Gentile's multidimensional classification system

4.1

Monday, October 12, 2015

11:06 AM

4.1 Three Elements Affecting Motor Skill Performance

The discipline of motor learning helps us understand the critical features necessary for a learner to develop skillful movement. According to Newell's theory of motor coordination, performance in motor skills is the product of a continually evolving dynamical organization of the human system (1986). When we perform any motor skill, be it as simple as using a spoon to eat breakfast or as complex as dribbling a soccer ball against a set of defenders, we use a number of movement patterns that we first learn, then use, refine, and change based on all of the factors that can affect skill performance.

Newell identified these factors as constraints and grouped them into task, environment, and individual (both functional and structural)demands (1984). It is important not to be misled about the term constraints. In this sense we are not referring to the traditional understanding of a restriction or a limitation. Rather a constraint is a particular characteristic that encourages certain movements at the same time as it discourages others. As an example, think of children as they jump over obstacles. As they grow, the individual constraints, such as increased height and weight, will have an impact on the ease (or difficulty) of the jumping task. From an environmental constraints perspective, dribbling ball with the feet indoors on a smooth surface is different from dribbling outside on grass. The idea of environmental constraints also relates to the equipment being used. A change in the size of a ball will have an impact on a child's ability to catch it. In terms of task constraints, think about a throwing task. If we ask children to throw a ball at a wall as hard as they can, we present a different form of constraint than if we ask them to throw accurately at a target.

It is important to understand that for any task, all of the constraints interact with each other to impact performance. Constraints influence performance changes as they cross the life span, and the task and environmental constraints can be manipulated by teachers to positively influence skill development in children (Renshaw et al., 2010). Figure 4.1 provides a schema of how you can think about this interaction. The figure refers to the individual as the learner, which is common in the physical education literature and will be the term we will use throughout the text.

Figure 4.1: Schema of constraints theory

Figure illustrating how teacher decisions result in skill outcomes.

Skill outcomes are impacted by the interaction of the task, environment, and learner.

Let's look more closely at this idea of interaction. If we ask a young child in the first grade (learner) to hit a ball (task) off a tee and provide them with a lightweight, fat-barreled bat (environment), we are setting them up for success. However, if we change the task to hitting a ball to a specific target, some children may struggle. Likewise, if we change the environment to one where the ball is being tossed to the batter instead of it being stationary, the percentage of successful children will change once again. Of course, either of these scenarios will produce different outcomes as a result of appropriate practice, which represents a change in the element of the learner.

The Individual, aka the Learner

A little girl preparing to hit a baseball from a tee.

When teaching children physical education, it is important not to overwhelm them. How does a game like T-ball set children up for success?

iStockphoto/Thinkstock

For the learner, a number of factors come into consideration. The first, of course, is whether the learner has basic abilities necessary to perform the task. You will recall from Chapter 3 that an infant does not develop a palmar grasp until about six months of age, and the pincer grasp until about one year of age. Consequently, the ability to control a spoon to the extent that an infant can successfully pick up cereal is not something astute parents would expect of their youngsters until they are in their second year. With respect to the advanced soccer-dribbling task, even many adults do not have the requisite ability to control a ball well enough to successfully navigate through a defense. Both this case and that of eating with a spoon refer to the extent to which the task is developmentally appropriate. The National Association for Sport and Physical Education (2009) defines developmentally appropriate practices as "those that recognize children's development and changing movement abilities, as well as their individual differences" (p. 3), In a developmentally appropriate physical education program, teachers take account of and plan for all those factors that can affect a child's potential for success. These factors include their developmental status, previous experience and skill with the activity, and fitness level, as well as body size and age.

The second factor concerning the learner is their repertoire of similar experiences. For instance, those who may have reasonable skill when punting an American football may also have sufficient skill when first attempting to punt an Australian football. While the balls differ slightly in shape, size, and pressure, the underlying mechanics of the punt are not too dissimilar. Referring back to the infant learning to use a spoon, the more experiences they have had grasping similar objects (e.g., teething rings, rattles, or hairbrushes) may enhance their attainment of the fine control skills required for feeding themselves.

Motivation is the third feature that affects a learner's skill acquisition. We all enjoy participating in some skills more than others, and even in our adult years our propensity or interest to learn certain skills will differ. For example, learning to water-ski involves a complex combination off balance, timing, and strength that takes time to master. Similarly, learning to put the necessary spin on a bowling ball to become an expert bowler takes considerable time and dedication. The point here is that the motivation for people to learn and master a skill varies. Some people might not try to become competent water skiers because they do not think it is an important skill to learn. Others who have family or friends who water-ski might want to learn so they can join in on the activity. With reference to our bowling scenario, many people either do not play often enough or are simply happy to bowl using their own style rather than spending the time practicing the advanced skills required to bowl with a spin.

The last factor that can affect skill acquisition is the individual's physique and body composition. Various body-control skills, such as tumbling or rolling, are easier to perform for those with shorter limbs, while those with longer limbs might find hurdling easier. When planning lessons, you need to be aware of potential modifications of tasks that will allow all children to be successful.

Normal Motor Skill Development in Children

As children develop, they acquire certain physical skills; for example, babies learn to crawl and pull themselves up to a standing position before they can walk. How can parents and instructors help children discover skills at their own pace?

The Environment

Children playing soccer.

Children don't develop motor skills in the same ways due to different body types and coordination. Some children kick balls well yet struggle at throwing and catching, and vice versa.

David P. Hall/Corbis

The environment relates to the context in which that task will take place. For instance, the physical education gym or motor skills room may consist of wood, composite, tile, or carpet flooring. The outside playground may be grassy, sandy, muddy, smooth, or full of holes (or, in other areas, fire-ant mounds!). The temperature, lighting, and weather can also affect movement. On hot and humid days, some children may struggle with their motivation to be active, while for others these conditions have no impact at all (Gagen & Getchell, 2006).