Fisher price double poppin dino troubleshooting

Leadership in Organizations

This page intentionally left blank

Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco

Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto Delhi Mexico City

Sao Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo

E i g h t h E d i t i o n

Leadership in Organizations

Gary Yukl University of Albany

State University of New York

ISBN 10: 0-13-277186-1 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-277186-3

Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page within text.

Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2006, 2002, 1998 by Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458, or you may fax your request to 201-236-3290.

Many of the designations by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Yukl, Gary A. Leadership in organizations / Gary Yukl. — 8th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-13-277186-3 1. Leadership. 2. Decision making. 3. Organization. I. Title. HD57.7.Y85 2013 303.3'4—dc23

2011046801

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Editorial Director: Sally Yagan Acquisitions Editor: Brian Mickelson Director of Editorial Services: Ashley Santora Editorial Project Manager: Sarah Holle Director of Marketing: Maggie Moylan Senior Marketing Manager: Nikki Jones Marketing Assistant: Ian Gold Production Project Manager: Renata Butera

Creative Art Director: Jayne Conte Cover Designer: Suzanne Behnke Cover Art: Stephen Starthdee/Istockphoto Full-Service Project Management/Composition: Vijayakumar Sekar/Jouve India Printer/Binder: Courier/Westford Cover Printer: Lehigh-Phoenix Color/Hagerstown Text Font: 10/12 Minion

For her love and support this book is dedicated to Maureen.

This page intentionally left blank

vii

BRIEF CONTENTS

Preface xv

Chapter 1 Introduction: The Nature of Leadership 1

Chapter 2 Nature of Managerial Work 23

Chapter 3 Effective Leadership Behavior 48

Chapter 4 Leading Change and Innovation 76

Chapter 5 Participative Leadership and Empowerment 105

Chapter 6 Leadership Traits and Skills 135

Chapter 7 Contingency Theories and Adaptive Leadership 162

Chapter 8 Power and Influence Tactics 185

Chapter 9 Dyadic Relations and Followers 221

Chapter 10 Leadership in Teams and Decision Groups 247

Chapter 11 Strategic Leadership in Organizations 276

Chapter 12 Charismatic and Transformational Leadership 309

Chapter 13 Ethical, Servant, Spiritual, and Authentic Leadership 340

Chapter 14 Cross-cultural Leadership and Diversity 360

Chapter 15 Developing Leadership Skills 381

Chapter 16 Overview and Integration 404

References 424

Author Index 483

Subject Index 499

This page intentionally left blank

ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface xv

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION: THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 1

Definitions of Leadership 2

Indicators of Leadership Effectiveness 8

Major Perspectives in Leadership Theory and Research 10

Level of Conceptualization for Leadership Theories 14

Other Bases for Comparing Leadership Theories 18

Organization of the Book 20

Summary 20 Review and Discussion Questions 21

Chapter 2 NATURE OF MANAGERIAL WORK 23

Activity Patterns for Managers 24

Decision Making and Planning by Managers 26

Managerial Roles 29

Demands, Constraints, and Choices 31

Other Determinants of Managerial Work 34

Limitations of the Descriptive Research 39

Guidelines for Managers 40

Summary 44 Review and Discussion Questions 45

   CASE: Acme Manufacturing Company 45

CHAPTER 3 EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR 48

Ways for Describing Leadership Behavior 48

Major Types of Leadership Behavior 50

Methods for Studying the Effects of Leader Behavior 53

Effects of Task and Relations Behaviors 56

Planning Work Activities 58

Clarifying Roles and Objectives 59

Monitoring Operations and Performance 61

Supportive Leadership 63

Developing Subordinate Skills 65

x Table of Contents

Providing Praise and Recognition 68

Summary 71 Review and Discussion Questions 72 CASE: Consolidated Products 73 CASE: Air Force Supply Squadron 74

CHAPTER 4 LEADING CHANGE AND INNOVATION 76

Types of Change in Teams and Organizations 77

Change Processes 78

Reasons for Accepting or Rejecting Change 80

Implementing Change 81

Guidelines for Implementing Change 84

How Visions Influence Change 89

Collective Learning and Innovation 94

Guidelines for Enhancing Learning and Innovation 98

Summary 101 Review and Discussion Questions 102 CASE: Ultimate Office Products 102

CHAPTER 5 PARTICIPATIVE LEADERSHIP AND EMPOWERMENT 105

Nature of Participative Leadership 106

Research on Effects of Participative Leadership 109

Normative Decision Model 111

Guidelines for Participative Leadership 115

Delegation 118

Guidelines for Delegating 122

Perceived Empowerment 126

Empowerment Programs 128

Summary 130 Review and Discussion Questions 131 CASE: Echo Electronics 132 CASE: Alvis Corporation 133

CHAPTER 6 LEADERSHIP TRAITS AND SKILLS 135

Introduction to the Trait Approach 135

Personality Traits and Effective Leadership 138

Table of Contents xi

Skills and Effective Leadership 148

Managerial Competencies 151

Situational Relevance of Skills 153

Evaluation of the Trait Approach 156

Guidelines for Managers 157

Summary 159 Review and Discussion Questions 159 CASE: National Products 160

CHAPTER 7 CONTINGENCY THEORIES AND ADAPTIVE LEADERSHIP 162

General Description of Contingency Theories 163

Early Contingency Theories 164

Multiple-linkage Model 167

Conceptual Weaknesses in Contingency Theories 173

Research on Contingency Theories 174

Comparative Evaluation of Contingency Theories 175

Guidelines for Adaptive Leadership 177

Guidelines for Managing Immediate Crises 179

Summary 180 Review and Discussion Questions 181 CASE: Foreign Auto Shop 182

CHAPTER 8 POWER AND INFLUENCE TACTICS 185

Power and Influence Concepts 185

Power Sources 188

How Power Is Gained or Lost 193

Consequences of Power 195

Guidelines for Using Power 197

Proactive Influence Tactics 201

Effectiveness of Proactive Tactics 206

Guidelines for Specific Tactics 210

Power and Influence Behavior 215

Summary 216 Review and Discussion Questions 217 CASE: Restview Hospital 218 CASE: Sporting Goods Store 219

xii Table of Contents

CHAPTER 9 DYADIC RELATIONS AND FOLLOWERS 221

Leader-Member Exchange Theory 222

Leader Attributions About Subordinates 225

Leader Influence on Follower Emotions 227

Guidelines for Correcting Performance Deficiencies 227

Follower Attributions and Implicit Theories 231

Impression Management by Leaders and Followers 234

Follower Contributions to Effective Leadership 236

Self-Management 237

Guidelines for Followers 239

Summary 243 Review and Discussion Questions 243 CASE: Cromwell Electronics 244 CASE: American Financial Corporation 245

CHAPTER 10 LEADERSHIP IN TEAMS AND DECISION GROUPS 247

Determinants of Team Performance 248

Functional Work Teams 254

Cross-functional Teams 255

Self-managed Work Teams 258

Virtual Teams 261

Guidelines for Leading Teams 262

Leading Decision Groups 265

Guidelines for Leading Meetings 268

Summary 272 Review and Discussion Questions 273 CASE: Southwest Engineering Services 273

CHAPTER 11 STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP IN ORGANIZATIONS 276

Determinants of Organizational Performance 277

How Leaders Influence Organizational Performance 281

Situations Affecting Strategic Leadership 284

Organizational Culture 286

Research on Effects of Strategic Leadership 289

Table of Contents xiii

Executive Teams 291

Emerging Conceptions of Organizational Leadership 294

Two Key Responsibilities for Top Executives 297

Guidelines for Strategic Leadership 299

Summary 302 Review and Discussion Questions 303 CASE: Costco 303 CASE: Turnaround at Nissan 306

CHAPTER 12 CHARISMATIC AND TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP 309

Attribution Theory of Charismatic Leadership 310

Self-Concept Theory of Charismatic Leadership 312

Other Conceptions of Charisma 314

Consequences of Charismatic Leadership 317

Transformational Leadership 321

Research on Charismatic and Transformational Leadership 324

Comparison of Charismatic and Transformational Leadership 328

Evaluation of the Theories 330

Guidelines for Inspirational Leadership 332

Summary 335 Review and Discussion Questions 336 CASE: Astro Airlines 336

CHAPTER 13 ETHICAL, SERVANT, SPIRITUAL, AND AUTHENTIC LEADERSHIP 340

Conceptions of Ethical Leadership 341

Dilemmas in Assessing Ethical Leadership 342

Determinants and Consequences of Ethical Leadership 344

Theories of Ethical Leadership 347

Evaluation of Ethical Leadership Theories 352

Guidelines for Ethical Leadership 354

Summary 357 Review and Discussion Questions 358 CASE: Unethical Leadership at Enron 358

xiv Table of Contents

CHAPTER 14 CROSS-CULTURAL LEADERSHIP AND DIVERSITY 360

Introduction to Cross-cultural Leadership 361

Cultural Value Dimensions and Leadership 365

Evaluation of Cross-cultural Research 368

Gender and Leadership 370

Managing Diversity 376

Summary 378 Review and Discussion Questions 379 CASE: Madison, Jones, and Conklin 379

CHAPTER 15 DEVELOPING LEADERSHIP SKILLS 381

Leadership Training Programs 382

Learning from Experience 384

Developmental Activities 385

Facilitating Conditions for Leadership Development 396

Systems Perspective on Leadership Development 398

Summary 401 Review and Discussion Questions 402 CASE: Federated Industries 402

CHAPTER 16 OVERVIEW AND INTEGRATION 404

Major Findings About Effective Leadership 404

Multilevel Explanatory Processes 408

Toward an Integrating Conceptual Framework 415

Limitations in Leadership Research 417

Concluding Thoughts 421 Review and Discussion Questions 423

References 424

Author Index 483

Subject Index 499

xv

PREFACE

This book is about leadership in organizations. Its primary focus is on managerial leadership as opposed to parliamentary leadership, leadership of social movements, or emergent leadership in informal groups. The book presents a broad survey of theory and research on leadership in for- mal organizations. Topics of special interest are the determinants of leadership effectiveness and how leadership can be improved.

In this 8th edition, the following improvements were made to make the book easier to un- derstand and more useful to most readers:

• Most chapters were revised for clarity and understanding (including Chapters 2 , 3 , 4 , 6 , 7 , 9 , 10 , 12 , 15 , and 16 ).

• The order of Chapters 4 to 12 was modified to improve explanation of related topics. • Several new examples of effective and ineffective leadership were added to Chapters 4 , 6 ,

11 , 13 , and 14 . • More practical guidelines for effective leadership were added to Chapters 3 , 6 , 7 , and 8 . • Several new examples were used in Chapters 3 , 11 , 12 , and 14 to explain how research is

conducted. • Over 100 citations to recent research were added throughout.

The basic structure of most chapters remains the same, but the order of some chapters was changed and a few topics were moved to a different chapter. Citations to relevant recent literature were updated, but given the increasing volume of studies on leadership, the citations are still selec- tive rather than comprehensive. Since the book is not intended to be a history of leadership, it seemed appropriate to reduce the amount of detail about early research programs and old theories that are no longer popular, and focus more closely on what we now know about effective leadership.

The content of the book still reflects a dual concern for theory and practice. I have attempted to satisfy two different audiences with somewhat different preferences. Most academics prefer a book that explains and evaluates major theories and relevant empirical research. They are more interested in how well the research was done, what was found, and what additional research is needed than in the practical applications. Academics tend to be skeptical about the value of pre- scriptions and guidelines for practitioners and consider them premature in the absence of further research. In contrast, most practitioners want some immediate answers about what to do and how to do it in order to be more effective as leaders. They need to deal with the current challenges of their job and cannot wait for decades until the academics resolve their theoretical disputes and ob- tain definitive answers. Practitioners are more interested in finding helpful remedies and prescrip- tions than in finding out how this knowledge was discovered. Readers who desire to improve their leadership effectiveness will find this edition of the book is even more useful than previous editions.

These different preferences are a one of the reasons for the much-lamented gulf between scientists and practitioners in management and industrial-organizational psychology. I believe it is important for managers and administrators to understand the complexity of effective leader- ship, the source of our knowledge about leadership in organizations, and the limitations of this knowledge. Likewise, I believe it is important for academics to think more about how their theories and research can be used to improve the practice of management. Too much of our leadership research is designed to examine narrow, esoteric questions that only interest a few other scholars who publish in the same journals.

xvi Preface

Academics will be pleased to find that major theories are explained and evaluated, findings in empirical research on leadership are summarized, and many references are provided to help readers find sources of additional information about topics of special interest. The field of lead- ership is still in a state of ferment, with many continuing controversies about conceptual and methodological issues. The book addresses these issues whenever feasible. However, the litera- ture review was intended to be incisive, not comprehensive. Rather than detailing an endless series of studies like most handbooks of leadership, the book describes major findings about ef- fective leadership. The current edition reflects significant progress in our understanding of lead- ership since the first edition was published in 1981.

For practitioners and students who desire to become effective managers, I attempted to convey a better appreciation of the complexity of managerial leadership, the importance of hav- ing theoretical knowledge about leadership, and the need to be flexible and pragmatic in applying this knowledge. The current edition provides many guidelines and recommendations for im- proving managerial effectiveness, but it is not a “practitioner’s manual” of simple techniques and secret recipes that guarantee instant success. The purpose of the guidelines is to help the reader understand the practical implications of the leadership theory and research, not to prescribe ex- actly how things must be done by a leader. Most of the guidelines are based on a limited amount of research and they are not infallible or relevant for all situations. Being a flexible, adaptive leader includes determining which guidelines are relevent for each unique situation.

Most chapters have one or two short cases designed to help the reader gain a better under- standing of the theories, concepts, and guidelines presented in the chapter. The cases describe events that occurred in real organizations, but some of the cases were modified to make them more useful for learning basic concepts and effective practices. For most of the cases, the names of organizations and individuals were changed to keep the analysis focused on the events that oc- curred in a defined time period, not on recent events that may involve different leaders and a new context. The cases ask a reader to analyze behavioral processes, identify examples of effective and ineffective behavior, and suggest effective ways to handle the situation that is depicted.

An instructor’s manual is available with detailed analyses of the cases and suggestions on how to use them. The instructor’s manual also includes additional cases, exercises for use in class (e.g., role plays), and some out-of-class activities that help students to understand how they can apply the theory and guidelines. Finally, a test bank is available with multiple-choice items on the major points in each chapter.

The book is widely used in many different countries, and some editions have been translated into other languages, including Chinese, Korean, Indonesian, Spanish, Greek, Croatian, and Swedish. With its focus on effective leadership in organizations, the book is especially relevant for people who expect to become a manager or administrator in the near future, for people who will be responsible for training or coaching leaders, and for people who will be teaching courses or work- shops that include leadership as one of the key topics. The book is appropriate for use as the primary text in an undergraduate or graduate course in leadership. Such courses are found in many different schools or departments, including business, psychology, sociology, educational administration, public administration, and health care administration. The book is on the list of required or recommended readings for students in many doctoral programs in leadership, management, and industrial- organizational psychology. Finally, the book is also useful for practicing managers and consultants who are looking for something more than superficial answers to difficult questions about leadership.

Gary Yukl Albany, New York

June, 2011

1

Chapter 1

Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

■ Understand the different ways leadership has been defined. ■ Understand the controversy about differences between leadership and management. ■ Understand why it is so difficult to assess leadership effectiveness. ■ Understand the different indicators used to assess leadership effectiveness. ■ Understand what aspects of leadership have been studied the most during the past 50 years. ■ Understand the organization of this book.

Leadership is a subject that has long excited interest among people. The term connotes images of powerful, dynamic individuals who command victorious armies, direct corporate empires from atop gleaming skyscrapers, or shape the course of nations. The exploits of brave and clever leaders are the essence of many legends and myths. Much of our description of history is the story of military, political, religious, and social leaders who are credited or blamed for important historical events, even though we do not understand very well how the events were caused or how much influence the leader really had. The widespread fascination with leadership may be because it is such a mysterious process, as well as one that touches everyone’s life. Why did certain leaders (e.g., Gandhi, Mohammed, Mao Tse-tung) inspire such intense fervor and dedi- cation? How did certain leaders (e.g., Julius Caesar, Alexander the Great) build great empires? Why did some rather undistinguished people (e.g., Adolf Hitler, Claudius Caesar) rise to posi- tions of great power? Why were certain leaders (e.g., Winston Churchill, Indira Gandhi) sud- denly deposed, despite their apparent power and record of successful accomplishments? Why do some leaders have loyal followers who are willing to sacrifice their lives, whereas other lead- ers are so despised that subordinates conspire to murder them?

Introduction: Th e Nature of Leadership

2 Chapter 1 • Introduction: The Nature of Leadership

Questions about leadership have long been a subject of speculation, but sci- entific research on leadership did not begin until the twentieth century. The focus of much of the research has been on the determinants of leadership effectiveness. Social scientists have attempted to discover what traits, abilities, behaviors, sources of power, or aspects of the situation determine how well a leader is able to influence followers and accomplish task objectives. There is also a growing interest in understanding leadership as a shared pro- cess in a team or organization and the reasons why this process is effective or ineffective. Other important questions include the reasons why some people emerge as leaders, and the determi- nants of a leader’s actions, but the predominant concern has been leadership effectiveness.

Some progress has been made in probing the mysteries surrounding leadership, but many questions remain unanswered. In this book, major theories and research findings on leader- ship effectiveness will be reviewed, with particular emphasis on managerial leadership in formal organizations such as business corporations, government agencies, hospitals, and universi- ties. This chapter introduces the subject by considering different conceptions of leadership, dif- ferent ways of evaluating its effectiveness, and different approaches for studying leadership. The chapter also provides an overview of the book and explains how subjects are organized.

Definitions of Leadership

The term leadership is a word taken from the common vocabulary and incorporated into the technical vocabulary of a scientific discipline without being precisely redefined. As a consequence, it carries extraneous connotations that create ambiguity of meaning (Janda, 1960). Additional confusion is caused by the use of other imprecise terms such as power , author- ity , management , administration , control , and supervision to describe similar phenomena. An observation by Bennis (1959, p. 259) is as true today as when he made it many years ago:

Always, it seems, the concept of leadership eludes us or turns up in another form to taunt us again with its slipperiness and complexity. So we have invented an endless proliferation of terms to deal with it . . . and still the concept is not sufficiently defined.

Researchers usually define leadership according to their individual perspectives and the as- pects of the phenomenon of most interest to them. After a comprehensive review of the leadership literature, Stogdill (1974, p. 259) concluded that “there are almost as many definitions of leadership as there are persons who have attempted to define the concept.” The stream of new definitions has continued unabated since Stogdill made his observation. Leadership has been defined in terms of traits, behaviors, influence, interaction patterns, role relationships, and occupation of an adminis- trative position. Table 1-1 shows some representative definitions presented over the past 50 years.

Most definitions of leadership reflect the assumption that it involves a process whereby in- tentional influence is exerted over other people to guide, structure, and facilitate activities and rela- tionships in a group or organization. The numerous definitions of leadership appear to have little else in common. They differ in many respects, including who exerts influence, the intended pur- pose of the influence, the manner in which influence is exerted, and the outcome of the influence attempt. The differences are not just a case of scholarly nit-picking; they reflect deep disagreement about identification of leaders and leadership processes. Researchers who differ in their concep- tion of leadership select different phenomena to investigate and interpret the results in different ways. Researchers who have a very narrow definition of leadership are less likely to discover things that are unrelated to or inconsistent with their initial assumptions about effective leadership.

Chapter 1 • Introduction: The Nature of Leadership 3

Because leadership has so many different meanings to people, some theorists question whether it is even useful as a scientific construct (e.g., Alvesson & Sveningsson, 2003; Miner, 1975). Nevertheless, most behavioral scientists and practitioners seem to believe leadership is a real phenomenon that is important for the effectiveness of organizations. Interest in the subject con- tinues to increase, and the deluge of articles and books about leadership shows no sign of abating.

Specialized Role or Shared Influence Process?

A major controversy involves the issue of whether leadership should be viewed as a special- ized role or as a shared influence process. One view is that all groups have role specialization, and the leadership role has responsibilities and functions that cannot be shared too widely without jeopardizing the effectiveness of the group. The person with primary responsibility to perform the specialized leadership role is designated as the “leader.” Other members are called “followers” even though some of them may assist the primary leader in carrying out leadership functions. The distinction between leader and follower roles does not mean that a person cannot perform both roles at the same time. For example, a department manager who is the leader of department employees is also a follower of higher-level managers in the organization. Researchers who view leadership as a specialized role are likely to pay more attention to the attributes that determine selection of designated leaders, the typical behavior of designated leaders, and the effects of this behavior on other members of the group or organization.

Another way to view leadership is in terms of an influence process that occurs naturally within a social system and is diffused among the members. Writers with this perspective believe it is more useful to study “leadership” as a social process or pattern of relationships rather than as a specialized role. According to this view, various leadership functions may be carried out by dif- ferent people …