Family theories foundations and applications

FAMILY THEORIES FOUNDATIONS AND APPLICATIONS

KATHERINE R. ALLEN AND ANGELA C. HENDERSON

Family Theories

Family Theories

Foundations and Applications

Katherine R. Allen and Angela C. Henderson

This edition first published 2017 © 2017 John Wiley & Sons Inc.

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Cover image: Gettyimages / © Jorg Greuel

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1 2017

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To Katherine’s family of origin: Jack, Betty, Beth, John, Dan, and Doug

and

To Angie’s family of origin: Bev, LaVerne, Brad, and Chris

Contents

Acknowledgments viii About the Website ix

1 What Is Theory? 1

2 Functionalist Theory 20

3 Conflict Theory 41

4 Symbolic Interactionist Theory 61

5 Family Developmental Theory 82

6 Family Systems Theory 103

7 Social Exchange Theory 124

8 Feminist Theory 145

9 Life Course Theory 166

10 Family Ecological Theory 187

11 Family Stress and Resilience Theory 209

12 Conclusion 230

Glossary 243 Index 249

Acknowledgments

This book has been a pleasure to write. Our shared passion for theory has developed into a seamless col- laboration, where our strengths and interests enhance one another. We also share a passion for guiding students in the discovery process of linking theory, research, and application as family scholars and practi- tioners. Our goal is to reveal how understanding the- ory and being able to theorize are essential qualities for a life well lived.Surely,we have benefited from this journey in theory, and we sincerely hope that readers will as well.

Speaking of our readers, we acknowledge that we wrote this book by keeping in the forefront the thou- sands of students we have taught in our collective 30- plus years as educators. Our students have taught us many lessons about the value of theory in the sci- entific enterprise and the excitement in learning to understand and use it effectively. We have also kept in mind our peers who teach students about theory and theorizing. It is encouraging to know that there are many other educators who share our interest in the- ory and our commitment to sharing this knowledge with students.

We have many individuals to thank for their schol- arly and editorial contributions to this book. First, Brandy Renee McCann, who initially was one of the authors of this book until family responsibilities required her attention, was instrumental in develop- ing the proposal for the book and drafting one of the early chapters. We thank Brandy for generously shar- ing her expertise in the development of the project. Second, several undergraduate and graduate students at Virginia Tech provided insightful feedback about the initial chapters we wrote: Emma Potter, Katie

Barrow, and Lauren Byrd. In the later stages of com- pleting the book, Erin Lavender-Stott was our trusted reader. Erin read every chapter and all of the sup- plemental materials, diligently offering her excellent assistance. Third, we humbly thank our anonymous reviewers for their invaluable comments and critiques of the manuscript, each of which helped make this book better. We especially thank Fiona Tasker for her many helpful suggestions. Fourth, the Wiley edito- rial teams with whom we have worked have been a wonderful resource for the book. From the very beginning, when Julia Teweles invited us to write the book and shepherded the work through its first stages, we have felt we are in expert hands. We have also benefited from the thoughtful feedback and timely editorial advice we have received from Deirdre Ilkson, Julia Kirk, Haze Humbert, Mark Graney, and Sue Leigh. Ann Bone and Allison Kostka, in particu- lar, have guided us through the final stages with such patience and skill. We are grateful to all of these indi- viduals who have helped us along the way.

The process of learning to utilize theory began with our own family theory teachers. Robert Pickett and Colleen Johnson ignited Katherine’s pas- sion for family theory in graduate school at Syracuse University. Charlotte Dunham and Jill Suitor both fueled Angie’s interests in family theories during her graduate coursework and writing her dissertation.

Finally, we thank our families, Jeff Burr and Matt Special, and Jimmy, Owen, Cameron and Cora Henderson,who enrich our lives and provide the pri- vate testing ground for theorizing about intimate life. We thank them beyond measure for walking with us on this journey every step of the way.

About the Website

www.wiley.com/go/allen

The Family Theories:Foundations and Applications com- panion website features instructor resources created by the authors to help you use this book in college and university courses.

� Criteria for Evaluating Family Theories � Sample Syllabus for Family Theories Course

� Sample Syllabus for Sociology of Family Course (Online)

� Test Bank: Multiple Choice and Essay Questions � Test Bank:Answers to Multiple Choice Questions � Glossary

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1

What Is Theory?

You are probably familiar with Apple’s phrase “There’s an app for that!” – it is one we use often in modern society to refer to the ways in which our smartphones, tablets, and other electronic devices can help us be more efficient, more creative, and better at what we do. “Apps” help us problem solve, help us think in dif- ferent ways about our everyday lives, our friends, our families, and our social calendars. They help us put it all into a manageable, knowable format that provides a framework for understanding our daily lives.

You may ask yourself why we are beginning our theory text with a discussion of electronic applications. A theory – or a set of ideas – serves as a framework for understanding the world around us. The social science theories that we describe in this text can be applied, tested, and even revised over time in order to fit the changing social world. This text presents you with 10 theories of family; 10 unique ways to look at the world, to help you, as a student, better understand how to look at and solve problems that you will face in your profession someday.As a practitioner,how will you make sense of the dynamics of the families you are serving? How will you make an informed deci- sion about how to provide services, inform policy, or conduct research on changing family dynamics? As an example, consider that you are charged with devel- oping state policies to make the Family and Medi- cal Leave Act of 1993 (2006) more accessible to very diverse working- and middle-class families. As a pol- icymaker, you will need to know the demographic trends that show just how diverse families are in mod- ern society: there are blended families, single parents, same-sex partnerships, grandparents raising grand- children, and many more variations. Contemporary

society tends to be pluralistic, which means we have a heterogeneous population made up of different gen- ders, racial-ethnic groups, religions, sexual orienta- tions, and social classes. You need to be aware of how each of these characteristics intersects to create advan- tage or disadvantage for your clients. You need to be aware of barriers that prevent working-class families from using family policies because they cannot afford to. You need to be aware of historical data, so you can consider what has and has not worked. You need to be able to think outside the box – question the status quo – so that you can develop new, innovative poli- cies for today’s changing families. In sum, you need an “app” for that.

Theory – as we present it in this text – is your app. Theories help you be a problem solver, an informed researcher, an effective educator, program director, nurse, social worker, or therapist with a unique per- spective to be able to work through problems and solve them with forethought that will set you apart. We want your theoretical mind to be actively engaged at all times, so that when you are tasked with problem solving in your profession, you are able to tackle the problem with the applicability that theory offers to your profession.

When it comes time for you to utilize your theo- retical knowledge in the everyday world,we want you to be able to say “There’s a theory for that!” – a the- ory that will help you look at the problem through a critical lens. Knowing theory means you are able to access multiple data points – you are familiar with larger trends and patterns that help explain social insti- tutions and social injustice. Theoretical minds are also familiar with how the theory has informed research;

Family Theories: Foundations and Applications, First Edition. Katherine R. Allen and Angela C. Henderson. © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2017 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

2 what is theory?

for instance,we are able to study families on a macro- level by analyzing larger patterns in society, such as rates of marriage, fertility, and divorce.Using a macro- level of analysis, we can examine patterns of behavior on a large scale: How is socioeconomic status (SES) related to marital patterns, fertility, and divorce? Do middle- and upper-class individuals wait to get mar- ried until they are older, compared to working-class individuals? In addition, studying families through a theoretical lens can also be done at the micro-level, by analyzing phenomena more closely, in smaller doses. For example, a micro-level of analysis would frame questions about social class and marriage much dif- ferently: instead of large-scale patterns, we would be interested in finding out what the meaning of marriage is for individuals from different social class backgrounds. We could also explore each partner’s perceptions of what an “ideal” spouse is, based on their SES. Has the “ideal” changed over time? Does the description of an ideal spouse depend on gender? What about whether or not the partnership is lesbian, gay,or heterosexual? Theories give us a framework for understanding each and every one of those intersect- ing factors – on multiple levels – as we work with and study families.

Case Study

Bo-Meh, the subject of our case study, is a first- generation college student who has only been living in the United States for five years. She entered the coun- try with refugee status, along with her mother and three younger siblings, after living in a refugee camp in Thailand for eight years.After graduating from high school in America, she enrolled in college with the hopes of becoming a social worker so she can some- day pay back the many services she benefited from as a newcomer to the US.She has three younger siblings, all of whom have depended on her for care since her mother works 12-hour shifts at her job.

As Bo-Meh sits through her first “Theories of Family” course as a family studies major, she wonders about her classmates. The professor put the students into groups of five for a class project, which requires them to work together to answer a research question using various theories of family. Her group members

are very diverse. Maggie is a 41-year-old mother of three who put off college to raise her children, and she is majoring in nursing. Seneca is a 22-year-old media studies major who wants to develop television programming for children. Natalie is a 20-year-old elementary education major, and Curtis is a middle- aged war veteran who wants to go into marriage and family therapy. Given how diverse the group members are, Bo-Meh wonders how well they will work together, and how they will find anything in common to be able to accomplish the tasks for the semester. Will they be able to find times to meet outside of class, given their conflicting schedules and outside responsibilities? Will they be able to agree on a theoretical framework to answer the research questions, given how different their majors and career goals are?

Like other students taking a family theory course, these budding professionals (e.g., social worker, nurse, television programming developer, elementary school teacher, and family therapist) all have to take family dynamics into account as a part of their coursework. Yet, their interactions with and perceptions of families will differ greatly, possibly creating rough patches when it comes to completing their project. Finally, how will each classmate’s own family upbringing affect how they view families? In this chapter, we explore epistemologies – or, one’s orientation to answering questions about the world – as they relate to the study of families. Your epistemology provides a framework for how you approach answering ques- tions, such as “Why do people get divorced?” Think about how different people may answer that question, depending on their life experiences and beliefs. If you have grown up in a family that has experienced divorce, you may feel that poor communication skills or financial strain lead to divorce. Another classmate may see divorce as a blessing, given how much his parents verbally abused one another. Yet another classmate may suggest that divorce is not even on his radar, since his two fathers fought most of his life for the right to be legally recognized as a married couple in his home state of Minnesota.Each of these different life experiences contribute to one’s view of families. In addition, each student’s major or career trajectory will influence how they perceive issues of the family as well. While Bo-Meh may see these differences

what is theory? 3

Box 1.1 At a Glance: Theory Is … � “The word theory sends a glaze over the eyes of

most people. This is somewhat ironic because the word theory comes from the Greek theo- ria, which means “a looking at.” … A theory is simply one’s understanding of how some- thing works”(Shoemaker,Tankard,and Lasorsa, 2004, pp. 5–6).

� “Theorizing is like being presented with a puz- zle where only some of the pieces are visi- ble or seem to fit together. Fitting the pieces together is fun, though often frustrating, par- ticularly when the overall picture is vague or elusive” (Bengtson et al., 2005, p. 5).

� “In everyday family life, there are many activi- ties that take up considerable time, energy, and attention but that are poorly represented in

our theorizing about families … The result is that family life tends to be viewed in terms of averages around measures of central tendency, rather than in the diversity and complexity of shared meanings and interrelated perceptions” (Daly, 2003, p. 772).

� “No one group possesses the theory or methodology that allows it to discover the absolute ‘truth’ or, worse yet, proclaim its the- ories and methodologies as the universal norm evaluating other groups’ experiences. Given that groups are unequal in power in mak- ing themselves heard, dominant groups have a vested interest in suppressing the knowl- edge produced by subordinate groups”(Collins, 1990, p. 235).

as barriers to her group coming to consensus on a theory to explain family dynamics, it is important to instead consider them as valuable differences. With each person’s experience and academic focus comes a new lens – or, epistemology – that can help others in different professions view the family in a new way.

Theory Building Blocks: Epistemologies, Assumptions, Concepts, and Propositions

In order to understand theories, we first need to understand how they are used to explain ideas. Scien- tific theories consist of epistemologies, assumptions, concepts, and propositions. These building blocks of theory are important to both build and deconstruct theory. Figure 1.1 shows how to think of each layer of theory building as a pyramid; beginning with the bot- tom layer (epistemologies), each layer builds on the previous one. In order to understand how a theory explains families, we can remove the blocks and ana- lyze each layer.

Epistemologies

At the foundation of the pyramid are epistemologies. Epistemologies are the overall frame of reference that a theorist brings to the study of families. They answer the questions: (a) What is knowing? (b) How do we know what we think we know? And (c) How useful is what we think we know? (Bengtson et al., 2005). All theorists have an epistemology that guides their thinking.

For example, a positivist epistemology presumes that there is an objective truth that we can discover

Propositions

Concepts

Assumptions

Epistemologies

Figure 1.1 Building blocks of theory

4 what is theory?

about families through systematic research proce- dures. Positivism guides the scientific method and presents knowledge as value-neutral or value-free. When studying families, a positivist would approach the study of divorce by examining perhaps length of marriage,age at first marriage,and variables such as the race/ethnicity of the couple, the region of the country in which they marry, and perhaps their religious iden- tity. From a positivist view, a family researcher is able to explain the who, what, and where of divorce, but not necessarily the why. Positivist theories are useful for predicting and explaining phenomena on a large scale.

On the other hand, an interpretive epistemol- ogy views knowledge as subjective, with the goal of understanding how families make meaning of their own experiences. Family scholars with this episte- mological orientation differ from positivists because they are interested more in the why of explaining family dynamics. That is, instead of being interested in facts and statistics about divorce, the interpretivist would want to know what divorce means to fam- ilies. Divorce could mean very different things to families, depending on the situation. In some fami- lies, divorce could signify the end of an abusive and unhealthy relationship. In others, it could symbolize a mutually agreed-upon move in a new direction for both partners.Therefore, an interpretive epistemology allows researchers and theorists a way to conceptualize “truth”as something that is changing and not the same for all parties. This orientation allows for multiple truths to hold for each family, and each family mem- ber, being studied. Interpretivist theories are useful for understanding multiple dimensions of family, and being empathetic with different lived realities for each.

A critical epistemology holds that what gets to count as knowledge is defined by those who are in power, and thus, the powerful members of society impose their definitions onto others. This orientation is critical of what is held to be true about families; that is, the assumption that all families should procre- ate. That perspective, however, is not a “truth” for all members of society wishing to call themselves fami- lies. Critical theorists also examine what are referred to as social constructions of reality. A social con- struction is something that was defined as important and valuable by powerful members of society. Often, socially constructed truths serve the purpose of

reifying the social structure and inequality that exists. For example, if divorce rates increase, powerful mem- bers of that society may start disseminating rhetoric, which refers to messages that are aimed at persuad- ing the audience. Anti-divorce rhetoric would sug- gest that the “American family is on the decline” and “the future of America is at stake” unless the increase in divorce rates is stopped. The rhetoric is based on a social construction that suggests divorce is always harmful, not only to the individuals involved, but to society as a whole. Critical theorists examine these messages as social constructions of reality that are not true for all families.Critical theory is useful for break- ing down ideologies and suggesting that it is impor- tant to give voice to those with marginalized power and status in society.

Assumptions

Given how different these epistemologies are, each theory will have certain assumptions about how the world works.Assumptions are the ideas that scholars believe to be true about families.They are the starting point for a theory – the taken-for-granted ideas that lay the groundwork for theory building. Assumptions are unique to each theory – they provide an orienta- tion to studying the social world that is specific. For example, functionalist theory (Chapter 2) assumes that families are functional for all members. This assump- tion overlooks a stark reality for families – that some interactions are harmful for family members. Other theories, such as conflict theory (Chapter 3), assume that conflict is an inherent part of both the social world we live in, and inevitable within families as well.These two theories have very different assumptions, which will shape how the theory is applied and how it is used to explain family forms and family dynamics.

The way that social scientists view and theorize families inevitably changes over time,as norms change and society evolves. How assumptions have shifted over time is evident when we examine perceptions of women in families and in the legal profession through- out the past century. For example, in the latter half of the nineteenth century, women tried to enter the legal profession, which prompted responses not only from law school administrators,but also from state and Supreme Court justices in the United States. Based

what is theory? 5

on the dominant gender and family ideologies of the time, women were denied both entrance into law school and licenses to practice law. Three concurring Supreme Court justices wrote in 1869:

Man is,or should be,woman’s protector and defender. The natural and proper timidity and delicacy which belongs to the female sex evidently unfits it for many of the occupations of civil life.The constitution of the family organization, which is founded in the divine ordinance, as well as in the nature of things, indicates the domestic sphere as that which properly belongs to the domain and functions of womanhood … The paramount destiny and mission of woman are to ful- fill the noble and benign offices of wife and mother. (Weisberg, 1977, p. 492)

In 1875, the Wisconsin Supreme Court agreed, writ- ing that any woman who attempted to become a lawyer was “committing ‘treason’ against ‘the order of nature”’ (Weisberg,1977,p.493).This view of women was not only widely accepted in the legal profession, but also among other professionals. A Harvard Uni- versity physician argued that women should not even be allowed to study law because it posed a threat to women’s health (and therefore the future of America) because women would become unable to reproduce: “[It is] dangerous for women to engage in strenuous intellectual activity, [which would] divert energy from female reproductive organs to the brain, harming the health of women and their children” (Clarke, 1873, p. 126).

Some men supported letting women into law school, but with certain stipulations. A graduate of Yale Law School wrote to the admissions office that he supported allowing women to study law,“provided they are ugly” (Morello, 1982, p. 625).

Clearly, these views are no longer a part of our ori- entation to studying families. Yet, perhaps some of the views remain, such as the perception that women are better suited to care for children. This is called cul- tural lag, where society evolves but facets of culture, such as beliefs and values, take longer to change.What do you think? Do we still view women differently than men, when it comes to families? What are your own personal assumptions about studying gender and families?

Concepts

Concepts are terms and definitions used to explain the theory’s framework based on the assumptions. Concepts are integral to explaining theories: they pro- vide the building blocks used to create the theory. For example,structural-functionalist theorists use the term “roles”to describe a set of expectations associated with each family member. The head of household – typi- cally assumed to be the husband in functionalist the- ory (Chapter 2) – performs instrumental roles in the family, or the tasks needed to ensure the family’s basic survival (Parsons, 1970). Based on the assumption that families are functional for all members, the husband makes important decisions, gives orders, and exerts power over other family members.The concepts used in this example are “role” and “instrumental.” They are derived from the assumptions that functionalist theo- rists hold to be true about families.

There are many important concepts used in fam- ily theories. Sometimes the same term is defined in different ways by different theories. For example, the concept of “conflict” is defined as inevitable in con- flict theory (Chapter 3), but as deviant in functionalist theory (Chapter 2). In order to understand how the- orists “see” the world and explain family dynamics, we need to be familiar with the concepts and their definitions, as they are used in various theories. Once we can explain the assumptions behind a theory, and define the concepts,we can then apply, test, and refine the theory in family practice and research.

Propositions

Propositions are statements based on both assump- tions and concepts that we use when we “apply” the- ory to the study of families (Bengtson et al.,2005).For example, a proposition derived from social exchange theory (Chapter 7) is that a husband’s income level is related to the probability of divorce. Propositions are operationalized as hypotheses; that is, hypotheses restate the proposition in a way that can be tested in research (Babbie, 2013). The proposition that a hus- band’s income level is related to the probability of divorce can be restated to test in a research study as: Men with higher incomes than average have lower divorce rates than average (Nye, 1979). Hypotheses,

6 what is theory?

which reformulate propositions into their empirical version, specify the direction of change the researcher expects will occur. Propositions, then, can be upheld based on the findings in a research study, or they can be refuted, or deemed inapplicable, depending on the family to which we are applying the propositions.

Propositions are the pinnacle of the theory; propo- sitions allow us to tell whether the theory is still rel- evant 50 years after its creation, or perhaps that it needs to be updated to reflect, for example, changing demographics and marital patterns in society. Thus, theory informs research, and research informs theory (Klein, 2005; Wallace, 1971). Science is a process of going from induction (beginning with observations and moving on to theory) to deduction (beginning with theory and moving on to observations) in rep- etitious fashion (see Figure 1.2). One way to think about this cycle of knowledge building is to imag- ine theory building as a “cycle.” Theoretical proposi- tions contribute to scientific inquiry (hypotheses and data collection), and those results then contribute to a broader body of knowledge about the topic.Then, the theory is either confirmed, or updated and modified depending on the results.

Propositions make theories testable; what this means is that each theory has statements about how the world works – or in this case, how families work.