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The Police an introduction

n in

th ed

itio n

Samuel Walker | Charles M. Katz

in America

Ninth Edition

The Police in America

an introduction

Samuel Walker University of Nebraska at Omaha

Charles M. Katz Arizona State University

THE POLICE IN AMERICA: AN INTRODUCTION, NINTH EDITION

Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2018 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2011, 2008, and 2005. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Walker, Samuel, 1942- author. | Katz, Charles M., author. Title: The police in America : an introduction / Samuel Walker, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Charles M. Katz, Arizona State University. Description: Ninth Edition. | Dubuque, IA : McGraw-Hill Education, [2017] | Revised edition of the authors’ The police in America, c2013. Identifiers: LCCN 2016053271| ISBN 9781259140761 (alk. paper) | ISBN 1259140768 (alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH: Police--United States. | Police administration--United States. Classification: LCC HV8139 .W35 2017 | DDC 363.20973--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016053271

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.

mheducation.com/highered

iii

About the Authors

Samuel Walker Dr. Samuel Walker is Professor Emeritus at the University of Nebraska at Omaha, where he taught for 31 years before retiring in 2005. He is the author of 14 books on policing, criminal justice policy, and civil liberties. He continues to write and consult in the area of police accountability, with a special interest in police early intervention systems and federal litigation against police misconduct.

Charles Katz Dr. Charles Katz is the Watts Family Director of the Center for Violence Prevention and Community Safety and is a Professor in the School of Criminology and Criminal Justice at Arizona State University. Dr. Katz earned his Ph.D. in Criminal Justice from the University of Nebraska at Omaha in 1997. He is coauthor of Policing Gangs in America (published by Cambridge University Press) and numerous articles on policing and gangs. He is currently working with several large metropolitan police agencies evaluating programs and practices.

iv

Contents in Brief

Preface XVI

P A R T I Foundations 1 1 Police and Society 2 2 The History of the American Police 28 3 The Contemporary Law Enforcement Industry 70

P A R T II Officers and Organizations 101 4 Police Organizations 102 5 Police Officers I: Recruitment and Training for

a Changing Society 130

6 Police Officers II: On the Job 166

P A R T III Police Work 211 7 Patrol: The Backbone of Policing 212 8 Peacekeeping and Order Maintenance 250 9 The Police and Crime 282 10 Advances in Police Strategy 324

P A R T IV Issues in Policing 367 11 Police Discretion 368 12 Legitimacy and Police–Community Relations 404 13 Police Corruption 454 14 Accountability of the Police 488

P A R T V Challenges for a New Century 543 15 The Future of Policing in America 544

Glossary 569 | Name Index 581 | Subject Index 584

Contents

Preface XVI

P A R T I Foundations 1 C H A P T E R 1

Police and Society 2

The Goals of This Book 3

Why Do We Have Police? 3

A Framework for Understanding the Police and Policing 4 A Democratic Police 5

Democracy and Accountability 5

A Legitimate Police 6 Procedural Justice 7

Practices That Build Legitimacy 8

Legitimacy and Police–Public Interactions 8

Legitimacy, Trust, and Race Relations 9

An Open and Transparent Police 10 Practices That Create Openness and

Transparency 11

An Accountable Police 12 Police Accountability: Goals and Methods 12

Accountability on Police Use of Force 12

Collecting and Analyzing Data on Use of Force 14

Accountability in Routine Police–Public Contacts 15

Training to Prevent Bias in Police Activities 15

Independent Investigations and Review of Critical Incidents 16

An Effective Police 17 The Complex Responsibilities of the Police 17

Ineffective Strategies for Controlling Crime and Disorder 18

Effective Strategies for Controlling Crime and Disorder 21

Partnerships with the Public 21

A Special Case: The Police and the Mentally Ill 22

A Special Case: The Police and Juveniles 23

Research and Policing: Evidence-Based Programs 23

Summary 24

Key Terms 25

For Discussion 25

Internet Exercises 25

C H A P T E R 2 The History of the American Police 28

Flashback: Moments in American Police History 29 The First American Police Officer 29

Flash Forward: 1950 29

Why Study Police History? 29

The English Heritage 30 Creation of the Modern Police: London, 1829 31

Law Enforcement in Colonial America 32 The Quality of Colonial Law Enforcement 32

The First Modern American Police 33

The “Political Era” in American Policing, 1830s—1900 34 A Lack of Personnel Standards 35

Patrol Work in the Political Era 35

The Police and the Public 36

Corruption and Politics 37

Immigration, Discrimination, and Police Corruption 38

The Failure of Police Reform 39

The Impact of the Police on Crime and Disorder 40

v

vi Contents

The Professional Era, 1900–1960 40 The Police Professionalization Movement 41

The Reform Agenda 41

The Achievements of Professionalization 42

Other Impacts of Professionalization 43

Police and Race Relations 44

New Law Enforcement Agencies 44

Technology Revolutionizes Policing 45

New Directions in Police Administration, 1930–1960 47 The Wickersham Commission Bombshell 47

Professionalization Continues 47

Simmering Racial and Ethnic Relations 48

J. Edgar Hoover and the War on Crime 48

The Police Crises of the 1960s 49 The Police and the Supreme Court 49

The Police and Civil Rights 51

The Police in the National Spotlight 52

The Research Revolution 53

New Developments in Policing, 1970–2016 55 The Changing Police Officer 55

Administrative Rulemaking and the Control of Police Discretion 56

The Emergence of Police Unions 57

The Spread of Citizen Oversight of Police 57

Community Policing, Problem-Oriented Policing, and Other Innovations 58

Data-Driven Policing 60

Racial Profiling and Discrimination 60

Federal Investigations of Police Misconduct 61

Local Police and the War on Terrorism 62

The National Police Crisis, 2014–2016 63

CASE STUDY: De-escalating Police–Citizen Encounters 63

Summary 64

Key Terms 65

For Discussion 65

Internet Exercises 65

C H A P T E R 3 The Contemporary Law Enforcement Industry 70

Basic Features of American Law Enforcement 71 An “Industry” Perspective 71

An International Perspective 72

Size and Scope of the Law Enforcement Industry 73 The Number of Law Enforcement Agencies 73

The Number of Law Enforcement Personnel 74

Understanding Law Enforcement Personnel Data 74

Civilianization 75

The Police–Population Ratio 75

The Cost of Police Protection 75

The Fragmentation Issue 76 Alternatives to Fragmentation 77

The Fragmentation Problem Reconsidered 79

Municipal Police 80 County Police 80

The County Sheriff 81 The Role of the Sheriff 81

Other Local Agencies 82 The Constable 82

The Coroner/Medical Examiner 82

Special District Police 83

Tribal Police 83

State Law Enforcement Agencies 85

Federal Law Enforcement Agencies 86 Federal Law Enforcement after September 11,

2001 86

The Private Security Industry 90

Minimum Standards: American Style 93

The Role of the Federal Government 93

The Role of State Governments 93

Accreditation 94

CASE STUDY: The Fraser/Winter Park (CO) Police Department 94

Summary 96

Key Terms 96

For Discussion 96

Internet Exercises 96

Contents vii

C H A P T E R 4 Police Organizations 102

The Quasi-Military Style of Police Organizations 103 Criticisms of the Quasi-Military Style 103

Police Departments as Organizations 105 The Dominant Style of American Police

Organizations 105

Police Organizations as Bureaucracies 105

The Problems with Bureaucracy 108

The Positive Contributions of Bureaucracy in Policing 108

Informal Aspects of Police Organizations 108

Bureaucracy and Police Professionalism 110

Changing Police Organizations 110 Community Policing 110

Task Forces 112

COMPSTAT 113

Civil Service 115

Police Unions 116 Aspects of Police Unions 116

Collective Bargaining 117

Grievance Procedures 117

Impasse Settlement and Strikes 117

The Impact of Police Unions 120

Police Organizations and Their Environment 122

Contingency Theory 122

Institutional Theory 122

Resource Dependency Theory 123

CASE STUDY: COMPSTAT in Chicago 124

Summary 125

Key Terms 125

For Discussion 125

Internet Exercises 126

C H A P T E R 5 Police Officers I: Recruitment and Training for a Changing Society 130

The Changing American Police Officer 131

What Kind of Police Officer Do We Want? And for What Kind of Policing? 131

The Police Personnel Process 132

A Career Perspective 133

Beyond Stereotypes of Cops 133

The Personnel Process: A Shared Responsibility 134

Recruiting Police Officers 134

What Kind of Job? What Kind of Person? 135

Minimum Qualifications 135

The Recruitment Effort 139

Choosing Law Enforcement as a Career 139

Applicants’ Motivations 139

Obstacles to Recruitment 140

Testing and Selecting Applicants 141 Selection Tests 141

Background Investigations 142

Predicting Police Officer Performance 142

Achieving Diversity in Police Employment 143

The Goals of Diversity 143

The Law of Equal Employment Opportunity 144

“Not Your Father’s Police Department”: Diversity in Policing 144

Women in Policing 146

Employment Discrimination Suits 147

The Impact of Increased Diversity 149

Police Training: Progress and New Challenges 149 New Thinking about Policing and Training 150

The Police Academy 150

Training on the Use of Force 152

Tactical Decision-Making 153

Scenario-Based Training 153

Fragmented and Inconsistent Training 154

The Consequences of Inadequate Training 154

P A R T II Officers and Organizations 101

viii Contents

Training on Unconscious Bias 155

Training on Procedural Justice 155

Field Training 155

In-Service Training 156

Training of Supervisors 157

The Probationary Period 157

CASE STUDY: Improving Training for Domestic Violence Incidents: A Problem-Oriented Approach 158

Summary 159

Key Terms 159

For Discussion 160

Internet Exercises 160

C H A P T E R 6 Police Officers II: On the Job 166

Reality Shock: Beginning Police Work 168 Encountering Citizens 168

Encountering the Criminal Justice System 169

Encountering the Department 169

Starting Out on the Job 170

Impact of the Seniority System 170

The Concept of a Unique Police Subculture 172

The Original Concept 172

The Capacity to Use Force as a Defining Feature of Policing 174

The Dangers of Policing: Potential versus Actual 175

Conflicting Work Demands 177

New Perspectives on a Complex and Changing Police Subculture 178

The Changing Rank and File: The Impact of Diversity 179

The Impact of Women Police Officers on the Police Subculture 179

Women Officers on Patrol Duty 181

Female versus Male Officers: Differences in Misconduct Issues 181

Sexual Harassment on the Job 182

African American Officers 182

African American Officers on the Job 183

Hispanic Officers 183

Gay and Lesbian Officers 184

The Intersection of Gender, Race, Ethnicity, and Sexual Identity 185

Does Diversifying a Department Change the Police Subculture? 186

Rising Levels of Police Officer Education 186

Cohort Effects on Performance 187

Organizational Effects on Attitudes and Performance 187

Attitudes toward Community Policing 188

The Relationship between Attitudes and Behavior 189

Styles of Police Work 189

Moving through Police Careers 190

Salaries and Benefits 190

Career Development 191

Promotion 191

Assignment to Special Units 192

Lateral Entry 193

Outside Employment 193

Performance Evaluations 194

Traditional Performance Evaluations 194

Problems with Performance Evaluations 195

Job Satisfaction and Job Stress 196

The Sources of Job Satisfaction 196

The Sources of Job Stress 197

Job Stress and Suicide 198

Community Policing and Job Satisfaction 199

Coping with Job Stress 200

The Rights of Police Officers 200

Turnover: Leaving Police Work 202

Decertification 203

Summary 203

Key Terms 204

For Discussion 204

Internet Exercise 204

Contents ix

C H A P T E R 7 Patrol: The Backbone of Policing 212

The Central Role of Patrol 213

The Functions of Patrol 214

The Organization and Delivery of Patrol 214 Factors Affecting the Delivery of Patrol Services 214

Number of Sworn Officers 214

Assignment to Patrol 216

The Distribution of Patrol Officers 216

Assignment of Patrol Officers 218

“Hot Spots” 218

Types of Patrol 218

Foot Patrol 219

One-Officer versus Two-Officer Cars 219

Staffing Patrol Beats 220

Styles of Patrol 220 Individual Styles 220

Supervisors’ Styles 221

Organizational Styles 221

Patrol Supervision: The Role of the Sergeant 222

The Communications Center 223 The Nerve Center of Policing 223

911 Systems 223

Processing Calls for Service 224

Operator–Citizen Interactions 226

The Systematic Study of Police Patrol 226 Standards for Systematic Social Observation 226

The Call Service Workload 228 The Volume of Calls 228

Types of Calls 228

Aspects of Patrol Work 230 Response Time 230

Officer Use of Patrol Time 231

Evading Duty 232

High-Speed Pursuits 232

The Effectiveness of Patrol 233 Initial Experiments 233

The Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment 234

Findings and Implications of the Kansas City Experiment 235

The Newark Foot Patrol Experiment 236

New Questions, New Approaches 237

Improving Traditional Patrol 237

Differential Response to Calls 237

Telephone Reporting Units 238

311 Nonemergency Numbers 238

Non-English 911 Call Services 239

Reverse 911 239

Computers and Video Cameras in Patrol Cars 239

Police Aides or Cadets 240

Directed Patrol and Hot Spots 241

Customer Feedback 242

Beyond Traditional Patrol 242

CASE STUDY: The Philadelphia Foot Patrol Experiment by Jerry Ratcliffe et al. 242

Summary 244

Key Terms 245

For Discussion 245

Internet Exercises 245

C H A P T E R 8 Peacekeeping and Order Maintenance 250

The Police Role 251

Calling the Police 252

Public Expectations 252

Police Response 252

Traffic Enforcement 253

Drunk-Driving Crackdowns 255

Policing Domestic Disputes 256

Defining Our Terms 256

The Prevalence of Domestic Violence 257

Calling the Police 257

P A R T III Police Work 211

x Contents

Police Response to Domestic Disturbances 258 Factors Influencing the Arrest Decision 259

A Revolution in Policy: Mandatory Arrest 260

The Impact of Arrest on Domestic Violence 260

Impact of Mandatory Arrest Laws and Policies 262

Other Laws and Policies 262

The Future of Domestic Violence Policy 263

Policing Prostitution 263

Policing the Homeless 266

Policing the Mentally III 267 Police Response to the Mentally III 268

Old Problems/New Programs 269

Policing People with HIV 271

Policing Juveniles 272 Controversy over the Police Role 273

Specialized Juvenile Units 273

On-the-Street Encounters 274

The Issue of Race Discrimination 275

Crime Prevention Programs 275

CASE STUDY: Responding to Chronically Inebriated Individuals in Seattle, Washington 276

Summary 276

Key Terms 277

For Discussion 277

Internet Exercises 277

C H A P T E R 9 The Police and Crime 282

The Police and Crime 283 Crime Control Strategies 283

Crime Control Assumptions 284

Measuring Effectiveness 285

Preventing Crime 285

Apprehending Criminals 286 Citizen Reporting of Crime 286

Reporting and Unfounding Crimes 288

Criminal Investigation 289 Myths about Detective Work 289

The Organization of Detective Work 290

The Investigation Process 291

The Preliminary Investigation 291

Arrest Discretion 291

Follow-Up Investigations 291

The Reality of Detective Work 292

Case Screening 292

Measuring the Effectiveness of Criminal Investigation 293

The Clearance Rate 293

Defining an Arrest 294

Success and Failure in Solving Crimes 295

Case Structural Factors 295

Organizational Factors 296

Environmental Factors 297

Officer Productivity 297

The Problem of Case Attrition 298

The Use of Eyewitness Identification, Criminalistics, and DNA in Investigations 298

Eyewitness Identification 298

Criminalistics 299

DNA 299

Improving Criminal Investigations 300

Special Investigative Techniques 301 Undercover Police Work 301

Informants 302

Policing Drugs 303 Drug Enforcement Strategies 303

Minorities and the War on Drugs 304

The Special Case of Marijuana 305

Demand Reduction: The D.A.R.E. Program 306

Policing Gangs and Gang-Related Crime 306 Gang Suppression 307

Gang Prevention: The G.R.E.A.T. Program 308

Policing Career Criminals 308

Policing Guns and Gun Crimes 309 Gun Suppression 309

Policing Hate Crime 311 The Scope and Nature of Hate Crime 311

The Police Response to Hate Crime 312

Contents xi

Policing and Terrorism 313 The Scope and Nature of Terrorism 313

Domestic Terrorism 313

Foreign Terrorism 314

Responding to Terrorism 314

CASE STUDY: Untested Evidence in Law Enforcement Agencies 316

Summary 318

Key Terms 318

For Discussion 318

Internet Exercises 318

C H A P T E R 10 Advances in Police Strategy 324

Impetus for Change in Policing 325

The Roots of Community Policing: The Broken Windows Hypothesis 326 Types of Disorder 327

Characteristics of Community Policing 327 Community Partnerships 329

The Effectiveness of Community Partnerships 332

Organizational Change 333

Evidence of Organizational Change 335

Problem Solving 336

Pulling It All Together: Implementing Community Policing at the Departmental Level 337 Chicago Alternative Policing Strategy (CAPS)

Program 337

Community Policing: Problems and Prospects 342 A Legitimate Police Role? 342

A Political Police? 342

Decentralization and Accountability 343

Impact on Poor and Minority Communities 344

Conflicting Community Interests 344

But Does Community Policing Work? 344

The Roots of Problem-Oriented Policing 345

The Problem-Solving Process 347

Scanning 348

Analysis 349

Response 349

Assessment 349

Effectiveness of Problem-Oriented Policing 349

Problem-Oriented Policing in Newport News 349

Problem-Oriented Policing in San Diego 351

The Boston Gun Project: Operation Cease Fire 351

The Future of Problem-Oriented Policing 352

Characteristics of Zero-Tolerance Policing 353

The Effectiveness of Zero-Tolerance Policing 355

Zero-Tolerance Policing in New York City 355

Operation Restoration 357

Potential Problems with Zero-Tolerance Policing 357

But Does Zero Tolerance Policing Work? 359

CASE STUDY: Using Social Media as a Virtual Form of Neighborhood Watch in Sacramento, California 360

Summary 360

Key Terms 361

For Discussion 361

Internet Exercises 361

C H A P T E R 11 Police Discretion 368

Discretion in Police Work 369 A Definition of Discretion 370 New Perspectives on Police Discretion 370

A Short History of the Study of Police Discretion 370

A Richer Understanding of Police–Citizen Encounters 371

Potential Abuse of Discretion 372

Positive Uses of Discretion 373

Decision Points and Decision Makers 374 Patrol Officers’ Decisions 374

P A R T IV Issues in Policing 367

xii Contents

Detectives’ Decisions 375

Police Managers’ Decisions 375

Underlying Sources of Police Discretion 375 The Nature of the Criminal Law 375

Conflicting Public Expectations 376

Social and Medical Issues 377

The Work Environment of Policing 377

Limited Police Resources 378

Factors Limiting Patrol Officer Discretion 379 Legal Factors 379

Administrative Factors 379

Organizational Culture Factors 380

Factors Influencing Discretionary Arrest Decisions 380 Situational Factors 380

Organizational Factors 384

Social and Political Factors 385

The Control of Discretion 385 The Need for Control 385

Abolish Discretion? 386

Enhancing Professional Judgment 387

Informal Bureaucratic Controls 387

Administrative Rulemaking: Controls through Written Policies 388 Examples of Administrative Rulemaking 388

Principles of Administrative Rulemaking 390

Contributions of Written Rules 390

The Impact of Administrative Rulemaking 392

Ensuring Compliance with Rules 392

Codifying Rules: The Standard Operation Procedure Manual 394

Systematic Rulemaking 395

Citizen Oversight and Policymaking 396

The Limits of Administrative Rulemaking 396

CASE STUDY: “Broken Windows” and Police Discretion 397

Summary 398

Key Terms 398

For Discussion 398

Internet Exercises 399

C H A P T E R 12 Legitimacy and Police–Community Relations 404

From Police–Community Relations to Legitimacy 405 The National Police Crisis, 2014–2016 405

Legitimacy and Procedural Justice 406

The Many Communities in Police-Community Relations 407 Understanding Race and Ethnicity 408

Official Data on Race and Ethnicity 408

The Major Racial and Ethnic Groups 409

Public Opinion about the Police 411 Factors that Affect Public Opinion about

the Police 411

The Impact of Controversial Incidents 414

Additional Perspectives on the Police in American Society 415 The Police and American Society 415

The Police and Other Occupations 415

The American Police in International Perspective 416

Police Officer Perceptions of Citizens 417

Police–Citizen Interactions: Sources of Police–Community Relations Problems and Loss of Legitimacy 418 The Level of Neighborhood Police Protection 419

Delay in Responding to 911 Calls 420

Police Use of Deadly Force 420

Unconscious Bias and Police Use of Deadly Force 422

Use of Physical Force 423

Patterns in Officer Use of Force 424

Stops and Frisks 425

Arrests 426

Arrests and the War on Drugs 427

The Complex Interaction of Demeanor, Race, and Arrests 427

David Kennedy on the “Racial Divide” 428

Unconscious Bias, Stereotyping, and Arrests 429

Verbal Abuse and Racial and Ethnic Slurs 430

Traffic Enforcement and Racial Profiling 430

Contents xiii

Building Legitimacy and Improving Police- Community Relations 436 The Different Dimensions of Trust and Confidence

in the Police 436

Engaging the Community 438

Perspective: The Failure of the Police–Community Relations Unites in the 1960s 439

Ending Police Misconduct 440

Engaging Immigrant Communities 441

Immigration and Cultural Barriers in Policing 442

Language Barriers in Policing 442

A Representative Police Force 443

Citizen Oversight of the Police 444

Assign Officers on the Basis of Race or Ethnicity? 444

Do Citizens Care about the Ethnicity of the Officer? 445

Special Training over Race and Ethnicity 445

Summary 446

Key Terms 446

For Discussion 447

Internet Exercises 447

C H A P T E R 13 Police Corruption 454

A Definition of Police Corruption 455

The Costs of Police Corruption 456

Types of Corruption 458 Gratuities 458

Bribes 458

Theft and Burglary 460

Sexual Misconduct 461

Internal Corruption 463

Corruption and Brutality 463

Levels of Corruption 464 Pervasiveness of Corruption within a Police

Organization 465

Theories of Police Corruption 466 Individual Officer Explanations 466

Social Structural Explanations 466

Neighborhood Explanations 468

The Nature of Police Work 468

The Police Organization 469

The Police Subculture 469

Becoming Corrupt 470 The Moral Careers of Individual Officers 470

Corrupting Organizations 471

Controlling Corruption 471

Internal Corruption Control Strategies 472 The Attitude of the Chief 472

Rules and Regulations 472

Managing Anticorruption Investigations 473

Investigative Tactics 474

Cracking the “Blue Curtain” 475

Proactive Integrity Tests 475

Effective Supervision 476

Rewarding the Good Officers 476

Personnel Recruitment 476

Field Training 478

External Corruption Control Approaches 479 Special Investigations 479

Criminal Prosecution 479

Mobilizing Public Opinion 482

Altering the External Environment 482

The Limits of Anticorruption Efforts 482

CASE STUDY: Hurricane Katrina and the New Orleans Police Department 483

Summary 483

Key Terms 484

For Discussion 484

Internet Exercises 484

C H A P T E R 14 Accountability of the Police 488

What Do We Mean by Police Accountability? 489 The Dilemmas of Policing in a Democracy 490

A Historical Perspective on Accountability 490

xiv Contents

Accountability for What the Police Do 491 The Traditional Approach to Measuring Police

Effectiveness 491

Alternative Measures and Their Limitations 492

COMPSTAT: A Neighborhood-Focused Approach 494

Accountability for How the Police Do Their Job 494

Internal Mechanisms of Accountability 495 Routine Supervision of Patrol Officers 495

Coaching, Mentoring, Leading, and Helping 498

Organizational Culture and Accountability 498

Command-Level Review of Force Incidents: The Emerging Standard 499

Corrective Action: Informal and Formal 500

Performance Evaluations 500

Internal Affairs/Professional Standards Units 501 The Discipline Process 502

Appropriate Levels of Discipline 503

Openness and Transparency for Disciplinary Actions 504

Standards for Investigating Citizen Complaints 504

Using Discipline Records in Personnel Decisions 505

The “Code of Silence” 505

Early Intervention Systems 506 Officers with Performance Problems 506

The Nature and Purpose of an EIS 507

Performance Indicators and Thresholds 507

Interventions for Officers 509

The Multiple Goals of an EIS 510

The Effectiveness of an EIS 511

Risk Management and Police Legal Advisors 511

Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies 512 The Nature of Accreditation 512

Pros and Cons of Accreditation 513

External Mechanisms of Accountability 513 Guiding the Police through the Political Process 513

The Courts and the Police 514

Federal “Pattern or Practice” Suits 518

The Collaborative Reform Approach: An Alternative to Litigation 522

Injunctions to Stop Patterns of Police Misconduct 423

Criminal Prosecution of Police Officers 523

Citizen Oversight of the Police 524

Blue-Ribbon Commissions 527

The Digital Revolution and Police Accountability 527

The News Media as a Police Accountability Mechanism 528

Public Interest Groups and Accountability 529

Accountability and Crime Control: A Trade-Off? 530

Conclusion: A Mixed Approach to Police Accountability 531

CASE STUDY: Policing Los Angeles under a Consent Decree: The Dynamics of Change at the LAPD: Executive Summary 532

Summary 533

Key Terms 534

Internet Exercises 534

C H A P T E R 15 The Future of Policing in America 544

Police Technology 545 Major Technology Applications 545 The Use of Technology in the Field 548 The Future of Police Information Technology 552 Technologically Advanced Weapons 553

Crime Analysis 554 Types of Crime Analysis 554

Crime Mapping 555

The Outlook for Police Employment 556

Opportunities in Local, County, and State Law Enforcement 557

Local, County, and State Salaries 558

P A R T V Challenges for a New Century 543

Contents xv

Opportunities in Federal Law Enforcement 558

Federal Salaries 558

The Future of Police Research 559 Does Research Do Any Good? 559

Politics and Research 560

Police Practitioner–Researcher Relationships 560

The Future of Federal Support for Research 561

Impact of the War on Terrorism 561 Role Expansion 562

Racial and Ethnic Profiling 562

Personnel Challenges 562

Role Change 563

CASE STUDY: Evaluating the Impact of Officer-Worn Body Cameras in Phoenix, Arizona, Project Focus 564

Summary 565

Key Terms 566

For Discussion 566

Internet Exercises 566

Glossary 569 | Name Index 581 | Subject Index 584

xvi Contents

xvi

Preface

The Police in America: An Introduction provides a comprehensive introduction to the foundations of policing in the United States today. Descriptive and analytical, the text is designed to offer undergraduate students a balanced and up-to-date overview of who the police are and what they do, the problems they face, and the many reforms and innovations that have taken place in policing. The book is designed primarily for undergraduates enrolled in their first police or law enforcement course—such as an introduction to policing, police and society, or law enforcement systems.

Changes in the Ninth Edition The ninth edition of The Police in America: An Introduction has undergone extensive revision. In response to reviewer feedback, we have not only updated all of the statisti- cal information but also provided new examples of several important issues throughout the book. We have also included coverage of the latest research and practices in polic- ing. Some of the most important changes we have made for the ninth edition are as follows:

∙ Chapter 1, “Police and Society” has been completely revised to use the Presi- dent’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing as a framework for understanding the police in America,.

∙ Chapter 2, “The History of the American Police,” has been expanded to include discussion of the national police crisis of 2014–2016 and its impact.

∙ Chapter 3, “The Contemporary Law Enforcement Industry,” has been revised and updated to include the most current data of law enforcement organizations.

∙ Chapter 4, “Police Organizations,” has been revised to include the most important new research on law enforcement organizations.

∙ Chapter 5, “Recruitment and Training for a Changing Society,” has been completely revised to incorporate the important new developments related to police training.

∙ Chapter 6, “Police Officers II: On the Job,” includes a completely revised discussion of the police officer subculture and its impact on police officer behavior.

∙ Chapter 7, “Patrol: The Backbone of Policing,” was revised to include the lat- est research on innovations in police patrol.

∙ Chapter 8, “Peacekeeping and Order Maintenance,” has been expanded to include the latest research on policing traffic, domestic violence, and other social problems.

∙ Chapter 9, “The Police and Crime,” has been extensively revised to include the latest research on policing gangs, drugs, and terrorism.

Preface xvii

∙ Chapter 10, “Advances in Police Strategy” has been revised to include new perspectives on the goals and effectiveness of recent police innovations.

∙ Chapter 11, “Police Discretion,” was revised to include new perspectives on the complexity of officer exercise of discretion.

∙ Chapter 12, “Legitimacy and Police-Community Relations,” has been revised to incorporate the new interest in and reforms related to legitimacy because of the national police crisis, 2014–2016.

∙ Chapter 13, “Police Corruption,” has been revised to incorporate new perspectives and research on police corruption.

∙ Chapter 14, “Accountability of the Police,” has been extensively revised to include material and the full range of both internal and external accountability mechanisms.

∙ Chapter 15, “The Future of Policing in America,” has been updated to include discussions of the latest developments related to technology, employment, po- lice research and terrorism.

Overview of the Contents Part I, “Foundations,” provides students with an introduction to policing in America. It explains the role of the police in the United States, along with the realities of police work and the many factors that shape policing. It also traces the history of the police from the creation of the first modern police department through the many new devel- opments that can be found in policing today. The section concludes with a discussion of the characteristics of the contemporary law enforcement industry, including a section on the Department of Homeland Security. Part II, “Officers and Organizations,” begins with an explanation of the char- acteristics of police organization, the role and influence of police unions, and a dis- cussion of the theoretical rationales for why police organizations behave the way they do. It also includes an explanation of police recruitment, selection, and training practices, as well as a discussion of the characteristics of American police officers. The section covers the reality shock that officers encounter when beginning their job, the concept of police culture, and the relationship between the attitudes of the police and the behavior of the police. Part III, “Police Work,” includes explanations of what the police do and how they do it. Among the subjects covered are the functions of patrol, the delivery of services, and the effectiveness of traditional policing strategies. This section also discusses the various problems that the police face while on the job and the strategies they use to respond to these problems. The section closes with a discussion of advances in police strategy, such as community policing, problem-oriented policing, and zero-tolerance policing. Part IV, “Issues in Policing,” covers the various problems that police officers and police organizations encounter. The chapter on police discretion explains the nature of police discretion, sources of discretion, and how police organizations have attempted to control discretion. The section also includes a chapter on legitimacy and police–community relations. Attention is placed on citizen perceptions of the police, police perceptions of citizens, and sources of police–community relations problems.

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Special emphasis is placed on race and ethnicity and its implications for policing in the United States. This section includes chapters on police corruption and police accountability, which discuss different types of police misbehavior and the strategies used to hold the police accountable. Part V, “Challenges for a New Century,” concludes the book with a chapter on the future of policing in America.

Pedagogy A number of learning devices are included to make the text easier to teach and, for students, easier to learn, enlivening the material with practical, concrete examples and applications:

∙ Boxes called “Police in Focus” discuss a series of important issues in policing. This feature is designed to highlight particularly important points and can serve as the basis for class discussion. In each case, references are provided for students who want to pursue the issue further.

∙ Sidebars throughout the book expound on important concepts and feature contemporary issues related to the chapter.

∙ Cross-reference icons direct students to material elsewhere in the text that can further illuminate chapter topics.

∙ Chapter-opening outlines guide students through each chapter. ∙ Key terms are highlighted in the margins, boldfaced in the text, listed at the end

of the chapter, and defined in a comprehensive glossary at the end of the book. ∙ End-of-chapter case studies—real-world examples that highlight major

concepts or ideas from each chapter—enable students to begin to apply what they have learned.

∙ “Internet Exercises” at the end of each chapter can be used by students for further web-based study.

∙ “For Discussion” questions at the end of each chapter can be used to stimulate classroom discussion.

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The ninth edition of The Police in America: An Introduction is now available online with Connect, McGraw-Hill Education’s integrated assignment and assessment platform. Connect also offers SmartBook for the new edition, which is the first adaptive reading experience proven to improve grades and help students study more effectively. All of the title’s website and ancillary content is also available through Connect, including:

∙ An Instructor’s Manual for each chapter. ∙ A full Test Bank of multiple choice questions that test students on central

concepts and ideas in each chapter. ∙ Lecture Slides for instructor use in class.

Mobile Connect’s new, intuitive mobile interface gives students and instructors flexible and convenient, anytime–anywhere access to all components of the Connect platform.

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