Environmental health from global to local 2nd edition

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH The second edition of Environmental Health: From Global to Local, a comprehensive introductory text, offers an overview of the methodology and paradigms of this burgeoning fi eld, ranging from ecology to epidemiology, from toxicology to environmental psychology, and from genetics to ethics. Expert contributors discuss the major issues in contemporary environmental health: air, water, food safety, occupational health, radiation, chemical and physical hazards, vector control, and injuries. Also emphasizing a wide variety of issues of global interest, the thoroughly revised sec- ond edition contains updated information on such timely topics as toxicology, exposure assessment, climate change, population pressure, developing nations and urbanization, energy production, building and community design, solid and hazardous waste, and disaster preparedness. In addition, each chapter of Environmental Health includes learning objectives, key points, and discussion questions.

Praise for the fi rst edition of Environmental Health “A classic textbook for the dynamic, evolving fi eld of environmental health, thoughtful, well writ- ten, well balanced and referenced. An excellent overview of a multifaceted approach to environ- mental health.”

— AOEC Newsletter (Association of Occupational and Environmental Clinics)

“With its many examples, clear explanations, and emphasis on big picture themes and relevance, it is an astonishingly interesting read.”

—Global Public Health

“The book’s chapters contain highly pertinent insights and information on environmental issues that go beyond the usual boundaries of classic environmental health.”

—Environmental Health Perspectives

Winner, AAP Award for Excellence in Professional and Scholarly Publishing

The Editor

Howard Frumkin, MD, DrPH, is director of the National Center for Environmental Health and the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry at the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Formerly he was professor and chair of the Department of Environmental and Occupa- tional Health at the Rollins School of Public Health of Emory University and professor of medicine at Emory Medical School in Atlanta.

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PUBLIC HEALTH/ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH

Cover design by Michael Rutkowski

HOWARD FRUMKIN EDITOR

F R U M K I N

Environmental Health

From Global to Local

Environm ental

Health From

Global to Local

S E C O N D E D I T I O N

S E C O N D E D I T I O N

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Environmental Health

From Global to Local

SECOND EDITION

HOWARD FRUMKIN EDITOR

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The Introduction and Chapters 6, 8, 11, 13, 14, 16, 19, 22, 23, 24, and 30 are U.S. Government Works and are not protected by U.S. Copyright.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Environmental health : from global to local / Howard Frumkin, editor. —2nd ed. p.; cm. Includes bibliographical references and indexes. ISBN 978-0-470-40487-4 (cloth) 1. Environmental health. 2. Health risk assessment. I. Frumkin, Howard. [DNLM: 1. Environmental Health. 2. Environmental Exposure—prevention & control. 3. Environmental Medicine—methods. WA 30.5 E6063 2010] RA565.E482 2010 616.9'8—dc22 2009044623 Printed in the United States of America SECOND EDITION

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C O N T E N T S

Tables, Figures, and Exhibits vii

The Editor xxi

The Contributors xxii

Acknowledgments xxvii

Introduction xxix Howard Frumkin

PART ONE: METHODS AND PARADIGMS

1. Ecology and Environmental Health 3 Bruce Wilcox and Holly Jessop

2. Toxicology 49 Jason R. Richardson and Gary W. Miller

3. Environmental and Occupational Epidemiology 79 Kyle Steenland and Christine Moe

4. Exposure Assessment, Industrial Hygiene, and Environmental Management 109 P. Barry Ryan

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IV CONTENTS

5. Environmental Psychology 137 Daniel Stokols and Chip Clitheroe

6. Genetics and Environmental Health 173 Samuel H. Wilson and William A.Suk

7. Environmental Health Ethics 195 Andrew Jameton

8. Environmental Justice 227 Charles Lee

PART TWO: ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH ON THE GLOBAL SCALE

9. Population Pressure 259 Don Hinrichsen

10. Climate Change 279 Jonathan A. Patz

11. Developing Nations 329 Jerome Nriagu, Jaymie Meliker, and Markey Johnson

PART THREE: ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH ON THE REGIONAL SCALE

12. Air Pollution 387 Michelle L. Bell and Jonathan M. Samet

13. Energy Production 417 Jeremy J. Hess

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14. Healthy Communities 451 Sarah K. Heaton, John M. Balbus, James W. Keck, and Andrew L. Dannenberg

15. Water and Health 487 Tim Ford

PART FOUR: ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH ON THE LOCAL SCALE

16. Solid and Hazardous Waste 559 Sven Rodenbeck, Kenneth Orloff, and Henry Falk

17. Pest Control and Pesticides 591 Mark G. Robson, George C. Hamilton, and Wattasit Siriwong

18. Food Safety 635 David McSwane

19. Healthy Buildings 689 Howard Frumkin

20. Workplace Health and Safety 729 Melissa Perry and Howard Hu

21. Radiation 769 Arthur C. Upton

22. Injuries 805 Jeremy J. Hess and Junaid A. Razzak

23. Environmental Disasters 843 Mark E. Keim

CONTENTS V

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24. Nature Contact 877 Howard Frumkin

25. Children 915 Maida P. Galvez, Joel Forman, and Philip J. Landrigan

PART FIVE: THE PRACTICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH

26. Prevention in Environmental Health 963 Lynn R. Goldman

27. Environmental Health Practice 983 Sarah Kotchian and Robert J. Laumbach

28. Geographic Information Systems 1021 Lance A. Waller

29. Risk Assessment 1037 Scott Bartell

30. Environmental Health Policy 1063 A. Stanley Meiburg

31. Risk Communication 1099 Vincent T. Covello

32. Legal Remedies 1141 Douglas A. Henderson

INDEX 1181

VI CONTENTS

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TABLES 1.1 The Major Subdisciplines of Ecology 9

1.2 Major Ecosystem Types and Biomes 13

1.3 Levels of Organizational Hierarchies 21

2.1 Examples of Toxicants Classifi ed in Three Ways 56

3.1 Cohort Rate Ratios for Lung Cancer and Silicosis Mortality and for End-Stage Kidney Disease Incidence 95

5.1 Levels of Environmental Analysis 143

5.2 Functions of Both Real and Virtual Neighborhoods 149

5.3 The Presence of Nature 157

5.4 Behavioral Impacts of Displacement Due to Climate Change: From Global to Local 161

8.1 Examples of Community-Based Environmental Justice Issues 232

10.1 The Main Greenhouse Gases 283

10.2 Projected Earth System Changes 285

T A B L E S , F I G U R E S ,

A N D E X H I B I T S

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10.3 Excess Mortality from the 2003 Heat Wave in Europe (August Only) 294

11.1 Attributable Mortality by Risk Factor, Level of Development, and Gender, 2000 333

11.2 Attributable DALYs by Risk Factor, Level of Development, and Sex, 2000 336

11.3 Effects of Globalization on the Health of People in Developing Countries 343

11.4 Changes in Environmental Health Risk Factors Associated with Agricultural Development 349

11.5 Proportion of Population with Access to Safe Drinking Water, 2006 369

11.6 Estimated Population Exposed to Arsenic in Drinking Water at Concentrations > 50 µg/L 372

11.7 DALYs Due to Injuries, Globally, by Gender, and in Africa, 2002 375

12.1 Major Ambient Air Pollutants: Sources, Health Effects, and Regulations 392

13.1 Energy Use by Sector and Region, 2001 424

13.2 Energy Use Per Capita, by Source, Electrifi cation, and Electricity Consumption, 2001 425

13.3 Health Effects of Household Biomass Combustion 436

15.1 Hot Spots: Past and Potential Water Resource Confl icts 494

15.2 Examples of Health Consequences of Engineering Schemes 496

15.3 Classes of Chemical Contaminants in Water 497

15.4 Examples of Research on Links Between Chemicals in Drinking Water and Increased Health Risk 507

15.5 Pathogens in Drinking Water: Infectious Doses, Diseases, and Additional Comments 509

15.6 The Indicator Approach 516

VIII TABLES, FIGURES, AND EXHIBITS

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15.7 Examples of Vector-Borne Diseases with Risk Factors Associated with Water 521

15.8 Approaches to Disinfection 534

19.1 Hazardous Ingredients of Cleaners (Partial Listing) 709

19.2 Approaches to Protecting Health and Safety in Buildings 715

21.1 Radiation Injuries During the First Decades Following Roentgen’s 1895 Discovery of the X-Ray 772

21.2 Quantities and Dose Units of Ionizing Radiation 773

21.3 Average Amounts of Ionizing Radiation Received Annually by a Resident of the United States 774

21.4 Major Forms and Features of Acute Radiation Syndrome 780

21.5 Estimated Lifetime Risks of Fatal Cancer Attributable to 0.1 Sv (10 Rem) Low-Dose-Rate, Whole-Body Irradiation 784

22.1 Global Ranking of Injury-Related Mortality, 2004 and 2030 809

22.2 The Haddon Matrix Applied to Motor Vehicle Crashes 811

22.3 Options Analysis in Injury Control 812

22.4 Countermeasures for Intentional Injuries 823

22.5 Countermeasures for Burns 824

22.6 Countermeasures for Poisoning 825

22.7 Countermeasures for Falls 827

22.8 Countermeasures for Drowning 827

22.9 Countermeasures for Workplace Injuries 828

22.10 Countermeasures for Playground Injuries 829

22.11 Countermeasures for Road Injuries 831

22.12 Countermeasures for Home Injuries 835

TABLES, FIGURES, AND EXHIBITS IX

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23.1 A Typology of Environmental Disasters 848

23.2 Environmental Disasters Ranked by Number of Lives Lost, Worldwide, 1997–2006 850

23.3 Public Health Consequences and Capabilities Associated with all Disasters 852

23.4 The Relative Public Health Impact of Natural Environmental Disasters 853

23.5 The Relative Public Health Impact of Technological Environmental Disasters (Related to Industry, Terrorism, or Confl ict) 856

23.6 Recent Terrorist Events That Have Infl uenced U.S. Policy 857

23.7 Key Components and Activities of Disaster Risk Management 861

23.8 Comparison of Various Techniques for Disaster Prevention, Emergency Management, and Risk Management 863

26.1 Commonly Used Impact Categories for Life Cycle Analysis 971

27.1 The Essential Services 991

27.2 The PACE EH Process 994

27.3 Core Competencies for Local Environmental Health 1014

29.1 Carcinogenic Effects of Chloroform on Male Rats 1042

29.2 Problems with Risk Assessment and Recommended Solutions 1058

30.1 Examples of Explicit and Implicit Environmental Health Policies 1066

30.2 Selected U.S. Federal Agencies Involved in Environmental Health Policy 1075

31.1 General Template for a Message Map 1117

31.2 Sample Message Map for Smallpox 1119

X TABLES, FIGURES, AND EXHIBITS

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FIGURES I.1 The DPSEEA Model l

1.1 Map of Western Hemisphere Biomes 11

1.2 “ Cloud” Diagram of the Six Major Terrestrial Biomes Plotted by Mean Annual Temperature (in Degrees F) and Precipitation (in Inches) 12

1.3 Hydrologic Cycle 16

1.4 Carbon Cycle 17

1.5 Nitrogen Cycle 18

1.6 Solar Energy Flow Through a Biological Food Chain (In kcal/m2/year) 19

1.7 Nutrient Cycling and One-Way Energy Flow Through an Ecosystem 20

1.8 Adaptive Renewal Cycle 24

1.9 Species-Area Curve 27

1.10 Log-Log Species Area Plot 27

1.11 MacArthur’s Warblers 28

1.12 Population Equilibrium in Island Biogeography 30

1.13 Human Population Growth Since Prehistoric Times 33

1.14 Exponential and Logistic Curves Describing Population Growth 37

1.15 Forest Fragmentation in the Upper Paraná Region, 1900–2000 38

1.16 Factors That Interact and Culminate in the Emergence of Infectious Diseases 39

2.1 Interdisciplinary Nature of Toxicology 51

2.2 Biotransformation Pathways of Chlorpyrifos 71

2.3 Approach to Toxicity Testing 72

3.1 Construction of a JEM for a Retrospective Cohort Study 92

TABLES, FIGURES, AND EXHIBITS XI

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4.1 Air Pollution Sampling Apparatus for Ozone and Particulate Matter 118

4.2 Personal Protective Equipment for Solvent Exposure 120

4.3 Assessing Exposure in an Occupational Setting 124

5.1 Destruction Following Hurricane Katrina 145

5.2 Airplane Coming In for Landing over an Elementary School in Los Angeles 151

5.3 Cars Waiting in Line for Fast-Food Service 155

5.4 Ghirardelli Square in San Francisco 156

5.5 Neighborhood Green Space in Irvine, California 157

6.1 Gene-Environment Interaction and Disease Burden 175

6.2 Environmental Exposure and Genetic Variation as a Consequence of Aging 176

6.3 Research Approaches to Link Environmental Exposures with Disease 183

6.4 Advanced Tools for Understanding Gene-Environment Responses Leading to Disease 188

8.1 Ecosocial Framework of Disproportionate Exposure to Environmental Hazards and Stressors 241

10.1 Components of Radiative Forcing 281

10.2 Temperature Changes Due to Natural and Anthropogenic Forcings 284

10.3 The Melting of Arctic Ice, 1980–2007 287

10.4 Projected Summer Average Temperatures 291

10.5 Urban Heat Island Profi le 295

10.6 Potential Impact of Sea-Level Rise on Bangladesh 299

10.7 Projected Increase In Ozone Exceedance Days 300

10.8 Climate and Aeroallergens 302

XII TABLES, FIGURES, AND EXHIBITS

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10.9 Time Series of Temperature and Childhood Diarrhea, Peru 305

10.10 Cartograms: CO2 Emissions and Health Effects 316

11.1 Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) Due to Environmental Risk Factors, Per 1,000 Population in 2002 335

11.2 Total Global Exposure to Particulate Matter Air Pollution 364

12.1 Mortality and Air Pollution Levels During the 1952 London Fog 391

12.2 Respiratory System 395

12.3 Particulate Matter Mass Distribution 399

12.4 Maximum Quarterly Observed Lead Particulate Concentration at U.S. Monitoring Sites, 1977 to 1996 406

12.5 Tested and Confi rmed Elevated PbB Levels by Year and Group for Children Less Than 72 Months Old 407

13.1 Infant Mortality and Life Expectancy as a Function of Energy Consumption, by Country 420

13.2 The Energy Ladder 421

13.3 Global Total Primary Energy Supply, 1971–2005 426

13.4 The Concept of Climate Stabilization Wedges 427

13.5 Products Derived from a 42-Gallon Barrel of Oil 432

14.1 Schematic Comparison of Street Networks and Land Use in a Traditional Neighborhood and in an Area of Sprawl 455

14.2 Percentage of Obese Adults in the United States, by State, 2007 459

14.3 Access to Healthy Food Options 464

14.4 Go by Cycle in Portland, Oregon 471

TABLES, FIGURES, AND EXHIBITS XIII

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15.1 The Hydrologic Cycle 489

15.2 Schematic of the Interconnections Between Water and Health 489

15.3 The Ogallala Aquifer 492

15.4 Pesticide Movement in the Hydrologic Cycle, Including to and from Sediment and Aquatic Biota in the Stream 505

15.5 Sanitation Options 511

15.6 An Idealized Wastewater Treatment System, Based on Boston’s Deer Island System 512

15.7 Emergence of New Epidemic Serogroups of Vibrio Cholerae 527

15.8 New York City’s Water Supply System 532

15.9 A Multibarrier Approach to Maximize Microbiological Quality of Water 533

15.10 Idealized Scheme for Future Provision of Safe Drinking Water 544

16.1 Composition of the 251 Million Tons of Municipal Solid Waste Produced in the United States (Before Recycling), May 2006 562

16.2 Total Amount and Per Capita Generation Rate of Municipal Solid Waste Produced in the United States (Before Recycling), 1960–2006 563

16.3 Total Amount and Percentage of Municipal Solid Waste Recycled in the United States, 1960–2006 571

16.4 Glass and Paper Recycling in Industrial Nations 571

16.5 Waste Tires 573

16.6 Generalized Depiction of a State-of-the-Art Sanitary Landfi ll 576

16.7 Generalized Diagram of Incineration Material and Process Flow 578

XIV TABLES, FIGURES, AND EXHIBITS

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16.8 Leachate Collection Ponds at the Kin-Buc Landfi ll in Edison, New Jersey 582

16.9 Mine Tailings Pile: The Legacy of Sixty Years of Lead and Zinc Mining in Ottawa County, Oklahoma 584

17.1 Application of Lead Arsenate in the Early 1900s 593

17.2 Modern Pesticide Application Equipment 593

17.3 Bioaccumulation Factor (BAF), Bioconcentration Factor (BCF), and Biomagnifi cation Factor (BMF) of Low Concentrations of DDT and Derivatives in the Aquatic Food Web of Rangsit Agricultural Area, Central Thailand 595

17.4 A Corn Borer, an Example of an Insect Pest, Causing Damage in the Stalk of a Corn Plant 596

17.5 Workers in Ghana Mixing and Loading an Organophosphate Insecticide Without Adequate Personal Protective Equipment 616

18.1 Common Sources of Food Contamination 639

18.2 Food Temperature Danger Zone 661

18.3 Proper Hand-Washing Procedure 662

18.4 2005 FDA Food Code 673

18.5 Fight BAC! Campaign Logo 675

19.1 Housing Can Take Many Forms and Vary Greatly in Desirability and Safety 692

19.2 Katrina Trailer 694

19.3 School Design 698

19.4 Mold-Damaged Building in New Orleans Following Hurricane Katrina 703

19.5 Deteriorating Asbestos Insulation Can Pose a Serious Health Hazard 707

20.1 Alice Hamilton, Pioneer in Occupational Health in the United States 732

TABLES, FIGURES, AND EXHIBITS XV

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20.2 Incidence Rate of Nonfatal Occupational Injury Cases by Sector, 2007 (Private Employers Only) 740

20.3 Karasek Job Strain Model 742

20.4 Occupational Health in India: A Child Worker in a Marketplace 749

20.5 Foundry Worker Pours Molten Metal 750

20.6 Workers in an Automobile Battery Plant, a Source of Occupational Lead Exposure 758

21.1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 770

21.2 A Pioneer Radiologist Testing His Fluoroscope by Examining His Own Hand, Fully Exposing Himself and His Patient in the Process 771

21.3 A Basal Cell Carcinoma of the Skin of Twenty Years Duration in a Fifty-Eight-Year-Old Man 788

21.4 Cell Phones, Now Virtually Ubiquitous, Increase the Level of Radiofrequency Radiation Throughout the Environment 792

22.1 The Injury Pyramid 810

22.2 Startled Man Ready to Run After Hurricane Driven Wave Smashes into Seawall 819

22.3 Typology of Violence 822

22.4 Railroad Crossings Are the Site of Many Accidents Each Year 833

22.5 Kitchens Often Contain Many Dangers 834

23.1 Schematic Overview of the Components and the Process of Risk Management 860

23.2 The Disaster Cycle and Corresponding Risk Management Measures 862

24.1 John Muir 880

24.2 The Human-Animal Bond 884

24.3 A Community Garden 889

XVI TABLES, FIGURES, AND EXHIBITS

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24.4 Robert Taylor Homes, Chicago (top: aerial view; middle: buildings with nearby trees; bottom: buildings without nearby trees) 890

24.5 A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte, 1884–1886, by Georges Seurat 894

24.6 Frank Lloyd Wright’s Fallingwater 902

25.1 A Children’s Playground Located Near a Source of Toxic Emissions 924

25.2 Children Bathing in a Drum That Once Held a Toxic Chemical 925

25.3 Daily Average Excretion of Malathion Dicarboxylic Acid (MDA), a Metabolite of Malathion, in Children Aged 3–11 Before, During, and After a Diet of Organic Food 930

26.1 Elements of a Life Cycle Analysis 969

28.1 Hypothetical Example of the Layering GIS Operation 1025

28.2 Examples of Buffers Around Point (Top), Line (Middle), and Area (Bottom) Features 1026

28.3 Map of Genesee County, Michigan Block Groups (Census 1990), Shaded by the Percentage of Census Respondents Self-Identifying Race as “Black” 1032

29.1 Risk Assessment Framework 1040

29.2 Normal Tolerance Distribution (Probit Model) 1049

29.3 Three Dose-Response Models (Logit, Probit, and Three-Parameter Multistage) Fit to the Chloroform Dose-Response Data in Rats 1050

29.4 Cubic Smoothing Spline, Logit Model, and Categorical Model Fit to Nested Case-Control Data on Silica Exposure and Lung Cancer 1052

29.5 A Framework for Risk-Based Decision Making Designed to Maximize Risk Assessment Utility 1057

31.1 Trust Factors in High-Stress Situations 1106

TABLES, FIGURES, AND EXHIBITS XVII

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EXHIBITS I.1 Defi nitions of Environmental Health xxxi

2.1 LD50 for Various Compounds 52

7.1 Typical Elements of Professional Codes of Ethics 198

7.2 Selected Ethical Theories 200

7.3 Examples of Consensus Statements 202

7.4 Case Problem Areas 216

8.1 Community-Based Participatory Research 248

14.1 Smart Growth Principles 468

14.2 Principles of Universal Design 470

14.3 LEED for Neighborhood Development Certifi cation Program 472

14.4 Health Impact Assessment: A Tool for Land Use and Transportation Decision Making 474

17.1 Pesticides Classifi ed by Target 610

17.2 Pesticide Toxicity Categories and Labeling Requirements 617

18.1 Investigating Foodborne Disease Outbreaks 650

18.2 FDA Recommendations for Avoiding Mercury in Fish 656

18.3 Preventing Cross-Contamination Between Products 664

18.4 HACCP Food Safety System 666

23.1 Defi nitions of Key Terms 844

23.2 Lessons Learned from Terrorist Attacks That Have Infl uenced U.S. Policy 858

23.3 The 11 E’s of Public Health Preparedness 866

27.1 Core Functions of Public Health 990

XVIII TABLES, FIGURES, AND EXHIBITS

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30.1 Summary of Major Environmental Statutes 1068

30.2 Timeline: Review of the National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) for Ozone 1082

31.1 Seven Cardinal Rules of Risk Communication 1101

31.2 The 103 Questions Most Frequently Asked by Residents Affected by Environmental Cleanups and Hazardous Waste Sites 1110

31.3 Elements of a Comprehensive Risk and Crisis Communication Plan 1116

31.4 Sample Message Map for Chloramines 1120

31.5 Questions Commonly Asked by Journalists During an Emergency or Crisis 1123

TABLES, FIGURES, AND EXHIBITS XIX

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I dedicate this book to my children, Gabe and Amara—dedicated environmentalists, great lovers of the outdoors, hard-headed idealists, and two of the most wonderful people I know. They will make giant

contributions to a safer, healthier, and more sustainable world.

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T H E E D I T O R

Howard Frumkin is director of the National Center for Environmental Health and Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (NCEH/ATSDR) at the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. NCEH/ATSDR works to maintain and improve the health of the American people by promoting a healthy environment and by preventing premature death and avoidable illness and dis- ability caused by toxic substances and other environmental hazards.

An internist, environmental and occupational medicine specialist, and epide- miologist, Frumkin previously served as professor and chair of the Department of Environmental and Occupational Health at Emory University’s Rollins School of Public Health and professor of medicine at Emory Medical School. He also founded and directed Emory’s Environmental and Occupational Medicine Consultation Clinic and the Southeast Pediatric Environmental Health Specialty Unit. He has served on the board of directors of Physicians for Social Responsibility, as president of the Association of Occupational and Environmental Clinics, as chair of the Science Board of the American Public Health Association, and on the National Toxicology Program Board of Scientifi c Counselors, and has participated in workgroups and committees for a number of federal and state agencies. He currently serves on the Institute of Medicine Roundtable on Environmental Health Sciences, Research, and Medicine. He is the author or coauthor of fi ve books and over 160 scientifi c journal articles and chapters. He received his MD degree from the University of Pennsylvania, his MPH and DrPH degrees from Harvard, his internal medicine training at the Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania and Cambridge Hospital, and his occupational medicine training at Harvard.

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T H E C O N T R I B U T O R S

John M. Balbus, MD, MPH Senior Research Scientist Department of Global Health School of Public Health and Health Services George Washington University Washington, D.C.

Scott M. Bartell, PhD Assistant Professor Program in Public Health University of California, Irvine Irvine, California

Michelle L. Bell, PhD Associate Professor, Environmental Health Yale University New Haven, Connecticut

H. C. “Chip” Clitheroe, Jr., PhD Lecturer School of Social Ecology University of California, Irvine Irvine, California

Vincent T. Covello, PhD Director

Center for Risk Communication New York, New York

Andrew L. Dannenberg, MD, MPH Associate Director for Science Division of Emergency and Environmental Health Services National Center for Environmental Health Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta, Georgia

Henry Falk, MD, MPH Director Coordinating Center for Environmental Health and Injury Prevention Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta, Georgia

Timothy E. Ford, PhD Vice President for Research and Dean of Graduate Studies University of New England Biddeford, Maine

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Joel Forman, MD Associate Professor, Pediatrics and Community and Preventive Medicine Mount Sinai School of Medicine New York, New York

Maida P. Galvez, MD, MPH Assistant Professor Department of Community and Preventive Medicine Mount Sinai School of Medicine New York, New York

Lynn R. Goldman, MD, MPH Professor, Environmental Health Sciences Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health Baltimore, Maryland

George C. Hamilton, PhD Department Chairman and Extension Specialist in Pest Management Department of Entomology Rutgers University New Brunswick, New Jersey

Sarah K. Heaton, MPH Presidential Management Fellow National Center for Environmental Health Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta, Georgia

Douglas A. Henderson, PhD, JD Partner Troutman Sanders LLP Atlanta, Georgia Adjunct Associate Professor

Department of Health Policy and Management University of Georgia College of Public Health Athens, Georgia

Jeremy J. Hess, MD, MPH Medical Epidemiologist National Center for Environmental Health Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Assistant Professor Emory University School of Medicine and Public Health Atlanta, Georgia

Don Hinrichsen Consultant on Environment and Population Institute for War and Peace Reporting New York and London

Howard Hu, MD, MPH, ScD NSF International Chair and Professor, Environmental Health, Epidemiology, Internal Medicine University of Michigan Schools of Public Health and Medicine Ann Arbor, Michigan

Andrew Jameton, PhD Professor, Health Promotion, Social & Behavioral Health College of Public Health University of Nebraska Medical Center Omaha, Nebraska

Holly Jessop Graduate Student Department of Zoology

THE CONTRIBUTORS XXIII

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University of Hawai‘i at Manoa Honolulu, Hawai‘i

Markey Johnson, PhD Epidemiology and Exposure Assessment Research Scientist National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory National Exposure Research Laboratory U. S. Environmental Protection Agency Research Triangle Park, North Carolina

James W. Keck, MD, MPH General Preventive Medicine Resident Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health Baltimore, Maryland

Mark E. Keim, MD Senior Science Advisor, Preparedness & Emergency Response National Center for Environmental Health Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta, Georgia

Sarah B. Kotchian, PhD, MPH, EdM Sarah Kotchian Consulting Former Associate Director for Planning Institute for Public Health University of New Mexico School of Medicine Albuquerque, New Mexico

Philip J. Landrigan, MD, MSc Ethel H. Wise Professor and Chairman Department of Community and Preventive Medicine Professor of Pediatrics

Mount Sinai School of Medicine New York, New York

Robert J. Laumbach, MD, MPH, CIH Assistant Professor, Environmental and Occupational Medicine Robert Wood Johnson Medical School University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey Piscataway, New Jersey

Charles Lee Director Offi ce of Environmental Justice U. S. Environmental Protection Agency Washington, D.C.

David McSwane, HSD, REHS, CP-FS Professor, Public and Environmental Affairs School of Public and Environmental Affairs Indiana University Indianapolis, Indiana

A. Stanley Meiburg, PhD Deputy Regional Administrator U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region 4 Atlanta, Georgia

Jaymie R. Meliker, PhD Assistant Professor, Preventive Medicine Graduate Program in Public Health Faculty Member in Consortium for Inter-Disciplinary Environmental Research (CIDER) Stony Brook University Stony Brook, New York

XXIV THE CONTRIBUTORS

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Gary W. Miller, PhD Professor, Environmental and Occupational Health Rollins School of Public Health of Emory University Atlanta, Georgia

Christine L. Moe, PhD Eugene J. Gangarosa Professor of Safe Water and Sanitation Hubert Department of Global Health Emory University Atlanta, Georgia

Jerome Nriagu, PhD, DSc Professor, Environmental Health Sciences University of Michigan School of Public Health Ann Arbor, Michigan

Kenneth G. Orloff, PhD Senior Toxicologist Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta, Georgia

Jonathan A. Patz, MD, MPH Professor, Population Health Sciences Gaylord Nelson Institute for Environmental Studies University of Wisconsin Madison, Wisconsin

Melissa J. Perry, ScD, MHS Associate Professor, Occupational Epidemiology

Harvard School of Public Health Boston, Massachusetts

Junaid Abdul Razzak, MD, PhD Associate Professor and Chair Department of Emergency Medicine Aga Khan University Karachi, Pakistan

Jason R. Richardson, MS, PhD Assistant Professor, Environmental and Occupational Health Robert Wood Johnson Medical School University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey Piscataway, New Jersey

Mark Gregory Robson, PhD, MPH, ATS Professor and Dean of Agricultural and Urban Programs Rutgers University School of Environmental and Biological Sciences New Brunswick, New Jersey

Sven E. Rodenbeck, ScD, PE, BCEE Captain, U.S. Public Health Service Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta, Georgia

P. Barry Ryan, PhD Professor, Exposure Science and Environmental Chemistry Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Rollins School of Public Health of Emory University

THE CONTRIBUTORS XXV

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Professor Department of Chemistry Emory University Atlanta, Georgia

Jonathan M. Samet, MD, MS Professor and Flora L. Thornton Chair of Preventive Medicine Keck School of Medicine Director Institute for Global Health University of Southern California Los Angeles, California

Wattasit Siriwong, PhD Academic Lecturer and Assistant Dean College of Public Health Sciences Chulalongkorn University Bangkok, Thailand

Kyle Steenland, PhD Professor, Environmental and Occupational Health Rollins School of Public Health of Emory University Atlanta, Georgia

Daniel Stokols, PhD Chancellor’s Professor School of Social Ecology and College of Health Sciences University of California, Irvine Irvine, California

William A. Suk, PhD, MPH Director Center for Risk and Integrated Sciences Director

Superfund Research Program National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences National Institutes of Health Research Triangle Park, NC

Arthur C. Upton, MD Clinical Professor, Environmental and Community Medicine University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey Robert Wood Johnson Medical School Piscataway, New Jersey

Lance A. Waller, PhD Rollins Professor and Chair, Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Rollins School of Public Health of Emory University Atlanta, Georgia

Bruce A. Wilcox, PhD Professor, Ecology and Health Department of Public Health Sciences John A. Burns School of Medicine University of Hawai‘i Honolulu, Hawai‘i

Samuel H. Wilson, MD Chief, DNA Repair and Nucleic Acid Enzymology Section Environmental Biology Program Laboratory of Structural Biology National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences National Institutes of Health Research Triangle Park, North Carolina