Gezon and kottak culture 2nd edition

Window on Humanity A Concise Introduction to Anthropology

Eighth Edition

Conrad Phillip Kottak University of Michigan

To my wife, Isabel Wagley Kottak

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Brief Contents Anthropology Today Boxes xiii Preface xiv Acknowledgments xxv About the Author xxvii 1 What Is Anthropology? 1 2 Culture 19 3 Doing Anthropology 41 4 Evolution, Genetics,

and Human Variation 67 5 The Primates 96 6 Early Hominins 121 7 The Genus Homo 143 8 The First Farmers 173 9 The First Cities and States 197 10 Language and

Communication 222 11 Making a Living 248

12 Political Systems 275 13 Families, Kinship,

and Marriage 301 14 Gender 328 15 Religion 352 16 Ethnicity and Race 379 17 Applying Anthropology 406 18 The World System,

Colonialism, and Inequality 430

19 Anthropology’s Role in a Globalizing World 456

GLOSSARY G1 BIBLIOGRAPHY B1 INDEX I1

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Contents Anthropology Today Boxes xiii Preface xiv Acknowledgments xxv About the Author xxvii

Chapter 1 What Is Anthropology? 1 The Cross-Cultural Perspective 1 Human Adaptability 2

Adaptation, Variation, and Change 3 Cultural Forces Shape Human Biology 4

General Anthropology 6 The Subdisciplines of Anthropology 7

Cultural Anthropology 7 Anthropological Archaeology 8 Biological Anthropology 10 Linguistic Anthropology 11

Applied Anthropology 11 Anthropology and Other Academic

Fields 13 A Humanistic Science 13 Cultural Anthropology

and Sociology 14 Anthropology Today: School of Hope 15 Summary 17

Chapter 2 Culture 19 What Is Culture? 19

Culture Is Learned 20 Culture Is Symbolic 20 Culture Is Shared 21 Culture and Nature 22 Culture Is All-Encompassing

and Integrated 22 Culture Is Instrumental, Adaptive,

and Maladaptive 23

Culture’s Evolutionary Basis 25 What We Share with Other Primates 25 How We Differ from Other Primates 27

Universality, Generality, and Particularity 28 Universals and Generalities 28 Particularity: Patterns of Culture 29

Culture and the Individual 30 Levels of Culture 31 Ethnocentrism, Cultural Relativism, and

Human Rights 32 Mechanisms of Cultural Change 34 Globalization 35 Anthropology Today: Preserving Cultural

Heritage 36 Summary 38

Chapter 3 Doing Anthropology 41 What Do Anthropologists Do? 41 Research Methods in Archaeology

and Biological Anthropology 42 Multidisciplinary Approaches 43 Studying the Past 44 Survey and Excavation 44

Kinds of Archaeology 45 Dating the Past 46

Relative Dating 46 Absolute Dating 47 Molecular Anthropology 48

Kinds of Biological Anthropology 49 Bone Biology 49 Anthropometry 49 Primatology 50

Research Methods in Cultural Anthropology 50

Ethnography: Anthropology’s Distinctive Strategy 50 Observation and Participant

Observation 51

Contents vii

Conversation, Interviewing, and Interview Schedules 52

The Genealogical Method 54 Key Cultural Consultants 54 Life Histories 54 Local Beliefs and Perceptions,

and the Ethnographer’s 55 Problem-Oriented Ethnography 56 Longitudinal Studies, Team Research,

and Multisited Ethnography 56 Survey Research 58 Doing Anthropology Right and Wrong:

Ethical Issues 59 Ownership Issues 60 The Code of Ethics 61 Anthropologists and the Military 62

Anthropology Today: Biology, Culture, and Grandparents 63

Summary 64

Chapter 4 Evolution, Genetics, and Human Variation 67 Evolution 67

Natural History before Darwin 68 Evolution: Theory and Fact 69

Genetics 71 Mendel’s Experiments 72 Independent Assortment 74

Population Genetics and Mechanisms of Genetic Evolution 74 Natural Selection 75 Mutation 77 Random Genetic Drift 78 Gene Flow 79

Race: A Discredited Concept in Biology 80 Races Are Not Biologically Distinct 82 Genetic Markers Don’t Correlate

with Phenotype 83 Human Biological Adaptation 84

Explaining Skin Color 84 Genes and Disease 88 Lactose Tolerance 91

Anthropology Today: Disease Evolution: A Case Study 92

Summary 93

Chapter 5 The Primates 96 Our Place among Primates 96 Homologies and Analogies 99 Primate Adaptations 100 The Primate Suborders 102 Monkeys 102

New World Monkeys 103 Old World Monkeys 104

Apes 105 Gibbons 105 Orangutans 106 Gorillas 107 Chimpanzees 109 Bonobos 110

Endangered Primates 111 Primate Evolution 111 Chronology 112 Early Primates 113

Early Cenozoic Primates 114 Oligocene Proto-Monkeys 114

Miocene Hominoids 115 Anthropology Today: Should Apes Have

Human Rights? 117 Pierolapithecus catalaunicus 118

Summary 119

Chapter 6 Early Hominins 121 What Makes Us Human? 121

Bipedalism 121 Brains, Skulls, and Childhood

Dependency 122 Tools 123 Teeth 123

Chronology of Hominin Evolution 123 Who Were the Earliest Hominins? 124

Sahelanthropus tchadensis 124 Orrorin tugenensis 126 Ardipithecus 127

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The Varied Australopiths 129 Australopithecus anamensis 129 Australopithecus afarensis 131 Gracile and Robust Australopiths 135

Early Stone Tools 137 Surprisingly Early Stone Tools 137 Oldowan Hominins at the

Kanjera Site 139 Anthropology Today: Au. sediba: Ancestor

or Fascinating Sideline? 140 Summary 141

Chapter 7 The Genus Homo 143 Early Homo 143

2015 Discoveries 143 H. rudolfensis 144 H. habilis and H. erectus 146

Out of Africa I: H. erectus 149 Acheulean Tools 149 Adaptive Strategies of H. erectus 150 The Evolution and Expansion of

H. erectus 150 Middle Pleistocene Hominins 153

Ice Ages of the Pleistocene 153 H. heidelbergensis 153

The Neandertals 155 Cold-Adapted Neandertals 156 The Neandertals and Modern People 156

The Denisovans 158 Homo floresiensis 159 Modern Humans 160

Out of Africa: AMH Edition 160 “Mitochrondrial Eve” and the Spread

of AMHs 161 AMHs on the Move 162

The Advent of Behavioral Modernity 163

Advances in Technology 166 Glacial Retreat 167 Settling the Americas 167 Anthropology Today: The Rising Stars

of a South African Cave 169 Summary 171

Chapter 8 The First Farmers 173 Broad-Spectrum Economies 173

The Mesolithic in Europe 173 Developments in Asia, Including

Early Pottery 174 The Neolithic 175 The First Farmers and Herders in the

Middle East 176 The Environmental Setting: A Vertical

Economy 177 Where and Why Did Food Production

Begin? 178 Genetic Changes and Domestication 179 The Coevolution of Farming and Property

Rights 180 Food Production and the State 181

Other Old World Farmers 182 The Neolithic in Africa 182 The Neolithic in Europe 183 The Neolithic in Asia 185

The First American Farmers 187 Key Aspects of Food Production

in the Americas 187 The Tropical Origins of New World

Domestication 188 Explaining the Neolithic 189 Costs and Benefits 191 Anthropology Today: Global Climate Change

and Other Threats to Archaeology 192 Summary 194

Chapter 9 The First Cities and States 197 State Formation 197

Regulation of Hydraulic Economies 198 Regional Trade 198 Population, War, and Circumscription 199

Attributes of States 200 State Formation in the Middle East 201

Urban Life 201 An Early Ritual Center 203 The Halafian and Ubaid Periods 204

Contents ix

Social Ranking and Chiefdoms 205 The Rise of the State 207

Other Early States 210 State Formation in Mesoamerica 212

Early Chiefdoms and Elites 213 Warfare and State Formation:

The Zapotec Case 214 States in the Valley of Mexico 215

Why States Collapse 217 The Decline of the Maya 217

Anthropology Today: The Fantastic Claims of Pseudo-Archaeology 218

Summary 220

Chapter 10 Language and Communication 222 Language 222 Nonhuman Primate

Communication 223 Call Systems 223 Sign Language 223 The Origin of Language 226

Nonverbal Communication 226 Kinesics 226 Personal Space and Displays

of Affection 227 The Structure of Language 228 Language, Thought, and Culture 230

The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 231 Focal Vocabulary 231

Sociolinguistics 233 Social and Linguistic Variation 233 The Language of Food 234 Linguistic Diversity within

Nations 235 Linguistic Diversity in California 237 Gender Speech Contrasts 237 Stratification and Symbolic

Domination 238 African American Vernacular English

(AAVE) 239 Historical Linguistics 240

Language, Culture, and History 243 Language Loss 243

Anthropology Today: Words of the Year 244 Summary 245

Chapter 11 Making a Living 248 Adaptive Strategies 248 Foraging 249

Geographic Distribution of Foragers 250 Correlates of Foraging 252

Adaptive Strategies Based on Food Production 253 Horticulture 253 Agriculture 254 The Cultivation Continuum 256 Agricultural Intensification: People

and the Environment 256 Pastoralism 257

Economic Systems 259 Organization of Production in

Nonindustrial Societies 260 Means of Production 260 Alienation in Industrial Economies 261

Economizing and Maximization 263 Alternative Ends 264

Distribution, Exchange 265 The Market Principle 265 Redistribution 265 Reciprocity 266 Coexistence of Exchange Principles 267 Potlatching 268

Anthropology Today: Scarcity and the Betsileo 270

Summary 273

Chapter 12 Political Systems 275 What Is “The Political”? 275 Types and Trends 276 Bands and Tribes 277

Foraging Bands 278 Tribal Cultivators 280 The Village Head 280 The “Big Man” 282 Pantribal Sodalities 283 Nomadic Politics 285

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Chiefdoms 286 Political and Economic Systems 286 Status Systems 287 The Emergence of Stratification 288

State Systems 289 Population Control 290 Judiciary 290 Enforcement 290 Fiscal Support 291

Social Control 292 Hegemony and Resistance 292 Weapons of the Weak 293 Shame and Gossip 294 The Igbo Women’s War 295

Anthropology Today: The Illegality Industry: A Failed System of Border Control 296

Summary 298

Chapter 13 Families, Kinship, and Marriage 301 How Anthropologists View Families

and Kinship 301 Families 302

Nuclear and Extended Families 302 Industrialism and Family

Organization 304 Changes in North American Kinship 305 The Family among Foragers 307

Descent 307 Attributes of Descent Groups 308 Lineages, Clans, and Residence Rules 310

Defining Marriage 310 Exogamy and Incest 312 Incest and Its Avoidance 313 Endogamy 314 Same-Sex Marriage 315 Marriage: A Group Affair 316

Gifts at Marriage 317 Durable Alliances 318

Divorce 319 Plural Marriages 320

Polygyny 320 Polyandry 322

The Online Marriage Market 322 Anthropology Today: What Anthropologists

Could Teach the Supreme Court about the Definition of Marriage 324

Summary 325

Chapter 14 Gender 328 Sex and Gender 328 Recurrent Gender Patterns 330 Gender Roles and Gender

Stratification 333 Reduced Gender Stratification:

Matrilineal–Matrilocal Societies 333 Matriarchy 334 Increased Gender Stratification:

Patrilineal–Patrilocal Societies 335 Patriarchy and Violence 336

Gender in Industrial Societies 337 Changes in Gendered Work 338 Work and Family: Reality and

Stereotypes 340 The Feminization of Poverty 341 Work and Happiness 342

Beyond Male and Female 343 Sexual Orientation 346 Anthropology Today: Gender, Ethnicity,

and a Gold Medal for Fiji 348 Summary 350

Chapter 15 Religion 352 What Is Religion? 352 Expressions of Religion 354

Spiritual Beings 354 Powers and Forces 355 Magic and Religion 356 Uncertainty, Anxiety, Solace 356 Rituals 356 Rites of Passage 357 Totemism 360

Social Control 360 Kinds of Religion 362

Contents xi

Protestant Values and Capitalism 363 World Religions 363 Religion and Change 365

Revitalization Movements and Cargo Cults 365

New and Alternative Religious Movements 366

Religion and Cultural Globalization 367 Evangelical Protestantism and

Pentecostalism 367 Homogenization, Indigenization,

or Hybridization? 369 The Spread of Islam 370 Antimodernism and Fundamentalism 371 Religious Radicalization Today 372

Secular Rituals 373 Anthropology Today: Newtime Religion 374 Summary 376

Chapter 16 Ethnicity and Race 379 Ethnic Groups and Ethnicity 379

Status and Identity 380 Minority Groups and Stratification 382

Race and Ethnicity 382 The Social Construction of Race 383

Hypodescent: Race in the United States 383

Race in the Census 384 Not Us: Race in Japan 386 Phenotype and Fluidity: Race in Brazil 388

Ethnic Groups, Nations, and Nationalities 391 Ethnic Diversity by Region 391 Nationalities without Nations 392

Ethnic Tolerance and Accommodation 392 Assimilation 393 The Plural Society 393 Multiculturalism 393

Changing Demographics in the United States 394 The Gray and the Brown 395 The Backlash to Multiculturalism 396

Ethnic Conflict 397 Sectarian Violence 398 Prejudice and Discrimination 399 Black Lives Matter 400 Anti-Ethnic Discrimination 401

Anthropology Today: Why Are the Greens So White? Race and Ethnicity in Golf 402

Summary 404

Chapter 17 Applying Anthropology 406 What is Applied Anthropology? 406 The Role of the Applied

Anthropologist 407 Early Applications 407 Academic and Applied Anthropology 408 Applied Anthropology Today 409

Development Anthropology 410 Equity 410 Negative Equity Impact 410

Strategies for Innovation 412 Overinnovation 412 Indigenous Models 413

Anthropology and Education 414 Urban Anthropology 415 Medical Anthropology 417

Disease Theory Systems 418 Scientific Medicine versus Western

Medicine 419 Industrialization, Globalization,

and Health 420 Anthropology and Business 422 Public and Applied Anthropology 424 Careers and Anthropology 425 Anthropology Today: Culturally Appropriate

Marketing 426 Summary 428

Chapter 18 The World System, Colonialism, and Inequality 430 The World System 430

World-System Theory 431 The Emergence of the World System 432

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Industrialization 433 Causes of the Industrial Revolution 434 Socioeconomic Changes Associated with

the Industrial Revolution 435 Industrial Stratification 435

The Persistence of Inequality 436 Wealth Distribution in the

United States 436 Environmental Risks on the American

Periphery 438 Colonialism and Imperialism 440

The First Phase of European Colonialism: Spain and Portugal 440

Commercial Expansion and European Imperialism 441

The British Colonial Empire 441 French Colonialism 442 Colonialism and Identity 444 Postcolonial Studies 444

Development 445 Neoliberalism 445 Neoliberalism and NAFTA’s Economic

Refugees 446 Communism, Socialism, and

Postsocialism 449 Communism 449 Postsocialist Transitions 449

The World System Today 450 Anthropology Today: Mining Giant Compatible

with Sustainability Institute? 452 Summary 454

Chapter 19 Anthropology’s Role in a Globalizing World 456 Globalization: Its Meaning and

Its Nature 456 Our Global Economy 457 Energy Consumption and Industrial

Degradation 458 Global Climate Change 459 Environmental Anthropology 462

Global Assaults on Local Autonomy 462 Deforestation 463 Emerging Diseases 465

Interethnic Contact 466 Cultural Imperialism and

Indigenization 467 A Global System of Images 469 A Global Culture of Consumption 469

People in Motion 470 Indigenous Peoples 472 Anthropology’s Lessons 473 Anthropology Today: Diversity under Siege:

Global Forces and Indigenous Peoples 474 Summary 476

Glossary G1 Bibliography B1 Index I1

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Anthropology Today Boxes

School of Hope 15 Preserving Cultural Heritage 36 Biology, Culture, and Grandparents 63 Disease Evolution: A Case Study 92 Should Apes Have Human Rights? 117 Au. sediba: Ancestor or Fascinating

Sideline? 140 The Rising Stars of a South

African Cave 169 Global Climate Change and Other

Threats to Archaeology 192 The Fantastic Claims of Pseudo-

Archaeology 218 Words of the Year 244 Scarcity and the Betsileo 270

The Illegality Industry: A Failed System of Border Control 296

What Anthropologists Could Teach the Supreme Court about the Definition of Marriage 324

Gender, Ethnicity, and a Gold Medal for Fiji 348

Newtime Religion 374 Why Are the Greens So White? Race

and Ethnicity in Golf 402 Culturally Appropriate Marketing 426 Mining Giant Compatible with

Sustainability Institute? 452 Diversity under Siege: Global Forces and

Indigenous Peoples 474

Window on Humanity is intended to provide a concise, readable, introduction to general (four-field) anthropology. The shorter length increases the instructor’s options for as- signing additional reading—case studies, readers, and other supplements—in a semes- ter course. Window also can work well in a quarter system, for which traditional texts may be too long. Just as anthropology is a dynamic discipline that encourages new discoveries and explores the profound changes now affecting people and societies, this edition of Window on Humanity makes a concerted effort to keep pace with changes in the way students read and learn core content today. Our digital program, Connect Anthro- pology, includes assignable and assessable quizzes, exercises, and interactive activi- ties, organized around course-specific learning objectives. Furthermore, Connect includes an adaptive testing program in LearnSmart, as well as SmartBook, the first and only truly adaptive reading experience. The tools and resources provided in Connect Anthropology are designed to engage students and enable them to improve their performance in the course. This 8th edition has benefited from feedback from over 2,000 students who worked with these tools and programs while using the 7th edition of Window or one of my other recent texts. We were able to respond to specific areas of difficulty that students encountered, chapter by chapter. I used this extensive feedback to revise, rethink, and clarify my writing in almost every chapter. In preparing this edition, I benefited tremendously from both students’ and profes- sors’ reactions to my book. As I work on each new edition, it becomes ever more apparent to me that while any competent and useful text must present anthropology’s core, that text also must demon- strate anthropology’s relevance to the 21st-century world we inhabit. Accordingly, each new edition contains substantial content changes as well as specific features relevant to our changing world. One of my primary goals is to help students make connections between what they read and their own lives. Accordingly, the “Anthropology Today” boxes placed near the end of each chapter examine recent developments in anthropol- ogy as well as contemporary topics and issues that are clearly related to anthropology’s subject matter. I have written ten new “Anthropology Today” boxes highlighting impor- tant recent fossil finds as well as recent world events and issues in the news. Each chap- ter also contains a new feature that I call “Think Like an Anthropologist,” which attempts to get students to do just that—to apply their critical thinking skills as an an- thropologist might. I realize that most students who read this book will not go on to become anthropologists, or even anthropology majors. For those who do, this book should provide a solid foundation to build on. For those who don’t—that is, for most of my readers—my goal is to instill a sense of understanding and appreciation of human diversity and of anthropology as a field. May this course and this text help students think differently about, and achieve greater understanding of, their own culture and its place within our globalizing world.

Preface

Preface xv

Updates and Revisions—Informed by Student Data

Revisions to this 8th edition of Window on Humanity were extensively informed by student data, collected anonymously by McGraw-Hill’s LearnSmart adaptive learning system. Using this data, we were able to identify content areas with which students struggle. I relied on this data, which provided feedback at the paragraph and even sen- tence level (see the screen capture below), in making decisions about material to revise, update, and improve.

McGraw-Hill Connect Anthropology

Connect Anthropology is a premier digital teaching and learning tool that allows instructors to assign and assess course material. Connect Anthropology includes assignable and assessable quizzes, exercises, and interactive activities, organized around course-specific learning objectives. New to this edition, NewsFlash activities bring in articles on current events relevant to anthropology with accompanying assessment. In addition, Connect Anthropology includes LearnSmart, an adaptive testing program, and SmartBook, the first and only adaptive reading experience. The system is praised by users—faculty and students alike—for helping to make both teaching and learning more efficient, saving time and keeping class time and inde- pendent study time focused on what is most important and only those things that still need reinforcing, and shifting the teaching/learning process away from memorization and cramming. The result is better grades, better concept retention, more students staying in class and passing, and less time spent preparing classes or studying for tests.

SmartBook: SmartBook makes study time as productive and efficient as possible. It identifies and closes knowledge gaps through a continually adapting reading experience that provides personalized learning resources at the precise moment of need. This ensures that every minute spent with SmartBook is returned to the student as the most value-added minute possible. The result? More confidence, better grades, and greater success.

xvi Preface

Connect Insight: Connect Insight is Connect’s one-of-a-kind visual analytics dashboard—available for both instructors and

students—that provides at-a-glance information regarding student performance, which is immediately actionable. By presenting assignment, assessment, and topical perfor- mance results together with a time metric that is easily visible for aggregate or individ- ual results, Connect Insight gives the user the ability to take a just-in-time approach to teaching and learning.

Chapter-by-Chapter Changes

Updates were also informed by the many excellent reviews provided by faculty at 2- and 4-year schools across the country. In addition to the new “Think Like an Anthropologist” feature, as well as revisions and updates in nearly every section of the book, the follow- ing are this edition’s major changes: Chapter 1: What Is Anthropology? ∙ “The Subdivisions of Anthropology” features a thoroughly revised sub-section on

“Biological Anthropology.”

Preface xvii

∙ The “Anthropology and Other Academic Fields” section has been fully revised and includes a new sub-section on “Cultural Anthropology and Sociology.”

∙ A new “Anthropology Today” box, “School of Hope,” has been added.

Chapter 2: Culture ∙ The opening section, “What Is Culture?,” has been fully revised, with a new intro-

duction differentiating more clearly between society and culture, as well as new definitions of enculturation and popular culture.

∙ The “Mechanisms of Cultural Change” section includes a new discussion of pidgin languages.

∙ A new “Anthropology Today” box, “Preserving Cultural Heritage,” has been added.

Chapter 3: Doing Anthropology ∙ The “Dating the Past” section includes a fully revised section on “Molecular

Anthropology.” ∙ The “Ethnography: Anthropology’s Distinctive Strategy” section (formerly

“ Ethnographic Techniques”) features a new introduction with a clarified definition of ethnography, as well as a fully revised and expanded sub-section on “Problem- Oriented Ethnography.”

∙ The “Doing Anthropology Right and Wrong: Ethical Issues” section includes a revised discussion of “Ownership Issues,” with updated discussion of the “ Kennewick Man” bones and their return to the Colville reservation in 2016.

Chapter 4: Evolution, Genetics, and Human Variation ∙ The “Evolution” section (previously “The Origin of Species”) features a new

introduction and an expanded and reworked sub-section, “Evolution: Theory and Fact.” ∙ The “Population Genetics and Mechanisms of Genetic Evolution” section (formerly

“Mechanisms of Genetic Evolution”) features a new introduction and expanded and revised sub-sections, “Mutation” and “Random Genetic Drift.”

∙ The “Race: A Discredited Concept” section features clarified discussions on “Races Are Not Biologically Distinct” and “Genetic Markers Don’t Correlate with Phenotype.”

∙ The “Human Biological Adaptation” section includes a new introduction, a new sub-section “Explaining Skin Color,” and a rewritten sub-section, “Genes and Disease.”

∙ A new “Anthropology Today” box, “Disease Evolution: A Case Study,” has been added.

Chapter 5: The Primates ∙ The “Our Place Among the Primates” section features a new introduction and

includes updated taxonomic categories. ∙ The “Primate Adaptations” section (formerly “Primate Tendencies”) has been

reworked and expanded to include discussion of sensory shifts. ∙ “The Primate Suborders” section (formerly “Prosimians”) has been rewritten and

expanded to incorporate discussion of the split between haplorrhines and strepsirrhines.

∙ The “Monkeys” section and “Orangutans” sub-sections have been reworked.

xviii Preface

∙ The “Early Primates” section has been extensively revised and expanded to include discussion of the spread of angiosperms (flowering plants) during the Cenozoic era, and evolutionary splits in the early primate groups.

∙ The “Miocene Hominoids” section has been revised.

Chapter 6: Early Hominins ∙ The discussion throughout the chapter has been revised to reflect contemporary

consensus on terminology (Paranthropus rather than Australopithecus robustus and Au. boisei; “australopith” rather than “australopithecine”).

∙ The “Who Were the Earliest Hominins?” section has been extensively revised to include the most recent findings.

∙ “The Varied Australopiths” section has been thoroughly revised to include new data and measurements, and expanded discussion of anatomical features.

∙ The “Early Stone Tools” section (previously “Oldowan Tools”) has been extensively revised and expanded to incorporate recent archaeological discoveries.

Chapter 7: The Genus Homo ∙ The “Early Homo” section features a new introduction, a brand new sub-section,

“2015 Discoveries,”and extensively revised sub-sections on “H. rudolfensis” and “H. habilis and H. erectus.”

∙ The “Middle Pleistocene Hominins” section (formerly “Archaic H. Sapiens”) has been revised to incorporate clearer terminology and a much expanded discussion of “H. heidelbergensis.”

∙ “The Neandertals” section has been revised and expanded to incorporate more coverage of Neandertal DNA.

∙ A new “Anthropology Today” box, “The Rising Stars of a South African Cave,” highlights the recent Homo naledi discoveries.

Chapter 8: The First Farmers ∙ A new major subhead, “Broad-Spectrum Economies,” features a new introduction

and reworked sub-sections, “The Mesolithic in Europe” and “Developments in Asia, Including Early Pottery.”

∙ “The First Farmers and Herders in the Middle East” section includes a new sub- section, “The Coevolution of Farming and Property Rights,” as well as an expanded sub-section on “Where and Why Did Food Production Begin?,” with new discussion about the productivity of early farmers.

∙ The “Other Old World Farmers” section includes heavily revised sub-sections on “The Neolithic in Africa” (with expanded discussion of Nabta Playa), “The Neolithic in Europe” (with new discussion of DNA changes), and “The Neolithic in Asia” (with new material on Southern Chinese farming).

∙ “The First American Farmers” section has been revised and expanded to include Piperno’s experiments growing teosinte under prehistoric conditions.

∙ The “Costs and Benefits” section includes new coverage of the public health, income inequality, and environmental costs of food production.

Preface xix

Chapter 9: The First Cities and States ∙ The “State Formation” section (previously “The Origin of the State”) has been

extensively revised and includes a new introduction clarifying the difference between chiefdoms and states.

∙ The “State Formation in the Middle East” section has been fully revised and includes a new sub-section “An Early Ritual Center” (which discusses the important early site of Göbekli Tepe in southeastern Turkey) and a rewritten and clarified sub-section “Social Ranking and Chiefdom.”

∙ The “State Formation in Mesoamerica” section has been heavily revised and in- cludes new material on trade between the Olmec and Oaxaca regions and warfare in the Zapotec state.

Chapter 10: Language and Communication ∙ The “Nonverbal Communication” section includes a new sub-section, “Personal

Space and Displays of Affection” (adapted from the previous edition’s Chapter 2 “Anthropology Today” box).

∙ The “Sociolinguistics” section contains a new sub-section, “Linguistic Diversity in California” (adapted from the previous edition’s Chapter 10 “Anthropology Today” box), as well as expanded discussion of regional speech patterns and examples of linguistic diversity within India.

∙ A new “Anthropology Today” box, “Words of the Year,” has been added.

Chapter 11: Making a Living ∙ A new introduction to the “Adaptive Strategies” section better distinguishes the

concept of food production. ∙ The “Foraging” section includes a clarified definition of foraging, as well as expanded

discussion of the distribution of modern foragers, the Basarwa San, and social distinctions in egalitarian foraging societies.

∙ The “Adaptive Strategies Based on Food Production” section has been revised to clarify the discussions of horticulture, shifting cultivation, and slash-and-burn horticulture.

∙ The “Distribution, Exchange” section features revised discussions of redistribution, reciprocity, and potlatching.

Chapter 12: Political Systems ∙ The “What Is ‘The Political’?” section features a revised introduction clarifying the

difference between power and authority. ∙ The “Social Control” section has been thoroughly revised to clarify the concepts of

public resistance, hidden transcripts, and shame and gossip. ∙ The “State Systems” section includes expanded discussion of the relative value of

state systems. ∙ A new “Anthropology Today” box, “The Illegality Industry: A Failed System of

Border Control,” has been added.

xx Preface

Chapter 13: Families, Kinship, and Marriage ∙ The “Families” section has been extensively revised to include expanded discussion

of the zadruga family system, industrialism and family organization, and changes in North American kinship, as well as new material on expanded family households and matrifocal households.

∙ The “Descent” section has been revised to foreground the concept of descent groups and clarify the discussion of demonstrated and stipulated descent.

∙ The “Same-Sex Marriage” has been thoroughly revised to include revised statistics regarding same-sex marriage worldwide and new material on the 2015 Supreme Court decision legalizing same-sex marriage in the United States.

∙ The “Divorce” section provides new discussion of divorce among foragers. ∙ The “Plural Marriages” section features a new introduction clarifying the difference

between polygamy, polygyny, and polyandry, as well as expanded discussion of polygyny.

∙ A new “Anthropology Today” box, “What Anthropologists Could Teach the Supreme Court about the Definition of Marriage,” has been added.

Chapter 14: Gender ∙ The “Sex and Gender” section features a new introduction foregrounding the

concepts of nature and nurture. ∙ The “Recurrent Gender Patterns” has been simplified for greater clarity. ∙ The “Gender Roles and Gender Stratification” section provides expanded discussion

of patriarchy and violence (with new examples, including the Boko Haram kidnappings) as well as resistance to it (with the case of Pakistani Nobel Prize winner Malala Yousafzai’s work).

∙ The “Gender in Industrialized Societies” section has been heavily revised, with a new introduction. Its sub-section “Changes in Gendered Work” contains new statistics and new material on the effects of automation and education on women’s professional employment. A new sub-section “Work and Family: Reality and Stereotypes” examines the changing roles of women and men regarding work and family responsibilities, as well as persisting stereotypes. The sub-sections on “The Feminization of Poverty” and “Work and Happiness” have been thoroughly reworked.

∙ The “Beyond Male and Female” section has been revised to clarify the difference between intersex and transgender, and expanded to discuss the increased visibility of, and legal challenges faced by, transgender individuals in the United States.

∙ A new “Anthropology Today” box, “Gender, Ethnicity, and a Gold Medal for Fiji,” has been added.

Chapter 15: Religion ∙ The “Social Control” section features a new discussion of accusations of witchcraft

as a means of religiously-based social control. ∙ The “World Religions” section has been fully revised to incorporate the latest statistics.

Preface xxi

∙ The “Religion and Cultural Globalization” section has been extensively revised and includes expanded discussion of the relationship between antimodernism and reli- gious fundamentalism in Christianity and Islam, as well as a new sub-section “Reli- gious Radicalism Today” focusing on Scott Atran’s research into militant groups like al Qaeda and ISIS.

∙ A new “Anthropology Today” box, “Newtime Religion,” has been added.

Chapter 16: Ethnicity and Race ∙ The “Ethnic Groups and Ethnicity” section has been substantially revised, including

a new introduction and statistics, as well as an expanded “Status and Identity” sec- tion (previously “Shifting Status”) clarifying the definition of status as well as the difference between ascribed and achieved status.

∙ The “Race and Ethnicity” section provides clarification about the difficulty in defining both terms.

∙ “The Social Construction of Race” section includes clarified discussion of racial attitudes in Japan.

∙ The “Ethnic Groups, Nations, and Nationalities” section provides a revised discussion of nationalism.

∙ The “Ethnic Tolerance and Accommodation” section includes updated discussions of assimilation and multiculturalism.

∙ The “Changing Demographics” section provides updated demographic statistics as well as a new sub-section “The Backlash to Multiculturalism,” which explores the growth of the Tea Party movement during the Obama presidency and ethno- nationalism during and since the Trump presidential campaign and presidency.

∙ The “Ethnic Conflict” section (previously “Roots of Ethnic Conflict”) has new coverage of sectarian violence in Iraq and Syria and of the Black Lives Matter movement, as well as updated discussions of anti-ethnic discrimination and violence in Darfur, Syria, and Ukraine, and new material on the backlash against undocumented immigrants in the United States.

Chapter 17: Applying Anthropology ∙ “The Role of the Applied Anthropologist” section has been heavily revised, with an

expanded sub-section on “Early Applications” and an updated section on “Applied Anthropology Today.”

∙ The “Development Anthropology” section has been thoroughly revised, particularly the “Equity” and “Negative Equity Impact” sub-sections.

∙ The “Strategies for Innovation” section includes an expanded and revised discussion of overinnovation.

∙ The “Urban Anthropology” section has updated statistics. ∙ The “Medical Anthropology” section has been rewritten and reorganized and features

three new sub-head sections to clarify the discussion: “Disease Theory Systems,” “Scientific Medicine versus Western Medicine,” and “Industrialization, Globalization, and Health.”

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∙ The “Anthropology and Business” section now includes expanded discussion and numerous examples of how anthropologists can contribute to market research and applied ethnography in business settings,

Chapter 18: The World System, Colonialism, and Inequality ∙ “The World System” section features a new introduction foregrounding the concept

of the modern world system, as well as revised sub-sections on “World System Theory” and “The Emergence of the World System.”

∙ “The Persistence of Inequality” section (previously “Socioeconomic Effects of Inequality”) has been thoroughly revised to incorporate new statistics and extensive new discussion of the water crisis in Flint, Michigan.

∙ The “Colonialism and Imperialism” section (previously “Colonialism”) has been heavily revised and includes clarified discussion of the difference between colonialism and imperialism, as well as a new sub-section “The First Phase of European Colonialism: Spain and Portugal.”

∙ The “Communism, Socialism, and Postsocialism” section (previously “The Second World”) provides expanded discussion of postsocial transitions.

Chapter 19: Anthropology’s Role in a Globalizing World ∙ The “Globalization: Its Meanings and Its Nature” section has been clarified and

simplified. ∙ The “Energy Consumption and Industrial Degradation” section has been heavily

updated to incorporate new statistics and coverage of recent global developments, such as the Ebola and Zika virus crises, cyber attacks, and climate change.

∙ The “Global Climate Change” section has been fully revised to incorporate the latest statistics and an expanded discussion of the greenhouse effect.

∙ The “Environmental Anthropology” section includes an updated sub-section on “Emerging Diseases,” especially zoonotic diseases.

∙ The “Interethnic Contact” section features a new introduction focused on shifting cultural patterns and a revised sub-section “A Global Culture of Consumption.”

∙ The “Indigenous Peoples” section features updated statistics and new coverage of the United Nations’ commitment to the rights of indigenous peoples.

∙ A new “Anthropology Today” box, “Diversity under Siege: Global Forces and Indigenous Peoples,” has been added.

Content and Organization

No single or monolithic theoretical perspective orients this book. My e-mail, along with reviewers’ comments, confirms that instructors with a very wide range of views and approaches have been pleased with Window as a teaching tool. ∙ In Chapter 1, anthropology is introduced as an integrated four-field discipline, with

academic and applied dimensions, that examines human biological and cultural di- versity in time and space. Anthropology is discussed as a comparative and holistic

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science, featuring biological, social, cultural, linguistic, humanistic, and historical approaches. Chapter 2 examines the central anthropological concept of culture, in- cluding its symbolic and adaptive features. Chapter 3 is about doing anthropology— the methods and ethics of research in anthropology’s subfields.

∙ The chapters focusing on biological anthropology and archaeology (4–9) offer up-to- date answers to several key questions: When did humans originate, and how did we become what we are? What role do genes, the environment, society, and culture play in human variation and diversity? What can we tell about our origins and nature from the study of our nearest relatives—nonhuman primates? When and how did the pri- mates originate? What key features of their early adaptations are still basic to our abilities, behavior, and perceptions? How did hominids develop from our primate ancestors? When, where, and how did the first hominins emerge and expand? What about the earliest real humans? How do we explain biological diversity in our own species, Homo sapiens? What major transitions have taken place since the emer- gence of Homo sapiens?

∙ Chapters 8 and 9 discuss the Neolithic, especially the domestication of plants and animals, as a major adaptive change, with profound implications for human lifeways. The spread and intensification of farming and herding are tied to the appearance of the first towns, cities, and states, as well as the emergence of social stratification and major social inequalities.

∙ The chapters on linguistic and sociocultural anthropology (10–19) are organized to place related content close together—although they are sufficiently independent to be assigned in any order the instructor might select. Thus, “Political Systems” (Chap- ter 12) logically follows “Making a Living” (Chapter 11). Chapters 13 and 14 (“Fam- ilies, Kinship, and Marriage” and “Gender,” respectively) also form a coherent unit. The chapter on religion (15) covers not just traditional religious practices but also contemporary world religions and religious movements. It is followed by four chap- ters (16–19) that form a natural unit exploring sociocultural transformations and ex- pressions in today’s world.

∙ Those last four chapters address several important questions: How are race and eth- nicity socially constructed and handled in different societies, and how do they gener- ate prejudice, discrimination, and conflict? How and why did the modern world system emerge and expand? How has world capitalism affected patterns of stratifica- tion and inequality within and among nations? What were colonialism, imperialism, and Communism, and what are their legacies? How do people today actively inter- pret and confront the world system and the products of globalization? What factors threaten continued human diversity? How can anthropologists work to ensure the preservation of that diversity?

∙ Let me also single out two chapters present in Window on Humanity but not found consistently in other anthropology texts: “Ethnicity and Race” (Chapter 16) and “Gender” (Chapter 14). I believe that systematic consideration of race, ethnicity, and gender is vital in an introductory anthropology text. Anthropology’s distinctive four- field approach can shed special light on these topics. We see this not only in Chapter 16 (“Ethnicity and Race”) but also in Chapter 4 (“Evolution, Genetics, and Human

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Variation”), in which race is discussed as a problematic concept in biology. Race and gender studies are fields in which anthropology always has taken the lead. I’m con- vinced that anthropology’s special contributions to understanding the biological, social, cultural, and linguistic dimensions of race, ethnicity, and gender should be highlighted in any introductory text.

Teaching Resources

The following instructor resources can be accessed through the Library tab in Connect Anthropology:

∙ Instructor’s manual ∙ PowerPoint lecture slides ∙ Computerized Test Bank ∙ Word version of the test bank

Create

Design your ideal course materials with McGraw-Hill Education’s Create: http://www.create.mheducation.com

Rearrange or omit chapters, combine materials from other sources, and/or upload any other content you have written to make the perfect resource for your students. You can even personalize your book’s appearance by selecting the cover and adding your name, school, and course information. When you order a Create book, you receive a complimentary review copy. Get a printed copy in three to five business days or an electronic copy (eComp) via e-mail in about an hour. Register today at http:// www.create.mheducation.com and craft your course resources to match the way you teach.

xxv

I’m grateful to many colleagues at McGraw-Hill. I offer particular thanks to Product Developer Emily Pecora, who synthesized and summarized the prepublication re- views, helped me plan and implement this revision, and worked with me to complete and submit the manuscript ahead of schedule. I have always appreciated Emily’s keen editorial eye for style, language, and presentation, as well as content. She has helped guide me through several revisions. I also thank Bruce Cantley for his work as product developer as Window on Humanity moved toward publication. Thanks also to Gina Boedeker, McGraw-Hill’s former Managing Director for anthropology, and to Rhona Robbin, former Lead Product Developer, for their help and support over many years and editions, including the start of this revision. I am privileged to be working now with Claire Brantley, Executive Portfolio Manager, and Dawn Groundwater, Lead Product Developer. Thanks as well to McGraw-Hill’s entire team of sales reps and regional managers for the work they do in helping professors and students gain access to my books. I also acknowledge Michael Ryan, Vice President for Portfolio and Learning Content. As usual, Rick Hecker has done a great job as Content Project Manager, guiding the manuscript through production and keeping everything moving on schedule. Laura Fuller, Buyer, worked with the printer to make sure everything came out right. Thanks, too, to Charlotte Goldman, freelance photo researcher, and to Scott Lukas, Lake Tahoe Community College, who created the content for the Connect products for this book. I also thank Amy Marks for copyediting, Marlena Pechan for proofreading, and Egzon Shaqiri for executing the design. Lori Slattery also deserves thanks as Content Licensing Specialist. The names and schools of the reviewers contracted by McGraw-Hill to review the 7th edition of Window on Humanity, in preparation for the 8th edition, or the 10th edi- tion of Mirror for Humanity, in preparation for the 11th edition, are as follows:

Acknowledgments

Jenna Andrews-Swann Georgia Gwinnett College Margaret Bruchez Blinn College Jessica H. Craig Central New Mexico Community College Anna R. Dixon University of South Florida, St. Petersburg Shasta Gaughen California State University, San Marcos Fred Heifner Cumberland University Joshua A. Irizarry Bridgewater State University

Lily Malekfar Triton College Scotty Moore Houston Community College Elizabeth Scharf University of North Dakota Marjorie M. Snipes University of West Georgia Julie Vazquez College of the Canyons Jessica Worden-Jones Schoolcraft College Catherine Wright Jacksonville State Community College