G I V E M E
L I B E R T Y ! A N A M E R I C A N H I S T O R Y
B r i e f F o u r t h E d i t i o n
B W . W . N O R T O N & C O M P A N Y
N E W Y O R K . L O N D O N
E R I C F O N E R
G I V E M E
L I B E R T Y ! A N A M E R I C A N H I S T O R Y
B r i e f F o u r t h E d i t i o n
W. W. Norton & Company has been independent since its founding in 1923, when William Warder Norton and Mary D. Herter Norton first published lectures delivered at the People’s Institute, the adult education division of New York City’s Cooper Union. The firm soon expanded its program beyond the Institute, publishing books by celebrated academics from America and abroad. By mid-century, the two major pillars of Norton’s publishing program— trade books and college texts—were firmly established. In the 1950s, the Norton family transferred control of the company to its employees, and today—with a staff of 400 and a comparable number of trade, college, and professional titles published each year— W. W. Norton & Company stands as the largest and oldest publishing house owned wholly by its employees.
Copyright © 2014, 2012 by Eric Foner All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America Fourth Edition Editor: Steve Forman Associate Editor: Justin Cahill Editorial Assistant: Penelope Lin Managing Editor, College: Marian Johnson Managing Editor, College Digital Media: Kim Yi Project Editor: Diane Cipollone Copy Editor: Elizabeth Dubrulle Marketing Manager: Sarah England Media Editors: Steve Hoge, Tacy Quinn Assistant Editor, Media: Stefani Wallace Production Manager: Sean Mintus Art Director: Rubina Yeh Designer: Chin-Yee Lai Photo Editor: Stephanie Romeo Photo Research: Donna Ranieri Permissions Manager: Megan Jackson Permissions Clearing: Bethany Salminen Composition and Layout: Jouve Manufacturing: Transcontinental
Since this page cannot accommodate all of the copyright notices, the Credits pages at the end of the book constitute an extension of the copyright page.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data has been applied for.
This edition: ISBN 978-0-393-92033-8 (pbk.)
W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10110-0017 wwnorton.com
W. W. Norton & Company Ltd., Castle House, 75/76 Wells Street, London W1T 3QT 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
For my mother, Liza Foner (1909–2005), an accomplished artist who lived
through most of the twentieth century and into the twenty-first
E R I C F O N E R is DeWitt Clinton Professor of History at Columbia University, where he earned his B.A. and Ph.D. In his teaching and scholarship, he focuses on the Civil War and Reconstruction, slavery, and nineteenth-century America. Professor Foner’s publi- cations include Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War; Tom Paine and Revolutionary America; Nothing but Freedom: Emancipation and Its Legacy; Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877; The Story of American Free- dom; and Forever Free: The Story of Emancipation and Reconstruction. His history of Recon- struction won the Los Angeles Times Book Award for History, the Bancroft Prize, and the Parkman Prize. He has served as president of the Organization of American Historians and the American Historical Association. In 2006 he received the Presidential Award for Outstanding Teaching from Columbia University. His most recent book is The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery, winner of the Lincoln Prize, the Bancroft Prize, and the Pulitzer Prize.
A B O U T T H E A U T H O R
C O N T E N T S
Contents
vi i
1 . A N E W W O R L D . . . 1
THE FIRST AMERICANS . . . 3
The Settling of the Americas ... 3 Indian Societies of the Americas ... 3
Mound Builders of the Mississippi River Valley ... 5 Western Indians ... 6
Indians of Eastern North America ... 6 Native American Religion ... 7
Land and Property ... 9 Gender Relations ... 10 European Views
of the Indians ... 10
INDIAN FREEDOM, EUROPEAN FREEDOM .. . 11
Indian Freedom ... 11 Christian Liberty ... 12 Freedom and
Authority ... 12 Liberty and Liberties ... 13
THE EXPANSION OF EUROPE . . . 13
Chinese and Portuguese Navigation ... 14 Freedom and Slavery in
Africa ... 14 The Voyages of Columbus ... 16
CONTACT . . . 16
Columbus in the New World ... 16 Exploration and Conquest ... 17
The Demographic Disaster ... 19
THE SPANISH EMPIRE . . . 20
Governing Spanish America ... 21 Colonists and Indians in Spanish
America ... 21 Justifications for Conquest ... 22 Piety and Profit ... 23
Reforming the Empire ... 24 Exploring North America ... 25
Spanish in Florida and the Southwest ... 25 The Pueblo Revolt ... 27
Voices of Freedom: From Bartolomé de las Casas, History of the Indies
(1528), and From “Declaration of Josephe” (December 19, 1681) ... 28
THE FRENCH AND DUTCH EMPIRES . . . 30
French Colonization ... 32 New France and the Indians ... 32 The
Dutch Empire ... 34 Dutch Freedom ... 34 The Dutch and Religious
Toleration ... 35 Settling New Netherland ... 36 Features of European
Settlement ... 36
REVIEW .. . 37
2 . B E G I N N I N G S O F E N G L I S H A M E R I C A , 1 6 0 7 – 1 6 6 0 . . . 3 8
ENGLAND AND THE NEW WORLD . . . 40
Unifying the English Nation ... 40 England and Ireland ... 40 England
and North America ... 40 Motives for Colonization ... 41 The Social
Crisis ... 42 Masterless Men ... 43
A b o u t t h e A u t h o r . . . v
L i s t o f M a p s , T a b l e s , a n d F i g u r e s . . . x v i i i
P r e f a c e . . . x x
vii i
Contents
THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH .. . 43
English Emigrants ... 43 Indentured Servants ... 44 Land and
Liberty ... 44 Englishmen and Indians ... 45 The Transformation
of Indian Life ... 46
SETTLING THE CHESAPEAKE .. . 47
The Jamestown Colony ... 47 Powhatan and Pocahontas ... 48 The
Uprising of 1622 ... 49 A Tobacco Colony ... 50 Women and the
Family ... 50 The Maryland Experiment ... 52 Religion in
Maryland ... 52
THE NEW ENGLAND WAY .. . 53
The Rise of Puritanism ... 53 Moral Liberty ... 53 The Pilgrims at
Plymouth ... 54 The Great Migration ... 55 The Puritan Family ... 55
Government and Society in Massachusetts ... 56 Church and State in
Puritan Massachusetts ... 58
NEW ENGLANDERS DIVIDED .. . 59
Roger Williams ... 60 Rhode Island and Connecticut ... 60 The Trials
of Anne Hutchinson ... 61 Puritans and Indians ... 61
Voices of Freedom: From “The Trial of Anne Hutchinson” (1637),
and From John Winthrop, Speech to the Massachusetts General Court
(July 3, 1645) ... 62
The Pequot War ... 64 The New England Economy ... 65 A Growing
Commercial Society ... 66
RELIGION, POLITICS, AND FREEDOM ... 67
The Rights of Englishmen ... 67 The English Civil War ... 68
England’s Debate over Freedom ... 68 The Civil War and English
America ... 69 Cromwell and the Empire ... 70
REVIEW .. . 71
3 . C R E A T I N G A N G L O - A M E R I C A , 1 6 6 0 – 1 7 5 0 . . . 7 2
GLOBAL COMPETITION AND THE EXPANSION OF
ENGLAND’S EMPIRE . . . 74
The Mercantilist System ... 74 The Conquest of New Netherland ... 74
New York and the Indians ... 75 The Charter of Liberties ... 77 The
Founding of Carolina ... 77 The Holy Experiment ... 78 Land in
Pennsylvania ... 79
ORIGINS OF AMERICAN SLAVERY .. . 80
Englishmen and Africans ... 80 Slavery in History ... 81 Slavery
in the West Indies ... 81 Slavery and the Law ... 82 The Rise of
Chesapeake Slavery ... 83 Bacon’s Rebellion: Land and Labor in
Virginia ... 83 A Slave Society ... 85
Contents
ix
COLONIES IN CRISIS . . . 86
The Glorious Revolution ... 86 The Glorious Revolution in America ... 87
The Salem Witch Trials ... 89
THE GROWTH OF COLONIAL AMERICA .. . 90
A Diverse Population ... 90 The German Migration ... 91
Voices of Freedom: From Memorial against Non-English Immigration
(December 1727), and From Letter by a Swiss-German Immigrant
to Pennsylvania (August 23, 1769) ... 92
Religious Diversity ... 95 Indian Life in Transition ... 95 Regional
Diversity ... 96 The Consumer Revolution ... 97 Colonial Cities ... 97
An Atlantic World ... 98
SOCIAL CLASSES IN THE COLONIES . . . 99
The Colonial Elite ... 99 Anglicization ... 100 Poverty in the
Colonies ... 100 The Middle Ranks ... 101 Women and the
Household Economy ... 101 North America at Mid-Century ... 102
REVIEW .. . 103
4 . S L A V E R Y , F R E E D O M , A N D T H E S T R U G G L E F O R E M P I R E , T O 1 7 6 3 . . . 1 0 4
SLAVERY AND EMPIRE . . . 106
Atlantic Trade ... 106 Africa and the Slave Trade ... 107 The Middle
Passage ... 109 Chesapeake Slavery ... 109 The Rice Kingdom ... 110
The Georgia Experiment ... 111 Slavery in the North ... 112
SLAVE CULTURES AND SLAVE RESISTANCE .. . 113
Becoming African-American ... 113 African Religion in Colonial America
... 113 African-American Cultures ... 114 Resistance to Slavery ... 115
AN EMPIRE OF FREEDOM .. . 116
British Patriotism ... 116 The British Constitution ... 117 Republican
Liberty ... 117 Liberal Freedom ... 118
THE PUBLIC SPHERE . . . 119
The Right to Vote ... 119 Political Cultures ... 120 The Rise of the
Assemblies ... 121 Politics in Public ... 121 The Colonial Press ... 122
Freedom of Expression and Its Limits ... 122 The Trial of Zenger ... 123
The American Enlightenment ... 124
THE GREAT AWAKENING .. . 125
Religious Revivals ... 125 The Preaching of Whitefield ... 126 The
Awakening’s Impact ... 126
IMPERIAL RIVALRIES . . . 127
Spanish North America ... 127 The Spanish in California ... 127 The
French Empire ... 129
x
Contents
BATTLE FOR THE CONTINENT .. . 130
The Middle Ground ... 130 The Seven Years’ War ... 130 A World
Transformed ... 131 Pontiac’s Rebellion ... 132 The Proclamation
Line ... 132
Voices of Freedom: From Pontiac, Speeches (1762 and 1763), and
From The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or
Gustavus Vassa, the African (1789) ... 134
Pennsylvania and the Indians ... 136 Colonial Identities ... 137
REVIEW .. . 138
5 . T H E A M E R I C A N R E V O L U T I O N , 1 7 6 3 – 1 7 8 3 . . . 1 3 9
THE CRISIS BEGINS . . . 140
Consolidating the Empire ... 140 Taxing the Colonies ... 142
Taxation and Representation ... 143 Liberty and Resistance ... 144
The Regulators ... 145
THE ROAD TO REVOLUTION .. . 145
The Townshend Crisis ... 145 The Boston Massacre ... 146 Wilkes
and Liberty ... 147 The Tea Act ... 148 The Intolerable Acts ... 148
THE COMING OF INDEPENDENCE .. . 149
The Continental Congress ... 149 The Continental Association ... 150
The Sweets of Liberty ... 150 The Outbreak of War ... 151
Independence? ... 151 Paine’s Common Sense ... 152 The Declaration
of Independence ... 153 An Asylum for Mankind ... 154 The Global
Declaration of Independence ... 155
Voices of Freedom: From Thomas Paine, Common Sense (1776), and
From Jonathan Boucher, A View of the Causes and Consequences of
the American Revolution (1775) ... 156
SECURING INDEPENDENCE .. . 158
The Balance of Power ... 158 Blacks in the Revolution ... 158 The
First Years of the War ... 159 The Battle of Saratoga ... 161 The War
in the South ... 162 Victory at Last ... 162
REVIEW .. . 166
6 . T H E R E V O L U T I O N W I T H I N . . . 1 6 7
DEMOCRATIZING FREEDOM .. . 169
The Dream of Equality ... 169 Expanding the Political Nation ... 169
The Revolution in Pennsylvania ... 170 The New Constitutions ... 171
The Right to Vote ... 171
TOWARD RELIGIOUS TOLERATION .. . 172
Catholic Americans ... 173 Separating Church and State ... 173
Jefferson and Religious Liberty ... 174 Christian Republicanism ... 175
A Virtuous Citizenry ... 175
Contents
xi
DEFINING ECONOMIC FREEDOM .. . 176
Toward Free Labor ... 176 The Soul of a Republic ... 176 The Politics
of Inflation ... 177 The Debate over Free Trade ... 178
THE LIMITS OF LIBERTY .. . 178
Colonial Loyalists ... 178 The Loyalists’ Plight ... 179 The Indians’
Revolution ... 181
SLAVERY AND THE REVOLUTION .. . 182
The Language of Slavery and Freedom ... 182 Obstacles to Abolition ... 183
The Cause of General Liberty ... 183 Petitions for Freedom ... 184
British Emancipators ... 185 Voluntary Emancipations ... 185
Voices of Freedom: From Abigail Adams to John Adams, Braintree,
Mass. (March 31, 1776), and From Petitions of Slaves to the
Massachusetts Legislature (1773 and 1777) ... 186
Abolition in the North ... 188 Free Black Communities ... 188
DAUGHTERS OF LIBERTY .. . 189
Revolutionary Women ... 189 Republican Motherhood ... 190 The
Arduous Struggle for Liberty ... 190
REVIEW .. . 192
7 . F O U N D I N G A N A T I O N , 1 7 8 3 – 1 7 9 1 . . . 1 9 3
AMERICA UNDER THE CONFEDERATION .. . 195
The Articles of Confederation ... 195 Congress, Settlers, and the West ...
196 The Land Ordinances ... 198 The Confederation’s Weaknesses ...
200 Shays’s Rebellion ... 200 Nationalists of the 1780s ... 201
A NEW CONSTITUTION .. . 202
The Structure of Government ... 202 The Limits of Democracy ... 203
The Division and Separation of Powers ... 204 The Debate over Slavery
... 205 Slavery in the Constitution ... 205 The Final Document ... 207
THE RATIFICATION DEBATE AND THE ORIGIN OF THE BILL
OF RIGHTS . . . 208
The Federalist ... 208 “Extend the Sphere” ... 208 The Anti-
Federalists ... 209
Voices of Freedom: From David Ramsay, The History of the American
Revolution (1789), and From James Winthrop, Anti-Federalist Essay
Signed “Agrippa” (1787) ... 210
The Bill of Rights ... 214
“WE THE PEOPLE” . . . 215
National Identity ... 215 Indians in the New Nation ... 215 Blacks and
the Republic ... 217 Jefferson, Slavery, and Race ... 218 Principles of
Freedom ... 219
REVIEW .. . 220
xii
Contents
8 . S E C U R I N G T H E R E P U B L I C , 1 7 9 1 – 1 8 1 5 . . . 2 2 1
POLITICS IN AN AGE OF PASSION .. . 222
Hamilton’s Program ... 223 The Emergence of Opposition ... 223 The
Jefferson-Hamilton Bargain ... 224 The Impact of the French Revolution
... 225 Political Parties ... 226 The Whiskey Rebellion ... 226 The
Republican Party ... 226 An Expanding Public Sphere ... 227
Voices of Freedom: From Judith Sargent Murray, “On the Equality of
the Sexes” (1790), and From Address of the Democratic-Republican
Society of Pennsylvania (December 18, 1794) ... 228
The Rights of Women ... 230
THE ADAMS PRESIDENCY .. . 231
The Election of 1796 ... 231 The “Reign of Witches” ... 232 The
Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions ... 233 The “Revolution of
1800” ... 233 Slavery and Politics ... 234 The Haitian
Revolution ... 235 Gabriel’s Rebellion ... 235
JEFFERSON IN POWER .. . 236
Judicial Review ... 237 The Louisiana Purchase ... 237 Lewis and
Clark ... 239 Incorporating Louisiana ... 240 The Barbary Wars ... 241
The Embargo ... 241 Madison and Pressure for War ... 242
THE “SECOND WAR OF INDEPENDENCE” . . . 243
The Indian Response ... 243 The War of 1812 ... 244 The War’s
Aftermath ... 246 The End of the Federalist Party ... 247
REVIEW .. . 248
9 . T H E M A R K E T R E V O L U T I O N , 1 8 0 0 – 1 8 4 0 . . . 2 4 9
A NEW ECONOMY .. . 251
Roads and Steamboats ... 251 The Erie Canal ... 252 Railroads
and the Telegraph ... 254 The Rise of the West ... 255 The Cotton
Kingdom ... 257
MARKET SOCIETY .. . 259
Commercial Farmers ... 260 The Growth of Cities ... 260 The Factory
System ... 261 The “Mill Girls” ... 262 The Growth of Immigration ...
263 The Rise of Nativism ... 265 The Transformation of Law ... 266
THE FREE INDIVIDUAL .. . 267
The West and Freedom ... 267 The Transcendentalists ... 267 The
Second Great Awakening ... 268 The Awakening’s Impact ... 269
Voices of Freedom: From Ralph Waldo Emerson, “The American
Scholar” (1837), and From “Factory Life as It Is, by an Operative”
(1845) ... 270
The Emergence of Mormonism ... 272
Contents
xi i i
THE LIMITS OF PROSPERITY . . . 273
Liberty and Prosperity ... 273 Race and Opportunity ... 274 The Cult
of Domesticity ... 275 Women and Work ... 276 The Early Labor
Movement ... 277 The “Liberty of Living” ... 277
REVIEW .. . 279
1 0 . D E M O C R A C Y I N A M E R I C A , 1 8 1 5 – 1 8 4 0 . . . 2 8 0
THE TRIUMPH OF DEMOCRACY .. . 281
Property and Democracy ... 281 The Dorr War ... 282 Tocqueville on
Democracy ... 282 The Information Revolution ... 283 The Limits of
Democracy ... 284 A Racial Democracy ... 284
NATIONALISM AND ITS DISCONTENTS . . . 285
The American System ... 285 Banks and Money ... 287 The Panic
of 1819 ... 287 The Missouri Controversy ... 288
NATION, SECTION, AND PARTY .. . 289
The United States and the Latin American Wars of Independence ... 289
The Monroe Doctrine ... 290 The Election of 1824 ... 291
Voices of Freedom: From President James Monroe, Annual Message
to Congress (1823), and From John C. Calhoun, “A Disquisition on
Government” (ca. 1845) ... 292
The Nationalism of John Quincy Adams ... 294 “Liberty Is Power” ... 294
Martin Van Buren and the Democratic Party ... 294 The Election
of 1828 ... 295
THE AGE OF JACKSON .. . 296
The Party System ... 296 Democrats and Whigs ... 297 Public and
Private Freedom ... 298 South Carolina and Nullification ... 299
Calhoun’s Political Theory ... 299 The Nullification Crisis ... 301
Indian Removal ... 301 The Supreme Court and the Indians ... 302
THE BANK WAR AND AFTER .. . 304
Biddle’s Bank ... 304 Pet Banks, the Economy, and the Panic
of 1837 ... 306 Van Buren in Office ... 307 The Election of 1840 ... 307
REVIEW .. . 310
1 1 . T H E P E C U L I A R I N S T I T U T I O N . . . 3 1 1
THE OLD SOUTH .. . 312
Cotton Is King ... 313 The Second Middle Passage ... 314 Slavery
and the Nation ... 314 The Southern Economy ... 314 Plain Folk
of the Old South ... 316 The Planter Class ... 317 The Paternalist
Ethos ... 318 The Proslavery Argument ... 318 Abolition in the
Americas ... 320 Slavery and Liberty ... 320
xiv
Contents
LIFE UNDER SLAVERY .. . 321
Slaves and the Law ... 321 Conditions of Slave Life ... 322 Free
Blacks in the Old South ... 322 Slave Labor ... 323 Slavery in the
Cities ... 324 Maintaining Order ... 325
SLAVE CULTURE .. . 326
The Slave Family ... 326 The Threat of Sale ... 327 Gender Roles
among Slaves ... 327 Slave Religion ... 328 The Desire for Liberty ... 329
RESISTANCE TO SLAVERY .. . 330
Forms of Resistance ... 330
Voices of Freedom: From Letter by Joseph Taper to Joseph Long
(1840), and From “Slavery and the Bible” (1850) ... 332
The Amistad ... 334 Slave Revolts ... 335 Nat Turner’s Rebellion ... 336
REVIEW .. . 338
1 2 . A N A G E O F R E F O R M , 1 8 2 0 – 1 8 4 0 . . . 3 3 9
THE REFORM IMPULSE .. . 340
Utopian Communities ... 341 The Shakers ... 343 Oneida ... 343
Worldly Communities ... 344 Religion and Reform ... 345 Critics of
Reform ... 346 Reformers and Freedom ... 346 The Invention of the
Asylum ... 347 The Common School ... 347
THE CRUSADE AGAINST SLAVERY .. . 348
Colonization ... 348 Militant Abolitionism ... 349 Spreading the
Abolitionist Message ... 350 Slavery and Moral Suasion ... 351 A
New Vision of America ... 352
BLACK AND WHITE ABOLITIONISM .. . 353
Black Abolitionists ... 353 Gentlemen of Property and Standing ... 354
THE ORIGINS OF FEMINISM .. . 356
The Rise of the Public Woman ... 356 Women and Free Speech ... 356
Women’s Rights ... 357 Feminism and Freedom ... 358 Women and
Work ... 358 The Slavery of Sex ... 359
Voices of Freedom: From Angelina Grimké, Letter in The Liberator
(August 2, 1837), and From Frederick Douglass, Speech on July 5,
1852, Rochester, New York ... 360
“Social Freedom” ... 362 The Abolitionist Schism ... 363
REVIEW .. . 365
1 3 . A H O U S E D I V I D E D , 1 8 4 0 – 1 8 6 1 . . . 3 6 6
FRUITS OF MANIFEST DESTINY .. . 368
Continental Expansion ... 368 The Mexican Frontier: New Mexico and
California ... 368 The Texas Revolt ... 370 The Election of 1844 ... 370
The Road to War ... 372 The War and Its Critics ... 372 Combat
Contents
xv
in Mexico ... 373 Race and Manifest Destiny ... 374 Gold-Rush
California ... 376 Opening Japan ... 377
A DOSE OF ARSENIC . . . 378
The Wilmot Proviso ... 378 The Free Soil Appeal ... 379 Crisis and
Compromise ... 380 The Great Debate ... 380 The Fugitive Slave
Issue ... 381 Douglas and Popular Sovereignty ... 382 The Kansas-
Nebraska Act ... 382
THE RISE OF THE REPUBLICAN PARTY .. . 383
The Northern Economy ... 383 The Rise and Fall of the Know-
Nothings ... 385 The Free Labor Ideology ... 386 “Bleeding Kansas”
and the Election of 1856 ... 387
THE EMERGENCE OF LINCOLN .. . 388
The Dred Scott Decision ... 389 Lincoln and Slavery ... 390 The
Lincoln-Douglas Campaign ... 390 John Brown at Harpers Ferry ... 391
Voices of Freedom: From The Lincoln-Douglas Debates (1858) ... 392
The Rise of Southern Nationalism ... 394 The Election of 1860 ... 395
THE IMPENDING CRISIS . . . 397
The Secession Movement ... 397 The Secession Crisis ... 398 And
the War Came ... 399
REVIEW .. . 401
1 4 . A N E W B I R T H O F F R E E D O M : T H E C I V I L W A R , 1 8 6 1 – 1 8 6 5 . . . 4 0 2
THE FIRST MODERN WAR .. . 403
The Two Combatants ... 404 The Technology of War ... 405 The
Public and the War ... 406 Mobilizing Resources ... 407 Military
Strategies ... 407 The War Begins ... 408 The War in the East,
1862 ... 409 The War in the West ... 410
THE COMING OF EMANCIPATION .. . 410
Slavery and the War ... 410 Steps toward Emancipation ... 413
Lincoln’s Decision ... 413 The Emancipation Proclamation ... 414
Enlisting Black Troops ... 416 The Black Soldier ... 416
THE SECOND AMERICAN REVOLUTION .. . 417
Liberty, Union, and Nation ... 418 The War and American Religion ... 419
Voices of Freedom: From Letter of Thomas F. Drayton (April 17,
1861), and From Abraham Lincoln, Address at Sanitary Fair,
Baltimore (April 18, 1864) ... 420
Liberty in Wartime ... 422 The North’s Transformation ... 422
Government and the Economy ... 423 The War and Native
Americans ... 423 A New Financial System ... 425 Women and
the War ... 425 The Divided North ... 426
xvi
Contents
THE CONFEDERATE NATION .. . 428
Leadership and Government ... 428 The Inner Civil War ... 428
Economic Problems ... 429 Women and the Confederacy ... 430
Black Soldiers for the Confederacy ... 431
TURNING POINTS . . . 431
Gettysburg and Vicksburg ... 431 1864 ... 433
REHEARSALS FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND THE END
OF THE WAR .. . 434
The Sea Islands Experiment ... 434 Wartime Reconstruction in the West
... 435 The Politics of Wartime Reconstruction ... 435 Victory at Last ...
436 The War and the World ... 438 The War in American History ... 438
REVIEW .. . 440
1 5 . “ W H A T I S F R E E D O M ? ” : R E C O N S T R U C T I O N , 1 8 6 5 – 1 8 7 7 . . . 4 4 1
THE MEANING OF FREEDOM .. . 443
Families in Freedom ... 443 Church and School ... 444 Political
Freedom ... 444 Land, Labor, and Freedom ... 445 Masters without
Slaves ... 445 The Free Labor Vision ... 447 The Freedmen’s Bureau
... 447 The Failure of Land Reform ... 448 The White Farmer ... 449
Voices of Freedom: From Petition of Committee in Behalf of the
Freedmen to Andrew Johnson (1865), and From A Sharecropping
Contract (1866) ... 450
Aftermath of Slavery ... 453
THE MAKING OF RADICAL RECONSTRUCTION .. . 454
Andrew Johnson ... 454 The Failure of Presidential Reconstruction ...
454 The Black Codes ... 455 The Radical Republicans ... 456 The
Origins of Civil Rights ... 456 The Fourteenth Amendment ... 457
The Reconstruction Act ... 458 Impeachment and the Election
of Grant ... 458 The Fifteenth Amendment ... 460 The “Great
Constitutional Revolution” ... 461 The Rights of Women ... 461
RADICAL RECONSTRUCTION IN THE SOUTH .. . 462
“The Tocsin of Freedom” ... 462 The Black Officeholder ... 464
Carpetbaggers and Scalawags ... 464 Southern Republicans in
Power ... 465 The Quest for Prosperity ... 465
THE OVERTHROW OF RECONSTRUCTION .. . 466
Reconstruction’s Opponents ... 466 “A Reign of Terror” ... 467
The Liberal Republicans ... 469 The North’s Retreat ... 470 The
Triumph of the Redeemers ... 471 The Disputed Election and Bargain
of 1877 ... 472 The End of Reconstruction ... 473
REVIEW .. . 474
Contents
xvii
A P P E N D I X
DOCUMENTS
The Declaration of Independence (1776) ... A-2
The Constitution of The United States (1787) ... A-5
From George Washington’s Farewell Address (1796) ... A-17
The Seneca Falls Declaration of Sentiments And Resolutions (1848) ... A-22
From Frederick Douglass’s “What, To the Slave, Is The Fourth Of July?”
Speech (1852) ... A-25 The Gettysburg Address (1863) ... A-29
Abraham Lincoln’s Second Inaugural Address (1865) ... A-30
The Populist Platform of 1892 ... A-31
Franklin D. Roosevelt’s First Inaugural Address (1933) ... A-34
From The Program For The March On Washington For Jobs And Freedom
(1963) ... A-37 Ronald Reagan’s First Inaugural Address (1981) ... A-38
Barack Obama’s First Inaugural Address (2009) ... A-42
TABLES AND FIGURES
Presidential Elections ... A-46
Admission of States ... A-54
Population of the United States ... A-55
Historical Statistics of The United States:
Labor Force—Selected Characteristics Expressed As A Percentage
of The Labor Force, 1800–2010 ... A-56
Immigration, By Origin ... A-56
Unemployment Rate, 1890–2013 ... A-57
Union Membership As A Percentage Of Nonagricultural Employment,
1880–2012 ... A-57
Voter Participation in Presidential Elections 1824–2012 ... A-57
Birthrate, 1820–2011 ... A-57
S U G G E S T E D R E A D I N G S ... A - 5 9
G L O S S A R Y ... A - 6 7
C R E D I T S ... A - 9 5
I N D E X ... A - 9 9
xvii i
List of Maps, Tables, and Figures
M A P S
CHAPTER 1
The First Americans ... 4
Native Ways of Life, ca. 1500 ... 8
The Old World on the Eve of American
Colonization, ca. 1500 ... 15
Voyages of Discovery ... 18
Early Spanish Conquests and Explorations in the
New World ... 26
The New World—New France and New
Netherland, ca. 1650 ... 31
CHAPTER 2
English Settlement in the Chesapeake,
ca. 1650 ... 48
English Settlement in New England,
ca. 1640 ... 59
CHAPTER 3
Eastern North America in the Seventeenth and
Early Eighteenth Centuries ... 76
European Settlement and Ethnic Diversity on the
Atlantic Coast of North America, 1760 ... 94
CHAPTER 4
Atlantic Trading Routes ... 107
The Slave Trade in the Atlantic World,
1460–1770 ... 108
European Empires in North America,
ca. 1750 ... 128
Eastern North America after the Peace of
Paris, 1763 ... 133
CHAPTER 5
The Revolutionary War in the North,
1775–1781 ... 160
The Revolutionary War in the South,
1775–1781 ... 163
North America, 1783 ... 164
CHAPTER 6
Loyalism in the American Revolution ... 180
CHAPTER 7
Western Lands, 1782–1802 ... 197
Western Ordinances, 1785–1787 ... 199
Ratification of the Constitution ... 213
CHAPTER 8
The Presidential Election of 1800 ... 234
The Louisiana Purchase ... 239
The War of 1812 ... 245
CHAPTER 9
The Market Revolution: Roads and Canals,
1840 ... 253
Travel Times from New York City in 1800
and 1830 ... 256
The Market Revolution: The Spread of
Cotton Cultivation, 1820–1840 ... 258
Cotton Mills, 1820s ... 263
CHAPTER 10
The Missouri Compromise, 1820 ... 289
The Presidential Election of 1824 ... 291
The Presidential Election of 1828 ... 296
Indian Removals, 1830–1840 ... 302
The Presidential Election of 1840 ... 308
CHAPTER 11
Slave Population, 1860 ... 315
Size of Slaveholdings, 1860 ... 319
Major Crops of the South, 1860 ... 325
Slave Resistance in the Nineteenth-Century
Atlantic World ... 331
CHAPTER 12
Utopian Communities, Mid-Nineteenth
Century ... 342
CHAPTER 13
The Trans-Mississippi West, 1830s–1840s ... 369
The Mexican War, 1846–1848 ... 374
Continental Expansion through 1853 ... 375
The Kansas-Nebraska Act, 1854 ... 383
Lists of Maps, Tables, and Figures
xix
The Railroad Network, 1850s ... 384
The Presidential Election of 1856 ... 389
The Presidential Election of 1860 ... 396
CHAPTER 14
The Secession of Southern States, 1860–1861 ...
404
The Civil War in the East, 1861–1862 ... 409
The Civil War in the West, 1861–1862 ... 411
The Emancipation Proclamation ... 414
The Civil War, 1863 ... 432
The Civil War, Late 1864–1865 ... 437
CHAPTER 15
The Barrow Plantation ... 446
Sharecropping in the South,
1880 ... 452
The Presidential Election of 1868 ... 460
Reconstruction in the South,
1867–1877 ... 471
The Presidential Election of 1876 ... 472
T A B L E S A N D F I G U R E S
CHAPTER 1
Table 1.1 Estimated Regional Populations:
The Americas, ca. 1500 ... 24
Table 1.2 Estimated Regional Populations:
The World, ca. 1500 ... 25
CHAPTER 3
Table 3.1 Origins and Status of Migrants
to British North American Colonies,
1700–1775 ... 91
CHAPTER 4
Table 4.1 Slave Population as Percentage of
Total Population of Original Thirteen
Colonies, 1770 ... 112
CHAPTER 7
Table 7.1 Total Population and Black Population
of the United States, 1790 ... 217
CHAPTER 9
Table 9.1 Population Growth of Selected Western
States, 1800–1850 (Excluding Indians)... 257
Table 9.2 Total Number of Immigrants by
Five-Year Period ... 264
Figure 9.1 Sources of Immigration, 1850 ... 265
CHAPTER 11
Table 11.1 Growth of the Slave Population ... 314
Table 11.2 Slaveholding, 1850 (in Round
Numbers) ... 318
CHAPTER 14
Figure 14.1 Resources for War: Union versus
Confederacy ... 407
xx
Preface
P R E FA C E
Since it originally appeared late in 2004, Give Me Liberty! An American History has gone through three editions and been adopted for use in survey courses at close to one thousand two- and four-year colleges in the United States, as well as a good number overseas. Of course, I am extremely gratified by this response. The book offers students a clear narra- tive of American history from the earliest days of European exploration and conquest of the New World to the first decade of the twenty-first century. Its central theme is the changing contours of American freedom.
The comments I have received from instructors and students encour- age me to think that Give Me Liberty! has worked well in the classroom. These comments have also included many valuable suggestions, ranging from corrections of typographical and factual errors to thoughts about subjects that need more extensive treatment. In preparing new editions of the book I have tried to take these suggestions into account, as well as incorporating the insights of recent historical scholarship.
Since the original edition was written, I have frequently been asked to produce a more succinct version of the textbook, which now runs to some 1,200 pages. This Brief Edition is a response to these requests. The text of the current volume is about one-third shorter than the full version. The result, I believe, is a book more suited to use in one-semester survey courses, classes
Preface
xxi
where the instructor wishes to supplement the text with additional read- ings, and in other situations where a briefer volume is desirable.
Since some publishers have been known to assign the task of reduction in cases like this to editors rather than the actual author, I wish to empha- size that I did all the cutting and necessary rewriting for this Brief Edition myself. My guiding principle was to preserve the coverage, structure, and emphases of the regular edition and to compress the book by eliminating details of secondary importance, streamlining the narrative of events, and avoiding unnecessary repetition. While the book is significantly shorter, no subject treated in the full edition has been eliminated entirely and noth- ing essential, I believe, has been sacrificed. The sequence of chapters and subjects remains the same, and the freedom theme is present and operative throughout.
In abridging the textbook I have retained the original interpretive framework as well as the new emphases added when the second and third editions of the book were published. The second edition incorporated new material about the history of Native Americans, an area of American his- tory that has been the subject of significant new scholarship in the past few years. It also devoted greater attention to the history of immigration and the controversies surrounding it—issues of considerable relevance to Amer- ican social and political life today.
The most significant change in the third edition reflected my desire to place American history more fully in a global context. In the past few years, scholars writing about the American past have sought to delineate the influ- ences of the United States on the rest of the world as well as the global devel- opments that have helped to shape the course of events here at home. They have also devoted greater attention to transnational processes—the expan- sion of empires, international labor migrations, the rise and fall of slavery, the globalization of economic enterprise—that cannot be understood solely within the confines of one country’s national boundaries. Without seek- ing in any way to homogenize the history of individual nations or neglect the domestic forces that have shaped American development, this edition retains this emphasis.
The most significant changes in this Fourth Edition reflect my desire to integrate more fully into the narrative the history of American religion. Today, this is a thriving subfield of American historical writing, partly because of the increased prominence in our own time of debates over the relations between government and religion and over the definition of reli- gious liberty—issues that are deeply rooted in the American experience. The Brief Edition also employs a bright new design for the text and its vari- ous elements. The popular Voices of Freedom feature—a pair of excerpts from primary source documents in each chapter that illuminate divergent interpretations of freedom—is present here. So too are the useful chapter
xxii
Preface
opening focus questions, which appear in the running heads of the relevant text pages as well. There are chapter opening chronologies and end-of- chapter review pages with questions and key terms. As a new feature in the Brief Edition there are marginal glosses in the text pages that are meant to highlight key points and indicate the chapter structure for students. They are also useful means for review. The Brief Edition features more than 400 illustrations and over 100 captioned maps in easy to read four-color renditions. The Further Readings sections appear in the Appendix along with the Glossary and the collection of key documents. The Brief Edition is fully supported by the same array of print and electronic supplements that support the other editions of Give Me Liberty! These materials have been revised to match the content of the Brief Edition.
Americans have always had a divided attitude toward history. On the one hand, they tend to be remarkably future-oriented, dismissing events of even the recent past as “ancient history” and sometimes seeing history as a bur- den to be overcome, a prison from which to escape. On the other hand, like many other peoples, Americans have always looked to history for a sense of personal or group identity and of national cohesiveness. This is why so many Americans devote time and energy to tracing their family trees and why they visit historical museums and National Park Service historical sites in ever-increasing numbers. My hope is that this book will help to con- vince readers with all degrees of interest that history does matter to them.
The novelist and essayist James Baldwin once observed that history “does not refer merely, or even principally, to the past. On the contrary, the great force of history comes from the fact that we carry it within us, . . . [that] history is literally present in all that we do.” As Baldwin recognized, the power of history is evident in our own world. Especially in a political democracy like the United States, whose government is designed to rest on the consent of informed citizens, knowledge of the past is essential—not only for those of us whose profession is the teaching and writing of history, but for everyone. History, to be sure, does not offer simple lessons or imme- diate answers to current questions. Knowing the history of immigration to the United States, and all of the tensions, turmoil, and aspirations associated with it, for example, does not tell us what current immigration policy ought to be. But without that knowledge, we have no way of understanding which approaches have worked and which have not—essential information for the formulation of future public policy.
History, it has been said, is what the present chooses to remember about the past. Rather than a fixed collection of facts, or a group of inter- pretations that cannot be challenged, our understanding of history is con- stantly changing. There is nothing unusual in the fact that each generation rewrites history to meet its own needs, or that scholars disagree among
Preface
xxii i
themselves on basic questions like the causes of the Civil War or the rea- sons for the Great Depression. Precisely because each generation asks dif- ferent questions of the past, each generation formulates different answers. The past thirty years have witnessed a remarkable expansion of the scope of historical study. The experiences of groups neglected by earlier scholars, including women, African-Americans, working people, and others, have received unprecedented attention from historians. New subfields—social history, cultural history, and family history among them—have taken their place alongside traditional political and diplomatic history.
Give Me Liberty! draws on this voluminous historical literature to pres- ent an up-to-date and inclusive account of the American past, paying due attention to the experience of diverse groups of Americans while in no way neglecting the events and processes Americans have experienced in common. It devotes serious attention to political, social, cultural, and eco- nomic history, and to their interconnections. The narrative brings together major events and prominent leaders with the many groups of ordinary peo- ple who make up American society. Give Me Liberty! has a rich cast of char- acters, from Thomas Jefferson to campaigners for woman suffrage, from Franklin D. Roosevelt to former slaves seeking to breathe meaning into emancipation during and after the Civil War.
The unifying theme of freedom that runs through the text gives shape to the narrative and integrates the numerous strands that make up the American experience. This approach builds on that of my earlier book, The Story of American Freedom (1998), although Give Me Liberty! places events and personalities in the foreground and is more geared to the structure of the introductory survey course.
Freedom, and battles to define its meaning, has long been central to my own scholarship and undergraduate teaching, which focuses on the nineteenth century and especially the era of Civil War and Reconstruction (1850–1877). This was a time when the future of slavery tore the nation apart and emancipation produced a national debate over what rights the former slaves, and all Americans, should enjoy as free citizens. I have found that attention to clashing definitions of freedom and the struggles of differ- ent groups to achieve freedom as they understood it offers a way of mak- ing sense of the bitter battles and vast transformations of that pivotal era. I believe that the same is true for American history as a whole.
No idea is more fundamental to Americans’ sense of themselves as individuals and as a nation than freedom. The central term in our politi- cal language, freedom—or liberty, with which it is almost always used interchangeably—is deeply embedded in the record of our history and the language of everyday life. The Declaration of Independence lists liberty among mankind’s inalienable rights; the Constitution announces its purpose
xxiv
Preface
as securing liberty’s blessings. The United States fought the Civil War to bring about a new birth of freedom, World War II for the Four Freedoms, and the Cold War to defend the Free World. Americans’ love of liberty has been represented by liberty poles, liberty caps, and statues of liberty, and acted out by burning stamps and burning draft cards, by running away from slavery, and by demonstrating for the right to vote. “Every man in the street, white, black, red or yellow,” wrote the educator and statesman Ralph Bunche in 1940, “knows that this is ‘the land of the free’ . . . ‘the cradle of liberty.’”
The very universality of the idea of freedom, however, can be mislead- ing. Freedom is not a fixed, timeless category with a single unchanging defi- nition. Indeed, the history of the United States is, in part, a story of debates, disagreements, and struggles over freedom. Crises like the American Revo- lution, the Civil War, and the Cold War have permanently transformed the idea of freedom. So too have demands by various groups of Americans to enjoy greater freedom. The meaning of freedom has been constructed not only in congressional debates and political treatises, but on plantations and picket lines, in parlors and even bedrooms.
Over the course of our history, American freedom has been both a real- ity and a mythic ideal—a living truth for millions of Americans, a cruel mockery for others. For some, freedom has been what some scholars call a “habit of the heart,” an ideal so taken for granted that it is lived out but rarely analyzed. For others, freedom is not a birthright but a distant goal that has inspired great sacrifice.
Give Me Liberty! draws attention to three dimensions of freedom that have been critical in American history: (1) the meanings of freedom; (2) the social conditions that make freedom possible; and (3) the boundaries of free- dom that determine who is entitled to enjoy freedom and who is not. All have changed over time.
In the era of the American Revolution, for example, freedom was pri- marily a set of rights enjoyed in public activity—including the right of a com- munity to be governed by laws to which its representatives had consented and of individuals to engage in religious worship without governmental interference. In the nineteenth century, freedom came to be closely identi- fied with each person’s opportunity to develop to the fullest his or her innate talents. In the twentieth, the “ability to choose,” in both public and private life, became perhaps the dominant understanding of freedom. This develop- ment was encouraged by the explosive growth of the consumer marketplace which offered Americans an unprecedented array of goods with which to satisfy their needs and desires. During the 1960s, a crucial chapter in the history of American freedom, the idea of personal freedom was extended into virtually every realm, from attire and “lifestyle” to relations between
Preface
xxv
the sexes. Thus, over time, more and more areas of life have been drawn into Americans’ debates about the meaning of freedom.
A second important dimension of freedom focuses on the social con- ditions necessary to allow freedom to flourish. What kinds of economic institutions and relationships best encourage individual freedom? In the colonial era and for more than a century after independence, the answer centered on economic autonomy, enshrined in the glorification of the inde- pendent small producer—the farmer, skilled craftsman, or shopkeeper— who did not have to depend on another person for his livelihood. As the industrial economy matured, new conceptions of economic freedom came to the fore: “liberty of contract” in the Gilded Age, “industrial freedom” (a say in corporate decision making) in the Progressive era, economic security during the New Deal, and, more recently, the ability to enjoy mass consump- tion within a market economy.
The boundaries of freedom, the third dimension of this theme, have inspired some of the most intense struggles in American history. Although founded on the premise that liberty is an entitlement of all humanity, the United States for much of its history deprived many of its own people of free- dom. Non-whites have rarely enjoyed the same access to freedom as white Americans. The belief in equal opportunity as the birthright of all Ameri- cans has coexisted with persistent efforts to limit freedom by race, gender, class, and in other ways.
Less obvious, perhaps, is the fact that one person’s freedom has fre- quently been linked to another’s servitude. In the colonial era and nine- teenth century, expanding freedom for many Americans rested on the lack of freedom—slavery, indentured servitude, the subordinate position of women—for others. By the same token, it has been through battles at the boundaries—the efforts of racial minorities, women, and others to secure greater freedom—that the meaning and experience of freedom have been deepened and the concept extended into new realms.
Time and again in American history, freedom has been transformed by the demands of excluded groups for inclusion. The idea of freedom as a universal birthright owes much to abolitionists who sought to extend the blessings of liberty to blacks and to immigrant groups who insisted on full recognition as American citizens. The principle of equal protection of the law without regard to race, which became a central element of American freedom, arose from the antislavery struggle and Civil War and was rein- vigorated by the civil rights revolution of the 1960s, which called itself the “freedom movement.” The battle for the right of free speech by labor radicals and birth control advocates in the first part of the twentieth century helped to make civil liberties an essential element of freedom for all Americans.
Freedom is the oldest of clichés and the most modern of aspirations. At various times in our history, it has served as the rallying cry of the
xxvi
Preface
powerless and as a justification of the status quo. Freedom helps to bind our culture together and exposes the contradictions between what Amer- ica claims to be and what it sometimes has been. American history is not a narrative of continual progress toward greater and greater freedom. As the abolitionist Thomas Wentworth Higginson noted after the Civil War, “revolutions may go backward.” While freedom can be achieved, it may also be taken away. This happened, for example, when the equal rights granted to former slaves immediately after the Civil War were essentially nullified during the era of segregation. As was said in the eighteenth century, the price of freedom is eternal vigilance.
In the early twenty-first century, freedom continues to play a central role in our political and social life and thought. It is invoked by individuals and groups of all kinds, from critics of economic globalization to those who seek to export American freedom overseas. As with the longer version of the book, I hope that this Brief Edition of Give Me Liberty! will offer begin- ning students a clear account of the course of American history, and of its central theme, freedom, which today remains as varied, contentious, and ever-changing as America itself.
Preface
xxvii
A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S
All works of history are, to a considerable extent, collaborative books, in that every writer builds on the research and writing of previous scholars. This is especially true of a textbook that covers the entire American experience, over more than five centuries. My greatest debt is to the innumerable histo- rians on whose work I have drawn in preparing this volume. The Suggested Reading list in the Appendix offers only a brief introduction to the vast body of historical scholarship that has influenced and informed this book. More specifically, however, I wish to thank the following scholars, who gener- ously read portions of this work and offered valuable comments, criticisms, and suggestions:
Wayne Ackerson, Salisbury University Mary E. Adams, City College of San Francisco Jeff Adler, University of Florida David Anderson, Louisiana Tech University John Barr, Lone Star College, Kingwood Lauren Braun-Strumfels, Raritan Valley Community College James Broussard, Lebanon Valley College Michael Bryan, Greenville Technical College Stephanie Cole, The University of Texas at Arlington Ashley Cruseturner, McLennan Community College Jim Dudlo, Brookhaven College Beverly Gage, Yale University Monica Gisolfi, University of North Carolina, Wilmington Adam Goudsouzian, University of Memphis Mike Green, Community College of Southern Nevada Vanessa Gunther, California State University, Fullerton David E. Hamilton, University of Kentucky Brian Harding, Mott Community College Sandra Harvey, Lone Star College–Cy Fair April Holm, University of Mississippi David Hsiung, Juniata College James Karmel, Harford Community College Kelly Knight, Penn State University Marianne Leeper, Trinity Valley Community College Jeffrey K. Lucas, University of North Carolina at Pembroke Tina Margolis, Westchester Community College Kent McGaughy, HCC Northwest College James Mills, University of Texas, Brownsville Gil Montemayor, McLennan Community College Jonathan Noyalas, Lord Fairfax Community College Robert M. O’Brien, Lone Star College–Cy Fair
xxvii i
Preface
Joseph Palermo, California State University, Sacramento Ann Plane, University of California, Santa Barbara Nancy Marie Robertson, Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis Esther Robinson, Lone Star College–Cy Fair Richard Samuelson, California State University, San Bernadino Diane Sager, Maple Woods Community College John Shaw, Portland Community College Mark Spencer, Brock University David Stebenne, Ohio State University Judith Stein, City College, City University of New York George Stevens, Duchess Community College Robert Tinkler, California State University, Chico Elaine Thompson, Louisiana Tech University David Weiman, Barnard College William Young, Maple Woods Community College
I am particularly grateful to my colleagues in the Columbia University Department of History: Pablo Piccato, for his advice on Latin American his- tory; Evan Haefeli and Ellen Baker, who read and made many suggestions for improvements in their areas of expertise (colonial America and the history of the West, respectively); and Sarah Phillips, who offered advice on treating the history of the environment.
I am also deeply indebted to the graduate students at Columbia Univer- sity’s Department of History who helped with this project. Theresa Ventura offered invaluable assistance in gathering material for the new sections plac- ing American history in a global context. April Holm provided similar assis- tance for new coverage in this edition of the history of American religion and debates over religious freedom. James Delbourgo conducted research for the chapters on the colonial era. Beverly Gage did the same for the twenti- eth century. Daniel Freund provided all-round research assistance. Victoria Cain did a superb job of locating images. I also want to thank my colleagues Elizabeth Blackmar and Alan Brinkley for offering advice and encourage- ment throughout the writing of this book.
Many thanks to Joshua Brown, director of the American Social History Project, whose website, History Matters, lists innumerable online resources for the study of American history. Nancy Robertson at IUIPUI did a superb job revising and enhancing the in-book pedagogy. Monica Gisolfi (Univer- sity of North Carolina, Wilmington) and Robert Tinkler (California State University, Chico) did excellent work on the Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank. Kathleen Thomas (University of Wisconsin, Stout) helped greatly in the revisions of the companion media packages.