hellweg, San Diego State Univer- sity; Wayne E. Hensley, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University; Patricia S. Hill, University of Akron; Judith S. Hoeffler, Ohio State University; Stephen K. Hunt, Illinois State University; Paul A. Hutchins, Cooke County College; Ann Marie Jablonowski, Owens Community College; Elaine B. Jenks, West Chester University; Nanette Johnson-Curiskis, Gustavus Adolphus College; Cecil V. Kramer, Jr., Liberty University; Michael W. Kramer, University of Missouri; Linda Kurz, University of Missouri, Kansas City; Ed Lamoureux, Bradley University; David Lawless, Tulsa Junior College; Robert S. Littlefield, North Dakota State University; Jeré W. Littlejohn, Mississippi State University; Harold L. Make, Millersville University of Pennsylvania; Jim Mancuso, Mesa Community College; Deborah F. Meltsner, Old Dominion University; Rebecca Mikesell, University of Scranton; Maxine Minson, Tulsa Junior College; Jay R. Moorman, Missouri Southern State University; Mar- jorie Keeshan Nadler, Miami University; Rhonda Parker, University of San Francisco; Rox- anne Parrott, University of Georgia; Richard L. Quianthy, Broward Community College; Carol L. Radetsky, Metropolitan State College; Renton Rathbun, Owens Community Col- lege; Mary Helen Richer, University of North Dakota; K. David Roach, Texas Tech Univer- sity; Kellie W. Roberts, University of Florida; Rebecca Roberts, University of Wyoming; Val Safron, Washington University; Kristi Schaller, University of Hawaii at Manoa; Cara Schol- lenberger, Bucks County Community College; Shane Simon, Central Texas College; Cheri

Preface xxxv

J. Simonds, Illinois State University; Glenn D. Smith, University of Central Arkansas; David R. Sprague, Liberty University; Jessica Stowell, Tulsa Junior College; Edward J. Streb, Rowan College; Aileen Sundstrom, Henry Ford Community College; Susan L. Sutton, Cloud County Community College; Tasha Van Horn, Citrus College; Jim Vickrey, Troy State Uni- versity; Denise Vrchota, Iowa State University; Beth M. Waggenspack, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University; David E. Walker, Middle Tennessee State University; Lynn Wells, Saddleback College; Nancy R. Wernm, Glenville State College; Charles N. Wise, El Paso Community College; Argentina R. Wortham, Northeast Lakeview College; Merle Ziegler, Liberty University;

Kosta Tovstiadi is a good friend and trusted researcher who assisted with research for this edition. We are grateful that Karon Bowers, editor-in-chief Communication, continued to be a strong source of support and encouragement to us as we worked on this edition, as she was on previous editions. Sheralee Connors, our development editor, has done an exceptional job of offering skilled advice and creative suggestions to make this a better book. She helped lighten our workload with her many helpful comments and suggestions.

We have enjoyed strong support and mentorship from a number of teachers, friends, and colleagues who have influenced our work over the years. Our colleagues at Texas State Univer- sity–San Marcos continue to be supportive of our efforts. Tom Willett, retired professor from William Jewell College; Dan Curtis, emeritus professor at the University of Central Missouri; John Masterson, emeritus professor at Texas Lutheran University; and Thompson Biggers, pro- fessor at Mercer University are longtime friends and exemplary teachers who continue to influence our work and our lives. Sue Hall, Department of Communication Studies senior ad- ministrative assistant at Texas State, again provided exceptional support and assistance to keep our work on schedule. Meredith Clayton, also an administrative assistant at Texas State, helped us in innumerable ways.

We view our work as authors of a textbook as primarily a teaching process. Both of us have been blessed with gifted teachers whose dedication and mentorship continues to inspire and encourage us. Mary Harper, former speech, English, and drama teacher at Steve’s high school alma mater, Grain Valley High School, Grain Valley, Missouri; and Sue’s speech teacher, the late Margaret Dent, who taught at Hannibal High School, Hannibal, Missouri, provided initial in- struction in public speaking that remains with us today. We also value the life lessons and friendship we receive from Erma Doty, another former teacher at Grain Valley High, who con- tinues to offer us encouragement and support not only with what she says but by how she lives her life in service for others. We appreciate the patience and encouragement we received from Robert Brewer, our first debate coach at the University of Central Missouri, where we met each other more than forty years ago and where the ideas for this book were first discussed. We both served as student teachers under the unforgettable, energetic guidance of the late Louis Banker at Fort Osage High School, near Buckner, Missouri. Likewise, we have both benefited from the skilled instruction of Mary Jeanette Smythe, now retired from the University of Missouri–- Columbia. We wish to express our appreciation to Loren Reid, emeritus professor from the Uni- versity of Missouri—Columbia; to us, he remains the quintessential speech teacher.

Finally, we value the patience, encouragement, proud support, and love of our sons and daughter-in-law, Mark, Matthew, and Brittany Beebe. They offer many inspiring lessons in overcoming life challenges and infusing life with music. They continue to be our most important audience.

STEVEN A. BEEBE SUSAN J. BEEBE

xxxvi Preface

Public Speaking

There are two kinds

of speakers: those

that are nervous

and those that are

liars.

—MARK TWAIN

Why Study Public Speaking? Empowerment Employment

The Communication Process Communication as Action Communication as Interaction Communication as Transaction

The Rich Heritage of Public Speaking

Improving Your Confidence as a Speaker

Understand Your Nervousness

How to Build Your Confidence

An Overview of Audience- Centered Public Speaking

Consider Your Audience Gather and Analyze Information

about Your Audience Consider the Culturally Diverse

Background of Your Audience

Select and Narrow Your Topic

Determine Your Purpose Determine Your General Purpose Determine Your Specific Purpose

Develop Your Central Idea

Generate the Main Ideas

Gather Supporting Material Gather Interesting Supporting

Material Gather Visual Supporting Material

Organize Your Speech

Rehearse Your Speech

Deliver Your Speech

O U

T L

IN E

Arthur Segal (1875–1944), The Speaker, 1912. Collection of Henri Nannen, Emden, Germany. Photo: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, N.Y.

1 Speaking with Confidence

P erhaps you think you have heard this speaker—or even taken a class fromhim: His eyes were buried in his script. His words in monotone emergedhaltingly from behind his mustache, losing volume as they were sifted through hair. Audiences rushed to see and hear him, and after they had satisfied

their eyes, they closed their ears. Ultimately, they turned to small talk among

themselves while the great man droned on.1

The speaker described here in such an unflattering way is none other than

Albert Einstein. Sadly, although the great physicist could attract an audience with

his reputation, he could not sustain their attention and interest because he

lacked public-speaking skills.

After studying this chapter you should be able to do the following:

1. Explain why it is important to study public speaking.

2. Sketch and explain a model that illustrates the components and the process of communication.

3. Discuss in brief the history of public speaking.

4. Describe why speakers sometimes feel nervous about speaking in public.

5. Use several techniques to become a more confident speaker.

6. Explain why it is important to be audience-centered during each step of the speechmaking process.

7. Identify and describe the key steps of designing and presenting a speech.O B

JE C

T IV

E S

4 CHAPTER 1 Speaking with Confidence

As you begin reading this book, chances are that you are also beginning a

course in public speaking. You’re in good company; nearly a half million college

students each year take a public speaking class.2 If you haven’t had much previ-

ous experience speaking in public, you’re also in good company. In a recent

study, 66 percent of students beginning a public-speaking course reported hav-

ing had little or no public-speaking experience.3

The good news is that this book and this course will provide you with the

knowledge and experience needed to become what Einstein was not: a compe-

tent public speaker. Right now, however, gaining that experience may seem less

like an opportunity and more like a daunting task. Why undertake it?

Why Study Public Speaking? Public speaking is the process of presenting a message to an audience, small or large. You hear speeches almost every day. When watching a newscast on TV or via the In- ternet, you get a “sound bite” of some politician delivering a speech. Each day when you attend class, an instructor lectures. When you hear a comedian delivering a monologue on a late-night talk show or the Comedy Channel, you’re hearing a speech designed to entertain you. But although you’ve heard countless speeches dur- ing your lifetime, you may still have questions about why it’s important for you to study public speaking. Here are two reasons: By studying public speaking you will gain long-term advantages related to empowerment and employment.

Empowerment You will undoubtedly be called on to speak in public at various times in your life: as a student participating in a seminar class; as a businessperson convincing your boss to let you undertake a new project; as a concerned citizen addressing the city coun- cil’s zoning board. In each of these situations, the ability to speak with competence and confidence will provide empowerment. To be empowered is to have the re- sources, information, and attitudes that allow you to take action to achieve a desired goal. Being a skilled public speaker will give you an edge that other, less skilled com- municators lack—even those who may have superior ideas, training, or experience. It will position you for greater things. Former presidential speechwriter James Humes, who labels public speaking “the language of leadership,” says, “Every time you have to speak—whether it’s in an auditorium, in a company conference room, or even at your own desk—you are auditioning for leadership.”4

You feel truly empowered when you speak with confidence, knowing that your ideas are expressed with conviction and assurance. Yet if you’re typical, you may experience fear and anxiety about speaking in public. As you start your journey of becoming an effective public speaker, you may have questions about how to bolster your confidence and manage your apprehension. Before you finish this chapter, you’ll have read about more than a dozen strategies to help you feel both more empowered and more confi- dent. Being both a confident and an empowered public speaker is within your grasp. And being an empowered speaker can open up leadership and career opportunities for you.

Employment It was industrialist Charles M. Schwab who said, “I’ll pay more for a person’s ability to speak and express himself than for any other quality he might possess.”5 If you can speak well, you possess a skill that others will value highly. Whether you’re currently employed as an entry-level employee or aspire to the highest rung of the corporate leadership ladder, being able to communicate effectively with others is key to success

public speaking The process of presenting a message to an audience

empowerment Having resources, information, and attitudes that lead to action to achieve a desired goal

The Communication Process 5

in any line of work. The skills you learn in a public-speaking course, such as how to ethically adapt information to listeners, organize your ideas, persuade others, and hold listeners’ attention, are among the skills most sought after by any employer. In a nationwide survey, prospective employers of college graduates said they seek candidates with “public-speaking and presentation ability.”10 Other surveys of personnel managers, both in the United States and internationally, have confirmed that they consider communication skills the top fac- tor in helping graduating college students obtain employment (see Table 1.1).11

The Communication Process Even the earliest communication theorists recognized that communication is a process. The models they formulated were linear, suggesting a simple transfer of meaning from a sender to a receiver, as shown in Figure 1.1. More recently, theorists have created models that better demonstrate the complexity of the communication process. Let’s explore what some of those models can teach us about what happens when we communicate.

Communication as Action Although they were simplistic, the earliest linear models of communication as action identified most of the elements of the communication process. We will explain each element as it relates to public speaking.

R E

C A

PWhy Study Public Speaking • Empowerment and confidence

• Career and leadership opportunities

TABLE 1.1 Top Skills Valued by Employers

Results of Survey Results of Survey Results of Survey Survey Results of Personnel of a College Career of Prospective from Several

Rank Directors6 Services Department7 Employers8 Research Studies9

1 Spoken communication Communication and Communication skills Communication skills skills interpersonal skills

2 Written communication skills Intelligence Honesty and integrity Analytical/research skills

3 Listening ability Enthusiasm Teamwork Technical skills

4 Enthusiasm Flexibility Interpersonal skills Flexibility/adaptability

5 Technical competence Leadership Motivation/initiative Interpersonal skills

FIGURE 1.1 The earliest models viewed communication as the action of transferring meaning from source to receiver.

Source Channel Receiver

Noise

Message Message

6 CHAPTER 1 Speaking with Confidence

Source A public speaker is a source of information and ideas for an audience. The job of the source or speaker is to encode, or translate, the ideas and images in his or her mind into verbal or nonverbal symbols (a code) that an audience can recognize. The speaker may encode into words (for example, “The fabric should be 2 inches square”) or into gestures (showing the size with his or her hands).

Message The message in public speaking is the speech itself—both what is said and how it is said. If a speaker has trouble finding words to convey his or her ideas or sends contradictory nonverbal symbols, listeners may not be able to decode the speaker’s verbal and nonverbal symbols back into a message.

Channels A message is usually transmitted from sender to receiver via two channels: visual and auditory. Audience members see the speaker and decode his or her nonverbal symbols—eye contact (or lack of it), facial expressions, posture, ges- tures, and dress. If the speaker uses any visual aids, such as graphs or models, these too are transmitted along the visual channel. The auditory channel opens as the speaker speaks. Then the audience members hear words and such vocal cues as in- flection, rate, and voice quality.

Receiver The receiver of the message is the individual audience member, whose decoding of the message will depend on his or her own particular blend of past ex- periences, attitudes, beliefs, and values. As already emphasized, an effective public speaker should be receiver- or audience-centered.

Noise Anything that interferes with the communication of a message is called noise. Noise may be physical and external. If your 8 A.M. public-speaking class is frequently interrupted by the roar of a lawn mower running back and forth under the window, it may be difficult to concentrate on what your instructor is saying. A noisy air con- ditioner, a crying baby, or incessant coughing may make it difficult for audience members to hear or concentrate on a speech.

Noise may also be internal. It may stem from either physiological or psychological causes and may directly affect either the source or the receiver. A bad cold (physio-

logical noise) may cloud a speaker’s memory or subdue his or her delivery. An audience member worrying about an upcoming exam (psychological noise) is unlikely to remember much of what the speaker says. Regardless of whether it is internal or external, physiological or psychological, or whether it originates in the sender or the receiver, noise in- terferes with the transmission of a message.

Communication as Interaction Realizing that linear models were overly simplistic, later communication theorists designed models that depicted communication as a more complex process (see Figure 1.2). These models were circu- lar, or interactive, and added two important new elements: feedback and context.

Feedback One way in which public speaking differs from casual conversation is that the public speaker does most or all of the talking. But public speaking is still interactive. Without an audience to hear and provide feedback, public speaking serves little purpose. Skillful public speakers are audience-centered. They depend on the nods, facial expressions, and murmurs of the audience to adjust their rate

source The public speaker

encode To translate ideas and images into verbal or nonverbal symbols

code A verbal or nonverbal symbol for an idea or image

message The content of a speech and the mode of its delivery

decode To translate verbal or nonverbal symbols into ideas and images

channel The visual and auditory means by which a message is transmitted from sender to receiver

receiver A listener or an audience member

external noise Physical sounds that interfere with communication

FIGURE 1.2 Interactive models of communication add the element of feedback to the earlier action models. They also take into consideration the communication context.

Feedback

Source Channel Receiver

Noise

Context

Message Message

The Rich Heritage of Public Speaking 7

of speaking, volume, vocabulary, type and amount of support- ing material, and other variables to communicate their message successfully.

Context The context of a public-speaking experience is the en- vironment or situation in which the speech occurs. It includes such elements as the time, the place, and the speaker’s and audience’s cultural tradi- tions and expectations. To rephrase John Donne, no speech is an island. No speech oc- curs in a vacuum. Rather, each speech is a blend of circumstances that can never be replicated exactly.

The person whose job it is to deliver an identical message to a number of differ- ent audiences at different times and in different places can attest to the uniqueness of each speaking context. If the room is hot, crowded, or poorly lit, these conditions af- fect both speaker and audience. The audience that hears a speaker at 10 A.M. is likely to be fresher and more receptive than a 4:30 P.M. audience. A speaker who fought rush-hour traffic for 90 minutes to arrive at his or her destination may find it diffi- cult to muster much enthusiasm for delivering the speech.

Many of the skills that you will learn from this book relate not only to the prepa- ration of effective speeches (messages), but also to the elements of feedback and con- text in the communication process. Our audience-centered approach focuses on “reading” your listeners’ responses and adjusting to them as you speak.

Communication as Transaction The most recent communication models do not label individual components. Transactive models focus instead on communication as a simultaneous process. As the model in Figure 1.3 suggests, we send and receive messages concurrently. In a two-person communi- cation transaction, both individuals are sending and receiving at the same time. When you are listening, you are simultaneously express- ing your thoughts and feelings nonverbally.

An effective public speaker should not only be focused on the message he or she is expressing, but should also be tuned in to how the audience is responding to the message. A good public speaker shouldn’t wait until the speech is over to gauge the effectiveness of a speech but rather, because of the transactive nature of communica- tion, should be scanning the audience during the speech for nonver- bal clues to assess the audience’s reaction.

Although communication models have been developed only re- cently, the elements of these models have long been recognized as the keys to successful public speaking. As you study public speaking, you will continue a tradition that goes back to the very beginnings of Western civilization.

The Rich Heritage of Public Speaking Long before many people could read, they listened to public speakers. Rhetoric is an- other term for the use of words and symbols to achieve a goal. Although rhetoric is often defined as the art of speaking or writing aimed at persuading others (changing or reinforcing attitudes, beliefs, values, or behavior), whether you’re informing, per- suading, or even entertaining listeners, you are using rhetoric because you are trying to achieve a goal.

FIGURE 1.3 A transactive model of communication focuses on the simultaneous exchanges that happen between source and receiver.

Source/ Receiver

Receiver/ Source

R E

C A

PThe Communication Process Audience and speaker send messages simul- taneously. Elements of the process include:

• Source

• Message

• Channel

• Receiver

• Feedback

• Context

internal noise Physiological or psychological interference with communication

feedback Verbal and nonverbal responses provided by an audience to a speaker

context The environment or situation in which a speech occurs

rhetoric The use of words and symbols to achieve a goal

8 CHAPTER 1 Speaking with Confidence

The fourth century B.C.E was a golden age for rhetoric in the Greek Republic, where the philosopher Aristotle formulated guidelines for speakers that we still fol- low today. As politicians and poets attracted large followings in ancient Rome, Cicero and Quintilian sought to define the qualities of the “true” orator. On a lighter note, it is said that Roman orators invented the necktie. Fearing laryngitis, they wore “chin cloths” to protect their throats.12

In medieval Europe, the clergy were the most polished public speakers. People gathered eagerly to hear Martin Luther expound his Articles of Faith. In the eigh- teenth century, British subjects in the colonies listened to the town criers and impas- sioned patriots of what was to become the United States.

Vast nineteenth-century audiences heard speakers such as Henry Clay and Daniel Webster debate states’ rights; they listened to Frederick Douglass, Angelina Grimke, and Sojourner Truth argue for the abolition of slavery, and to Lucretia Mott plead for women’s suffrage; they gathered for an evening’s entertainment to hear Mark Twain as he traveled the lecture circuits of the frontier.

Students of nineteenth-century public speaking spent very little time devel- oping their own speeches. Instead, they practiced the art of declamation—the de- livery of an already famous address. Favorite subjects for declamation included speeches by such Americans as Patrick Henry and William Jennings Bryan, and by the British orator Edmund Burke. Collections of speeches, such as Bryan’s own ten-volume set of The World’s Famous Orations, published in 1906, were extremely popular.

Hand in hand with declamation went the study and practice of elocution, the ex- pression of emotion through posture, movement, gesture, facial expression, and voice. From the mid-nineteenth to the early twentieth century, elocution manuals— providing elaborate and specific prescriptions for effective delivery—were standard references not only in schools, but also in nearly every middle-class home in the United States.13

In the first half of the twentieth century, radio made it possible for people around the world to hear Franklin Delano Roosevelt decry December 7, 1941, as “a date which will live in infamy.” In the last half of the century, television provided the medium through which audiences saw and heard the most stirring speeches:

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