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Brief Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Computer Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

CHAPTER 2 Network Hardware Essentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

CHAPTER 3 Network Topologies and Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

CHAPTER 4 Network Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

CHAPTER 5 Network Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

CHAPTER 6 IP Addressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

CHAPTER 7 Network Reference Models and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

CHAPTER 8 Network Hardware in Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

CHAPTER 9 Introduction to Network Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367

CHAPTER 10 Wide Area Networking and Cloud Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419

CHAPTER 11 Network Operating System Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455

CHAPTER 12 Network Management and Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517

CHAPTER 13 Troubleshooting and Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581

APPENDIX A Network Troubleshooting Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633

GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639

INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Computer Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

An Overview of Computer Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Basic Functions of a Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Storage Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Personal Computer Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Computer Boot Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Hands-On Project 1-1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

The Fundamentals of Network Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Network Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Hands-On Project 1-2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Steps of Network Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Layers of the Network Communication Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 How Two Computers Communicate on a LAN: Some Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Hands-On Project 1-3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Hands-On Project 1-4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Network Terms Explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 LANs, Internetworks, WANs, and MANs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Internet, Intranet, and Extranet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Packets and Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Clients and Servers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Network Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Peer-to-Peer/Workgroup Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Server/Domain-Based Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Hands-On Project 1-5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Hands-On Project 1-6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Hands-On Project 1-7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Hands-On Project 1-8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Key Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Review Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Critical Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

CHAPTER 2 Network Hardware Essentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Network Repeaters and Hubs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Multiport Repeaters and Hubs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Network Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Basic Switch Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Hands-On Project 2-1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Hands-On Project 2-2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

v Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).

Hands-On Project 2-3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Wireless Access Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Basic AP Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Network Interface Cards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 NIC Basics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Selecting a NIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 NIC Drivers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Wireless NICs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Hands-On Project 2-4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Routers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Routers Connect LANs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Routers Create Broadcast Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Routers Work with IP Addresses and Routing Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Hands-On Project 2-5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Hands-On Project 2-6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Key Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

Review Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Critical Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

CHAPTER 3 Network Topologies and Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Physical Topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Physical Bus Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Physical Star Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Physical Ring Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Point-to-Point Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Logical Topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Hands-On Project 3-1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Network Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Network Technologies and Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Ethernet Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Ethernet Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Additional Ethernet Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Hands-On Project 3-2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Hands-On Project 3-3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

802.11 Wi-Fi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Wi-Fi Modes of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Wi-Fi Channels and Frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Wi-Fi Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Wi-Fi Access Methods and Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Wi-Fi Signal Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Wi-Fi Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Wi-Fi Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Token Ring Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Fiber Distributed Data Interface Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

vi Table of Contents

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

Key Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

Review Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Critical Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

CHAPTER 4 Network Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

Wired Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Criteria for Choosing Network Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Coaxial Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Twisted-Pair Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Structured Cabling: Managing and Installing a UTP Cable Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Hands-On Project 4-1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Hands-On Project 4-2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Hands-On Project 4-3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

Fiber-Optic Cable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Fiber-Optic Connectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Fiber-Optic Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Fiber-Optic Cable Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Cable-Testing Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

Wireless Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Wireless Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Types of Wireless Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Wireless LAN Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Wireless LAN Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 LAN Media Selection Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

Key Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

Review Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

Critical Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

CHAPTER 5 Network Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

TCP/IP’s Layered Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Hands-On Project 5-1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Hands-On Project 5-2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

Application-Layer Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 HTTP: Protocol of the World Wide Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 E-mail Protocols: POP3, IMAP, and SMTP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 FTP and TFTP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Server Message Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Remote Desktop Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Telnet and SSH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Simple Networking Management Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Domain Name System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Table of Contents vii

Hands-On Project 5-3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Hands-On Project 5-4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

Transport-Layer Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Role of the Transport Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 TCP: The Reliable Transport Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

Internetwork-Layer Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Defines and Verifies IP Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Routes Packets Through an Internetwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Resolves MAC Addresses from IP Addresses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Delivers Packets Efficiently . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Protocols at the Internetwork Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 Hands-On Project 5-5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Hands-On Project 5-6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Hands-On Project 5-7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Hands-On Project 5-8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

Network Access–Layer Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Hands-On Project 5-9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

Key Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

Review Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

Critical Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

CHAPTER 6 IP Addressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

IPv4 Addressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Binary Math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Hands-On Project 6-1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Hands-On Project 6-2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 IP Address Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Private IP Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

Classless Interdomain Routing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 CIDR Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Broadcast Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

Subnetting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Calculating a Subnet Mask . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Hands-On Project 6-3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 Hands-On Project 6-4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Supernetting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

Configuring IPv4 Addresses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 Configuring Multiple IP Addresses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Configuring the Default Gateway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 IP Configuration Command-Line Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Hands-On Project 6-5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Hands-On Project 6-6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

Network Address Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

viii Table of Contents

Internet Protocol Version 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 IPv6 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 IPv6 Address Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

IPv6 Address Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 IPv6 Unicast Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Multicast Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Anycast Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274

IPv6 Autoconfiguration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Autoconfiguration on Windows Hosts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

Transitioning from IPv4 to IPv6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Dual IP Layer Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 IPv6-over-IPv4 Tunneling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 Intra-Site Automatic Tunnel Addressing Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 6to4 Tunneling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Teredo Tunneling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Hands-On Project 6-7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Hands-On Project 6-8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

Key Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

Review Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

Critical Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

CHAPTER 7 Network Reference Models and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

Introducing the OSI and IEEE 802 Networking Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 Role of a Reference Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 Structure of the OSI Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Application Layer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Presentation Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Session Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 Transport Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 Network Layer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Data Link Layer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Physical Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Summary of the OSI Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305

IEEE 802 Networking Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 IEEE 802 Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 IEEE 802 Extensions to the OSI Reference Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 Hands-On Project 7-1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Hands-On Project 7-2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 Hands-On Project 7-3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 Hands-On Project 7-4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

Key Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

Review Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313

Critical Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316

Table of Contents ix

CHAPTER 8 Network Hardware in Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

Network Switches in Depth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 Switch Port Modes of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 Creating the Switching Table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 Frame Forwarding Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 Advanced Switch Features. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 Hands-On Project 8-1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 Multilayer Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

Routers in Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 Router Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 Routing Tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 Routing Protocols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 Access Control Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 Hands-On Project 8-2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341

Wireless Access Points in Depth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 Basic Wireless Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Wireless Security Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 Advanced Wireless Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345

Network Interface Cards in Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 PC Bus Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 Advanced Features of NICs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

Key Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

Review Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354

Critical Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358

CHAPTER 9 Introduction to Network Security. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367

Network Security Overview and Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 Developing a Network Security Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Determining Elements of a Network Security Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Understanding Levels of Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370

Securing Physical Access to the Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 Physical Security Best Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372

Securing Access to Network Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 Setting Up Authentication and Authorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 Hands-On Project 9-1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 Securing Data with Encryption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 Securing Communication with Virtual Private Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 Securing Wireless Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385

Network Security Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 Protecting Networks with Firewalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 Using Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 Hands-On Project 9-2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390 Hands-On Project 9-3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392

x Table of Contents

Protecting a Network from Malware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 Viruses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 Worms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 Other Forms of Malware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 Spyware and Spam. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 Malware Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 Hands-On Project 9-4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397

Using an Attacker’s Tools to Stop Network Attacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 Discovering Network Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 Gaining Access to Network Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 Disabling Network Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 Hands-On Project 9-5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405

Key Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406

Review Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409

Critical Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412

CHAPTER 10 Wide Area Networking and Cloud Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419

Wide Area Network Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 WAN Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421

WAN Connection Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 Circuit-Switched WANs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 Leased Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 Packet-Switched WANs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428 WANs over the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 WAN Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434 Wireless WAN Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436

Remote Access Networking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 Making a VPN Connection in Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438 Making a Dial-Up Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439 Remote Access Networking via the Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 Hands-On Project 10-1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441 Hands-On Project 10-2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442

Cloud Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443 Software as a Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 Platform as a Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 Infrastructure as a Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 Private Cloud Versus Public Cloud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446

Key Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447

Review Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449

Critical Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453

Table of Contents xi

CHAPTER 11 Network Operating System Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455

Operating System Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456 The File System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 Hands-On Project 11-1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 Hands-On Project 11-2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 Processes and Services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466 The Kernel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467 Hands-On Project 11-3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468 Hands-On Project 11-4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470

Client and Server Operating System Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 The Role of a Client Operating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 Hands-On Project 11-5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474 Hands-On Project 11-6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475 The Role of a Server Operating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477 Centralized User Account and Computer Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478 Centralized Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 Additional Server Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483

Operating System Virtualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483 Hosted Virtualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486 Hands-On Project 11-7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492 Hands-On Project 11-8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492 Bare-Metal Virtualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496 Bare-Metal Virtualization Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497

Installing an OS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499 Planning for and Installing Windows Server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499 Planning for and Installing Linux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 Hands-On Project 11-9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507

Key Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508

Review Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510

Critical Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513

CHAPTER 12 Network Management and Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517

Managing User and Group Accounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518 Account and Password Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 Working with Accounts in Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 Hands-On Project 12-1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 Hands-On Project 12-2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528 Working with Accounts in Linux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531 Hands-On Project 12-3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532

Storage and File System Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533 Volumes and Partitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534 The FAT File System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535 The NTFS File System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535 Hands-On Project 12-4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541

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Hands-On Project 12-5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543 The Linux File System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545

Working with Shared Files and Printers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546 Sharing Files and Printers in Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547 Hands-On Project 12-6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550 Sharing Files and Printers in Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552

Monitoring System Reliability and Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 Event Viewer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 Performance Monitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555 Hands-On Project 12-7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558 Hands-On Project 12-8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559 Enhancing Network Performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561 Network Performance Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563

Backup and Fault Tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564 Windows Backup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564 Hands-On Project 12-9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565 Protecting Data with Fault Tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571

Key Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572

Review Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574

Challenge Labs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578

CHAPTER 13 Troubleshooting and Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581

Documenting Your Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582 Change Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583 Documentation and Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584 Documentation and IT Staffing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584 Documentation and Standards Compliance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584 Documentation and Technical Support. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585 Documentation and Network Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585 What Should Be Documented? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585

The Problem-Solving Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587 Step 1: Determine the Problem Definition and Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589 Step 2: Gather Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590 Step 3: Consider Possible Causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592 Step 4: Devise a Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592 Step 5: Implement the Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593 Step 6: Test the Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594 Step 7: Document the Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595 Step 8: Devise Preventive Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595

Approaches to Network Troubleshooting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596 Trial and Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596 Solve by Example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598 The Replacement Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599 Step by Step with the OSI Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599

Making Use of Problem-Solving Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601 Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602

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The Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603 Network Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604

Network Troubleshooting Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607 Using ping and tracert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607 Hands-On Project 13-1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610 Network Monitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611 Hands-On Project 13-2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612 Hands-On Project 13-3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612 Protocol Analyzers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615 Time-Domain Reflectometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615 Basic Cable Testers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616 Advanced Cable Testers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616 Additional Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616

Common Troubleshooting Situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617 Cabling and Related Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617 Power Fluctuations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618 Upgrades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618 Poor Network Performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619

Disaster Recovery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619 Backing Up Network Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619 Backup Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620 Business Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622

Key Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623

Review Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624

Critical Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628

APPENDIX A Network Troubleshooting Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633

General Questions for Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633 Cabling Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634 Problems with NICs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634 Driver Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634 Problems with Network Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635 Problems with Network Printing and Fax Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635 Problems with Client/Server Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635 Problems with Network Accounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636 Problems with Data Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636 Problems with Communication in Large Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637

GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639

INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655

xiv Table of Contents

Introduction

Guide to Networking Essentials, Seventh Edition, serves the needs of students, instructors, aspiring information technology professionals, and others who are interested in learning more about networking technologies but who might have little or no background in this subject matter. This book’s extensive and broad coverage of computer networking technologies and network operating systems gives you a solid networking background to pursue a number of certifications, including Networkþ, CCNA, MCSA, and Securityþ. In fact, although it’s not intended as a certification study book, many instructors use it for Networkþ and CCENT test preparation. With the extensive use of tables that compare important properties of networking technologies, this book also makes an excellent reference.

The seventh edition builds on the strengths of the sixth edition, giving you easy-to-understand explanations of often difficult concepts and a solid grounding in topics such as routing, switching, IP addressing, and virtualization. Many students are learning computer concepts at the same time they’re learning about networking, so the first chapter includes a refresher on computer compo- nents and terminology. This new edition covers the latest networking technologies and operating systems, including new Ethernet standards, cloud computing, Windows 10, Windows Server 2016, and recent Linux distributions. In keeping with the latest trends in networking, this edition has updated and expanded coverage on IPv6 operation and addressing, network security, the 802.11 wireless standards, network switches, and routing. A new section on cloud computing explains that many networks are using the “as a” technologies, such as infrastructure as a service and platform as a service.

xv Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).

All new hands-on projects interspersed throughout the chapter text allow you to apply the concepts you learn in the chapter. A new feature of this book, the “Critical Thinking” section, offers challenge labs and case projects at the end of each chapter. Challenge labs give you an opportunity to apply what you have learned from the chapter material and hands-on projects in a format that might require additional research and skills. For case pro- jects, you use your knowledge and critical thinking skills to devise solutions to networking problems.

The simulations in the previous three editions of Guide to Networking Essentials are now available on the Cengage Learning Web site at www.cengagebrain.com; you can search there by author, title, or ISBN to find the simulations. These simulations with audio narra- tions give you an innovative tool to help you grasp difficult networking concepts. They cover topics ranging from basic LAN communication to Network Address Translation (NAT) and Internet e-mail operation. Drag-and-drop exercises reinforce concepts of the OSI model and network frame formats. You can find more simulations and visual trouble- shooting on the author’s Web site at http://books.tomsho.com.

Intended Audience Guide to Networking Essentials, Seventh Edition, is intended for people who are getting started in computer networking and want to gain a solid understanding of a broad range of networking technologies. This book is ideal for would-be information technology professionals who want to pursue certifications in a variety of computer networking fields as well as those in a managerial role who want a firm grasp of networking technology concepts. To understand the material in this book, you should have a background in basic computer concepts and have worked with the Windows operating system. This book is ideal for use in a classroom or an instructor-led training environment and is also an effective learning tool for individual self-paced training.

Coping with Change on the Web Sooner or later, all the specifics on Web-based resources mentioned in this book will become outdated or be replaced by newer information. In some cases, the URLs listed in this book might lead to their replacements; in other cases, they’ll lead nowhere, resulting in the dreaded error message “Server not found.”

When that happens, please don’t give up! There’s always a way to find what you want on the Web, if you’re willing to invest some time and energy. Most large or complex Web sites offer a search engine. As long as you can get to the site itself, you can use this tool to help you find what you need. In addition, try using general search tools, such as www.google.com or www. bing.com, to find related information. The bottom line is if you can’t find something where the book says it should be, start looking around. It’s likely to be somewhere!

Chapter Descriptions Here’s a summary of the topics covered in each chapter of this book:

• Chapter 1, “Introduction to Computer Networks,” introduces many of the computer and networking terms and technologies discussed in detail in later chapters.

• In Chapter 2, “Network Hardware Essentials,” you learn about the basic operation of hubs, switches, access points, network interface cards, and routers.

xvi Introduction

• Chapter 3, “Network Topologies and Technologies,” discusses logical and physical topologies and the LAN technologies that use them.

• Chapter 4, “Network Media,” covers the cables and connectors required to connect network devices, including structured cabling techniques, and describes wireless networking.

• In Chapter 5, “Network Protocols,” you learn about the purpose and operation of network protocols, focusing on the TCP/IP protocol suite. Special emphasis is given to the TCP/IP layered model and the protocols that work at each layer.

• In Chapter 6, “IP Addressing,” you learn about IPv4 addressing, including address classes, public and private addresses, subnetting, and Network Address Translation. New expanded coverage on IPv6 addressing and operation has been added to reflect the growing importance of this protocol.

• Chapter 7, “Network Reference Models and Standards,” discusses the OSI model’s seven-layer architecture and gives you an overview of the IEEE 802 networking standards.

• Chapter 8, “Network Hardware in Depth,” delves into the hardware components of networks discussed in Chapter 2, giving you more in-depth coverage of each type of device.

• In Chapter 9, “Introduction to Network Security,” you learn about network security policies, securing access to equipment and data, network security devices (such as firewalls and intrusion detection systems), and malware.

• In Chapter 10, “Wide Area Networking and Cloud Computing,” you learn how to use WAN technologies, such as frame relay and SONET, to create networks that can extend across your town or across the country. In addition, you’re introduced to remote access protocols and cloud computing concepts, such as IaaS and PaaS.

• In Chapter 11, “Network Operating System Fundamentals,” you learn about network operating system features and the most common types of services provided by server OSs. This chapter also covers virtualization and using virtual machines in data centers and on the desktop. Finally, you learn how to plan for an OS installation and perform postinstallation tasks.

• Chapter 12, “Network Management and Administration,” discusses everyday tasks that network and server administrators perform, including working with user and group accounts, creating and managing file shares, monitoring system performance and reliability, and using fault-tolerance and backup solutions.

• Chapter 13, “Troubleshooting and Support,” discusses what you can do to pre- vent network downtime, data loss, and system failures. In addition, you learn about the problem-solving process, several different approaches to solving net- work problems, the tools for troubleshooting networks, and disaster recovery procedures.

• Appendix A, “Network Troubleshooting Guide,” summarizes advice on how to recognize, isolate, and diagnose trouble on a network, whether it’s related to media, hardware, or software.

Introduction xvii

Features To help you understand networking concepts thoroughly, this book incorporates many fea- tures designed to enhance your learning experience:

• Chapter objectives—Each chapter begins with a detailed list of the concepts to be mastered. This list is a quick reference to the chapter’s contents and a useful study aid.

• A requirements table—At the beginning of each chapter is a table listing the hands-on projects along with their requirements and estimated time of completion.

• Hands-on projects—Although understanding the theory behind networking technology is important, nothing can improve on real-world experience. Projects are interspersed throughout each chapter to give you hands-on experience.

• Screen captures, illustrations, and tables—Numerous screen captures and illustrations of concepts help you visualize network setups, theories, and architectures and see how to use tools. In addition, tables summarize details in an at-a-glance format and give you comparisons of both practical and theoretical information; they can be used for a quick review. Because most school labs use Windows OSs, these products have been used for most screenshots and hands-on projects.

• Simulations—In many chapters, you’ll see references to simulations, which are avail- able online at www.cengagebrain.com; you can search by the book’s author, title, or ISBN. These simulations demonstrate concepts such as basic LAN communication, Ethernet switches, routing, Network Address Translation, Internet e-mail operation, and more.

• Chapter summary—Each chapter ends with a summary of the concepts introduced in the chapter. These summaries are a helpful way to recap the material covered in the chapter.

• Key terms—All terms in the chapter introduced with bold text are gathered together in the Key Terms list at the end of the chapter. This list gives you an easy way to check your understanding of important terms and is a useful reference.

• Review questions—The end-of-chapter assessment begins with review questions that reinforce the concepts and techniques covered in each chapter. Answering these questions helps ensure that you have mastered important topics.

• Critical Thinking sections—The end-of-chapter Critical Thinking section gives you more opportunities for hands-on practice with challenge labs, which enable you to use the knowledge you’ve gained from reading the chapter and performing hands-on projects to solve more complex problems without step-by-step instructions. This section also includes case projects that ask you to evaluate a hypothetical situation and decide on a course of action to propose a solution. These valuable tools help you sharpen decision-making, critical thinking, and troubleshooting skills—all important aspects of network administration.

Text and Graphics Conventions Additional information and exercises have been added to this book to help you better understand what’s being discussed in the chapter. Icons throughout the book alert you to these additional materials:

xviii Introduction

Tips offer extra information on resources, how to solve problems, and time-saving shortcuts.

Notes present additional helpful material related to the subject being discussed.

The Caution icon identifies important information about potential mistakes or hazards.

Each hands-on project in this book is preceded by this icon.

Simulation icons refer you to simulations that reinforce the concepts being discussed.

This icon marks end-of-chapter labs that challenge you to apply what you’ve learned without step-by-step instructions.

Case Project icons mark the end-of-chapter case projects, which are scenario-based assignments that ask you to apply what you have learned in the chapter.

Instructor Companion Site Everything you need for your course in one place! This collection of book-specific lecture and class tools is available online via www.cengage.com/login. Access and download PowerPoint presentations, images, the Instructor’s Manual, and more. In addition, the author maintains a Web site at http://books.tomsho.com with lab notes, errata, additional exercises, the latest lab setup guide, and hints and tips for teaching with this book.

• Electronic Instructor’s Manual—The Instructor’s Manual that accompanies this book includes additional instructional material to assist in class preparation, including sug- gestions for classroom activities, discussion topics, and additional quiz questions.

Introduction xix

• Solutions Manual—The instructor’s resources include solutions to all end-of-chapter material, including review questions and case projects.

• Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero—This flexible, online system allows you to do the following:

° Author, edit, and manage test bank content from multiple Cengage Learning solutions.

° Create multiple test versions in an instant.

° Deliver tests from your LMS, your classroom, or wherever you want.

• PowerPoint presentations—This book comes with Microsoft PowerPoint slides for each chapter. They’re included as a teaching aid for classroom presentation, to make available to students on the network for chapter review, or to be printed for class- room distribution. Instructors, please feel free to add your own slides for additional topics you introduce to the class.

• Figure files—All the figures and tables in the book are reproduced in bitmap format. Similar to the PowerPoint presentations, they’re included as a teaching aid for class- room presentation, to make available to students for review, or to be printed for classroom distribution.

Contact the Author I would like to hear from you. Please e-mail me at NetEss@tomsho.com with any problems, questions, suggestions, or corrections. I even accept compliments! This book has staying power, so I wouldn’t be surprised to see an eighth edition in the future. Your comments and suggestions are invaluable for shaping the next edition’s content. In addition, please visit my Web site at http://books.tomsho.com, where you can find lab notes, errata, and other information related to this book and my other titles. You can also submit comments and suggestions.

Acknowledgments I would like to thank the team at Cengage Learning for this opportunity to improve and expand on the fifth edition of this book. This team includes Kristin McNary, Product Team Manager; Michelle Ruelos Cannistraci, Senior Content Developer; Brooke Green- house, Senior Content Project Manager; and Serge Palladino and John Freitas, Manuscript Quality Assurance, for testing projects and labs for accuracy. Thanks especially to my development editor, Lisa Lord, for her excellent guidance in creating a polished product. Additional praise and special thanks goes to my beautiful wife, Julie; our daughters, Camille and Sophia; and our son, Michael. They all deserve medals for their patience and support while going husbandless and fatherless during the development of this book.

xx Introduction

Before You Begin The importance of a solid lab environment can’t be overstated. This books contains hands- on projects that require a variety of network equipment and software. Most of the hands-on projects use a PC with Windows 10 installed. However, other versions of Windows (such as Windows 7 and Windows 8.1) can be used with modifications to the steps. Using virtualization can simplify the lab environment. For example, you can use VMware Player, VMware Work- station, VirtualBox, and other products to install Windows and Linux in a virtual machine, regardless of the OS running on your physical computer. The following section lists the require- ments and gives you ideas for how to best configure your lab environment.

Lab Setup Guide Both the hands-on projects and challenge labs have setup requirements. Some labs require two or three computers, called “lab computers,” that you connect to hubs and routers to create small test networks. Lab computers use Windows 10 (but earlier versions can be substituted) and should be physical computers that have easy access to power, a NIC, and other ports. Many other labs simply require a computer that’s connected to a network in a classroom setting, with access to the Internet. Students must have administrator access to these computers, and the use of virtual machines is recommended. An instructor computer is also required for some labs. The instructor computer can also be set up as a virtual machine and must be accessible to student computers on the network.

Student Computers (Net-XX) • Use of virtual machines recommended • Windows 10 Enterprise or Education Edition • Computer name: Net-XX (replacingXXwith a student number, such as 01, 02, and so forth) • Administrator account: NetAdmin with the password Password01 set to never expire • Workgroup name: NetEss • Memory: 1 GB required, 2 GB or more recommended • Hard disk 1: 60 GB or more (Windows installed on this drive); a second NTFS-formatted

partition assigned drive letter D is preferable but not required. • Hard disk 2: Unallocated 60 GB or more • IP address via DHCP server or static if required on your network • Wireshark installed (a free protocol analyzer from www.wireshark.org) • Internet access

Instructor Computer (Net-Instr) • Same requirements as Net-XX except for the following:

° Computer name: Net-Instr

° No second hard disk required

• Create a shared folder named NetDocs, giving the NetAdmin user Read and Change sharing permissions and Modify NTFS permissions. You access this share by using \\net-instr\netdocs in Chapter 1.

Introduction xxi

Lab Computers (Three Computers Minimum) • Windows 10 Enterprise or Education Edition (or other versions, including Windows 7

and Windows 8.1; however step-by-step instructions are written for Windows 10) • Computer names: Computer1, Computer2, Computer3 • Administrator account: NetAdmin with the password Password01 set to never expire • Workgroup name: NetEss • Memory: 1 GB required, 2 GB or more recommended • Hard disk 1: 60 GB or more (Windows installed on this drive) • IP address: Set to use DHCP, but no DHCP server should be present, so APIPA

addresses are assigned. • Wireshark installed (a free protocol analyzer from www.wireshark.org) • No Internet access

Network Equipment for Lab Computers (for Each Group of Three Computers)

• Two 10/100 hubs • Two 10/100 switches • One WPA 802.11 b/g/n SSID NetEss; open security • 802.11 b/g/n NICs (USB Wi-Fi NICs are ideal) • Five patch cables and one crossover cable

Additional Supplies and Tools • RJ-45 crimping tool • Punchdown tool • Cable stripper • Cat 5e or higher cable • Cat 5e or higher patch panel • RJ-45 plugs (at least four per student) • A Cisco switch with Cisco IOS for configuring VLANs (for Challenge Lab 8-3) • A Cisco router with CISCO IOS (for Challenge Lab 8-4) • Network diagram software, such as Visio, or online diagramming software, such as

www.gliffy.com • A Fedora Linux Live DVD or ISO file or an Ubuntu Linux DVD or ISO file • Windows Server 2012 R2 ISO file (downloaded from the Microsoft evaluation center)

for Hands-On Project 11-9 • A shared printer (optional) • NetInfo and Simple Server Monitor (downloaded and installed by students or the instructor) • VMware Player (downloaded and installed by students or the instructor)

You can find additional lab setup instructions and videos on the author’s Web site at http://books. tomsho.com. Click the menu item Networking Essentials 7th Edition. You can also find videos by the author on YouTube at https://www.youtube.com/user/gtomshobooks. More information is available on the author’s Amazon page at https://www.amazon.com/author/gregtomsho, Facebook page at www.facebook.com/gtomshobooks, and Twitter (@gtomshobooks).

xxii Introduction

chapter1

Introduction to Computer Networks

After reading this chapter and completing the exercises, you will be able to:

• Describe basic computer components and operations • Explain the fundamentals of network communication • Define common networking terms • Compare different network models

1 Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).

In only a few decades, computer networks have evolved from being a complex technology accessible to only the most tech-savvy users to being part of most people’s every- day lives. Computer networks can be found in almost every business, school, and home. Their use is available to anyone with a computer and a network connection, but installation and upkeep of all but the smallest networks still require considerable know-how. This chapter starts you on the path toward acquiring the skills to manage a large corporate network or simply configure a home network with a wireless router.

This chapter begins by discussing the computer and its role in a network to give you a founda- tion for the topics in this book. Next, you examine the components of a network and the fun- damentals of communication between computers. Many new terms are introduced and defined, and the varied types of networks and network servers you might encounter are described.

An Overview of Computer Concepts The hands-on projects in this book require setting up your lab environment so that it’s ready to go, so make sure you read and follow the step-by-step instructions in the “Before You Begin” section of the Introduction, which help you set up your lab for all projects in this book.

The hands-on projects in this book contain information about how networks work that’s best understood by hands-on experience. If you can’t do some of the projects, you should at least read through each one to make sure you don’t miss important information. Table 1-1 sum- marizes what you need for the hands-on projects in this chapter.

Table 1-1 Hands-on project requirements

Hands-on project Requirements Time required Notes

Hands-On Project 1-1: Examining a Computer’s Boot Procedure

Net-XX 10 minutes A Windows 10 computer configured as described in “Before You Begin” Must be able to access the BIOS setup screen

Hands-On Project 1-2: Upgrading a Stand-alone Computer to a Networked Computer

Net-XX, a NIC, a patch cable, and a hub or switch

30 minutes A lab computer set up as described in “Before You Begin”

Hands-On Project 1-3: Viewing Network Software Layers

Net-XX 10 minutes

Hands-On Project 1-4: Using

ipconfig, ping, and arp

Net-XX 15 minutes

Hands-On Project 1-5: Exploring Peer-to-Peer Networking

Net-XX 15 minutes

Hands-On Project 1-6: Creating a Shared Folder

Net-XX 15 minutes

Hands-On Project 1-7: Transferring a Document to Another Computer

Net-XX 15 minutes A share named NetDocs on the instructor’s computer (Net-Instr)

Hands-On Project 1-8: Looking Up Computer and Networking Acronyms

Net-XX 20 minutes Internet access

2 Chapter 1 Introduction to Computer Networks

At the heart of a computer network is the computer. Networks were created to facilitate communication between computing devices, which ultimately facilitates communication between people. So to better understand networks, how they work, and how to support them, you must have a solid understanding of computer operations. In fact, most of the devices you encounter when working with a network involve a computer. The most obvious are network servers andworkstations that run operating systems, such asWindows, Linux, UNIX, and Mac OS X. Not as obvious are devices such as routers and switches, which move network data from computer to computer and network to network. These complex devices are also computers, although they’re specialized computers for performing specific tasks. The next sections discuss the basic functions of a computer and its associated components, along with computer hardware, the boot procedure, and the basic functions of an operating system (OS). Networking is the focus of this book, but your grasp of the fundamentals of computer components and operations helps you understand networking components and operations.

Basic Functions of a Computer A computer’s functions and features can be grouped into the three basic tasks all computers perform: input, processing, and output. Information is input to a computer from a device such as a keyboard or from a storage device such as a hard drive; the central processing unit (CPU) processes the information, and then output is usually created. The following example illustrates this process:

• Input—A user running a word-processing program types the letter A on the keyboard, which results in sending a code representing the letter A to the computer.

• Processing—The computer’s CPU determines what letter was typed by looking up the keyboard code in a table.

• Output—The CPU sends instructions to the graphics card to display the letter A, which is then sent to the computer monitor.

Some components of computers are designed to perform only one of these three functions; others are designed to perform two or all three functions. For example, a standard keyboard and mouse perform input functions, and storage devices, such as hard drives, perform both input (when files are read from the drive) and output (when files are written to the drive). Network cards can per- form all three functions. A network card is an output device when data is sent from the computer to the network and an input device when data comes from the network to the computer. In addi- tion, many network cards have rudimentary processors that perform actions on incoming and outgoing data to help supplement the computer’s main CPU.

Input Components Before a computer can do any processing, it requires input, com- monly from user-controlled devices, such as keyboards, microphones, Webcams, and scan- ners. External interfaces, such as serial, FireWire, and USB ports, can also be used to get input from external devices.

Input is also generated by storage devices, such as hard disks and CDs/DVDs that store pro- grams and data files containing computer instructions and data. For example, a spreadsheet program, such as Microsoft Excel, might contain instructions for the CPU to calculate for- mulas for adding the values of two columns of data and a spreadsheet file called MyBudget.xls containing the numbers and formulas the spreadsheet program should use. Both the program (Microsoft Excel) and the data file (MyBudget.xls) are used as input to the CPU, which then processes the program instructions and data.

An Overview of Computer Concepts 3

A spreadsheet program normally starts when a user double-clicks the spreadsheet program icon or the icon representing the spreadsheet data file. These actions are instigated by user input. Some- times, however, your computer seems to start performing actions without user input. For exam- ple, you might have noticed that your hard drive sometimes shows activity without any obvious action from you to initiate it. However, inputs to a computer can include timers that cause pro- grams to run periodically and data arriving from network cards, for example, that cause a pro- gram or process to run. So although it sometimes seems as though your computer has a mind of its own, computers don’t actually do anything without first getting input to jolt them into action.

Processing Components A computer’s main processing component is the CPU, which executes instructions from computer programs, such as word-processing programs and Web browsers. It also runs the instructions making up the OS, which provides a user interface and the environment in which applications run. Aside from the CPU, computers usually include ancil- lary processors associated with input/output (I/O) devices, such as graphics cards. These proces- sors are often referred to as “onboard processors.” The processor on a graphics card, called a “graphics processing unit (GPU),” takes a high-level graphics instruction, such as “draw a cir- cle,” and performs the calculations needed to draw the circle on a display device. With an onboard GPU, the main CPU doesn’t have to handle many of the complex calculations graphical applications require, thereby improving overall system performance. Other devices, such as net- work interface cards and disk controller cards, might also include onboard processors.

CPUs are usually composed of two or more processors, called cores, in one package. Amulticore CPU is like a person with two brains. With only one brain, you could add four numbers, but you would probably do it in three sequential summing operations: Add the first number to the second number, take the first sum and add it to the third number, and add that sum to the fourth number to arrive at the final sum. If you had two brains, you’d still need three summing operations, but two could be done simultaneously: The first brain adds the first two numbers while the second brain is adding the third and fourth numbers; then the second brain gives its results to the first brain, and the first brain sums the results of the first two summing operations. So multicore CPUs enable computers to carry out multiple instructions simultaneously, which results in better overall performance when running demanding applications.

Output Components Output components include monitors and printers, but they also include storage devices, network cards, and speakers, to name a few. The external interfaces mentioned previously as input components can be used as output components, too. For example, a disk drive connected to a USB port allows reading files from the disk (input) and writing files to the disk (output).

Storage Components Storage components are a major part of a computer’s configuration. Generally speaking, the more storage a computer has, the better the performance is. As you saw in the previous sec- tion, most storage components are both input and output devices, allowing data to be saved (output) and then accessed again later (input). When most people think of storage, they think of disk drives, CD/DVD drives, and USB or flash drives. However, there are two main cate- gories of storage: short-term storage and long-term storage.

RAM: Short-Term Storage Short-term storage is the random access memory (RAM) on a computer. RAM is short-term storage because when power to the computer is turned

4 Chapter 1 Introduction to Computer Networks

off, RAM’s contents are gone, just as though you erased a whiteboard. When power is restored, RAM has no data stored until the CPU begins to write data to it.

The amount of RAM, or memory, in a computer is crucial to the computer’s capability to operate efficiently. RAM is also referred to as “working storage.” Everything the CPU is currently processing must be available in RAM, including program instructions and the data the current application requires. So to run a spreadsheet program, there must be enough RAM to load both the spreadsheet program and the data in the spreadsheet. If there’s not enough available memory, the spreadsheet program won’t run, or the computer uses the disk drive to supplement RAM temporarily.

Neither option is desirable. The reason temporary use of the disk drive isn’t optimal is because RAM is thousands of times faster than the fastest disk drives. The time required to access data in RAM is measured in nanoseconds (billionths of a second), but access to data on a disk drive is measured in milliseconds (thousandths of a second). So if the disk drive must be used to supplement RAM while running an application, that application, and indeed the entire computer, slows down precipitously.

On current computers, the amount of RAM installed is usually 1 GB or more. More is gen- erally better, but the amount of RAM that a system can use effectively depends on the OS installed. The 32-bit version of an OS can usually access a maximum of 4 GB of RAM, whereas the 64-bit version can access many thousands of gigabytes. The amount of RAM you actually need depends on how you use your computer. If you usually have only one or two typical business applications open at once, 1 GB or even less is probably enough. How- ever, if you run complex graphics applications or games or have several applications open simultaneously, you’ll likely benefit from having more RAM.

Long-Term Storage Long-term storage maintains its data even when there’s no power. Examples include hard disks, CDs/DVDs, and USB flash drives as well as other types of removable media. Long-term storage is used to store document and multimedia files as well as the files that make up applications and the OS. The amount of storage a computer needs depends on the type and quantity of files to be stored. In general, office documents, such as word-processing files, spreadsheets, and presentations, require comparatively little space. Multimedia files—pictures, music files, and videos—require much more space. Long-term storage is plentiful and extremely inexpensive. Hard drive specifications are in hundreds of gigabytes, with terabyte (1000 GB) drives quite commonplace. More details about hard disks are discussed later in “Personal Computer Hardware.”

Data Is Stored in Bits Whether storage is long term or short term, data on a computer is stored and processed as binary digits (“bits,” for short). A bit holds a 1 or 0 value, which makes representing bits with electrical pulses easy. For example, a pulse of 5 volts of elec- tricity can represent a 1 bit, and a pulse of 0 volts (or the absence of a pulse) can represent a 0 bit. Bits can also be stored as pulses of light, as with fiber-optic cable: A 1 bit is repre- sented by the presence of light and a 0 bit as the absence of light.

Data in a computer, such as the letters in a word-processing document or the music played from an MP3 music file, is represented by collections of 8 bits, called a byte. You can look at each byte as a printable character in a document. For example, a single byte from an MP3 file plays about 1/17 thousandth of a second of music. To put it another way, one sec- ond of MP3 music takes more than 17,000 bytes.

An Overview of Computer Concepts 5

Personal Computer Hardware Most people are familiar with personal computer (PC) hardware. Other types of computers, such as minicomputers and mainframes, are usually locked away in a heavily air- conditioned room and privy only to the eyes of IT staff. Besides, the basic hardware used to build a PC or a mainframe differs only in the details. This section describes four major PC components housed in a computer case:

• Motherboard

• Hard drive

• RAM

• BIOS/CMOS

The Motherboard and Its Components The motherboard is the nerve center of a computer, much like the spinal cord is the nerve center of the human body. It’s a network of wires and controlling circuits that connects all computer components, including the CPU, RAM, disk drives, and I/O devices, such as network interface cards. Some key components of a motherboard are labeled in Figure 1-1 and explained in Table 1-2.

PCI bus expansion slots

PCI-Express expansion slots

CPU socket

RAM slots

Main power connector

Chipset with heat sinks

SATA connectors

IDE connector

Figure 1-1 A PC motherboard

6 Chapter 1 Introduction to Computer Networks

All data that goes into or comes out of a computer goes through the motherboard because all storage and I/O devices are connected to the motherboard, as is the CPU, which pro- cesses data going in and coming out of a computer.

Computer Bus Fundamentals Table 1-2 mentions PCI bus expansion slots as a component of a motherboard. A bus is a collection of wires carrying data from one place to another on the computer. There are many bus designs and formats, each for a particular purpose. Although bus types come and go, it’s safe to say that replacements for an older bus design will almost certainly be faster than their predecessor.

In a computer, there are buses between the CPU and RAM, between the CPU and disk drives, and between the CPU and expansion slots, among others. For the purposes of this book, you’re most interested in the bus connecting expansion slots to the motherboard because you usually connect a network interface card (NIC) into one of these slots. NIC installation and expansion slot bus types are discussed in Chapter 2. What you need to know now is that not all motherboards come with all types of expansion slots, and the faster and busier your computer is, the faster its bus type needs to be.

Hard Drive Fundamentals The hard drive is the primary long-term storage compo- nent on your computer. Hard drives consist of magnetic disks, called “platters,” that store data in the form of magnetic pulses. These magnetic pulses are maintained even when power is turned off. Each pulse represents a single bit of data.

1 Table 1-2 Key components of a motherboard

Component Description

CPU socket The CPU is installed in this socket.

PCI bus expansion slots Used to add functionality to a PC by adding expansion cards that have a Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) connector.

PCI-Express expansion slots PCI-Express supersedes PCI and supports faster data transfer speeds. The larger slots are suitable for high-performance expansion cards, such as graphics cards and disk controllers. The smaller slots are best suited to sound cards and network interface cards.

RAM slots Slots for installing RAM on the motherboard.

Chipset with heat sinks The chipset consists of two chips referred to as the Northbridge and the Southbridge. These chips control data transfers between memory, expansion slots, I/O devices, and the CPU. The heat sink sits on top of the chipset to prevent it from overheating.

SATA connectors Used for connecting hard drives and CD/DVD drives that use the Serial AT Attachment (SATA) specification.

IDE connector Used for connecting Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) hard drives and CD/DVD-ROM drives. Most systems now use SATA for hard drives and IDE for CD/DVD-ROM drives.

Main power connector This connector is where the motherboard receives power from the system power supply.

An Overview of Computer Concepts 7

The platters spin at extremely fast speeds, with some faster disks having rotational speeds of 15,000 revolutions per minute (rpm). A read/write head is attached to an actuator arm that moves across the spinning platters in response to commands from the computer to read or write a file (see Figure 1-2). Generally, the faster the rotational speed, the better the hard drive performance is. When a file is requested to be written or read, its location is deter- mined, and then the read/write heads are moved over the corresponding spot on the platter. After the platter spins to the file’s starting location, the read/write heads are activated to read or write the data. The average amount of time platters take to spin into position is called the “rotational delay” or “latency.” The amount of time required to move read/write heads to the correct place is the seek time, and the time it takes to read or write data is the transfer time. The average amount of time between the request to read or write data and the time the action is performed is the access time.

The terms used to measure hard drive performance aren’t universal among manufacturers, but the terms used in the preceding para- graph represent most specifications.

Hard disks store the documents you use with your computer as well as the applications that open these documents. In addition, the hard disk stores the OS your computer loads

Magnetic platters

Read/write heads

Actuator arm

Figure 1-2 Inside a hard drive

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8 Chapter 1 Introduction to Computer Networks

when it boots. As mentioned, the hard disk acts as an input device when files are read. When the computer boots, the OS files are read from the disk, and instructions in these files are processed by the CPU. However, the files don’t go directly from the hard disk to the CPU; first, they’re transferred to short-term storage (RAM).

Solid State Drives Solid state drives (SSDs) are used in place of hard drives in many systems because of their speed and reliability. An SSD uses a type of storage called “flash memory” that contains no moving parts and has faster access times than a mechanical hard drive. SSDs are more expensive than hard drives when you compare the price per gigabyte of storage, but their price continues to fall. SSDs are most often used in mobile devices (such as laptops, smartphones, and tablets) but are also found on high-performance desk- tops and servers, often supplementing, rather than replacing, hard drive storage.

RAM Fundamentals RAM, the main short-term storage component on a computer, consists of capacitors to store data and transistors to control access to data. Capacitors require power to maintain the bits they store. Because RAM requires continuous power to store data, it’s referred to as “volatile memory.”

RAM has no moving parts, so as mentioned, accessing data in RAM is much faster than acces- sing data on a hard drive—there’s no seek time or rotational delay. Because RAM is so much faster than a hard drive, any information the CPU processes should be in RAM. If data the CPU requires is located on the hard drive, it’s loaded into RAM first, which takes considerable time. Therefore, the more RAM your system has, the more likely it is that all the data needed by running programs can be stored in RAM, making the system perform much faster.

BIOS/CMOS Fundamentals A key component of every computer is its basic input/ output system (BIOS), which is a set of instructions located in a chip on the motherboard. A main function of the BIOS is to tell the CPU to perform certain tasks when power is first applied to the computer, including initializing motherboard hardware, performing a power- on self-test (POST), and beginning the boot procedure.

Because of the complexity of motherboards, configuring some hardware components and tuning performance parameters are often necessary. When a computer begins to boot, the BIOS program offers the user an opportunity to run the Setup utility to perform this config- uration. The configuration data the user enters is stored in complementary metal oxide semi- conductor (CMOS) memory. It holds information such as devices the CPU should check for an OS to boot, the status of hardware devices, and even a system password, if needed. CMOS is a type of low-power memory that requires only a small battery to maintain its data. It’s also referred to as “nonvolatile memory” because it doesn’t require power from the computer’s main power supply.

Computer Boot Procedure To take a computer from a powered-off state to running an OS, such as Windows or Linux, the following steps must take place:

1. Power is applied to the motherboard.

2. The CPU starts.

An Overview of Computer Concepts 9

3. The CPU carries out the BIOS startup routines, including the POST.

4. Boot devices, as specified in the BIOS configuration, are searched for an OS.

5. The OS is loaded into RAM.

6. OS services are started.

These steps apply to almost every type of computer, including very small computing devices, such as smartphones and tablets. Probably the biggest difference between computers is what occurs in the last step. OS services are programs that are part of the OS rather than applica- tions a user starts. The services an OS starts can vary greatly, depending on which OS is loaded and how it’s configured. The number and type of services started on a system are what, at least in part, account for the time it takes a system to boot completely. Examples of common OS services include the user interface, the file system, and, of course, networking services.

The projects in this book involving a Windows client OS use Windows 10 Enterprise Edition. Other editions of Windows 10 can be used, and Windows 8.1 and Windows 7 can also be used with some changes to the steps.

Hands-On Project 1-1: Examining a Computer’s Boot Procedure Time Required: 10 minutes

Objective: Examine the computer boot procedure and BIOS Setup utility.

Required Tools and Equipment: Net-XX (a Windows computer configured as described in “Before You Begin”)

Description: In this project, you examine the computer boot procedure from beginning to end, using a Windows computer. You also examine the BIOS Setup utility and view the configuration that specifies which devices the BIOS should search for an OS. Because the BIOS varies among computers, your instructor might have to assist with the keystrokes you enter to run the BIOS Setup utility and view the boot order menu. This project uses a virtual machine and the BIOS Setup utility in VMware Workstation. If you aren’t using virtual machines for the projects in this book, the BIOS on most computers is similar.

Your computer must be turned off before you begin this project. Read the first step carefully before turning on the computer, as you need to act quickly to enter the BIOS Setup utility.

1. Turn on your computer. Watch the screen carefully for a message telling you what key to press to activate the BIOS Setup utility. On many systems, this key is F1, F2, or Delete. If you don’t press the key in time, the OS boots normally. If this happens, shut down the computer and try again.

10 Chapter 1 Introduction to Computer Networks

2. When you have entered the BIOS Setup utility, your screen might look similar to Figure 1-3, but many BIOS setup screens look different. Before continuing, write down the steps of the boot procedure, listed earlier under “Computer Boot Procedure,” that have taken place to this point:

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

3. Navigate the BIOS Setup utility until you find the boot order menu (see Figure 1-4). You can change the order in which the BIOS looks for boot devices or exclude a device from the boot order. The BIOS boots from the first device in which it finds an OS. You might need to change the boot order if, for example, you have an OS installed on the hard drive but want to boot from an installation CD/DVD to install a new OS. In this case, you move the CD/DVD device to the first entry in the boot order.

Figure 1-3 The BIOS Setup utility

Source: Phoenix Technologies, Ltd.

An Overview of Computer Concepts 11

4. For now, you can leave the boot order unchanged. To quit the Setup utility, press the correct key (usually specified at the bottom of the screen). For example, press Esc to exit without saving changes or F10 to save the changes before exiting. In either case, when you exit, the computer restarts. Press the key for exiting without saving changes.

5. Write the final steps of the boot procedure that occurred as Windows started:

6. Shut down the computer for the next project.

The Fundamentals of Network Communication A computer network consists of two or more computers connected by some kind of trans- mission medium, such as a cable or air waves. After they’re connected, correctly

Figure 1-4 The BIOS boot order menu

Source: Phoenix Technologies, Ltd.

12 Chapter 1 Introduction to Computer Networks

configured computers can communicate with one another. The primary motivation for networking was the need for people to share resources, such as printers and hard drives, and information, such as word-processing files, and to communicate by using applications such as e-mail. These motivations remain, especially for businesses, but another motivat- ing factor for both businesses and homes is to “get online”—to access the Internet. The Internet, with its wealth of information, disinformation, fun, and games, has had a tre- mendous impact on how and why networks are used. Indeed, many of the networking technologies used now that you learn about in this book were developed as a result of the Internet explosion.

You might know how to use a network already; in particular, you probably know how to use programs that access the Internet, such as Web browsers and e-mail programs. To understand how networks work, however, you need to learn about the underlying technol- ogies and processes used when you open a Web browser or an e-mail program. A good place to start is with the components that make a stand-alone computer a networked computer.

Network Components Imagine a computer with no networking components—no networking hardware or software. It’s hard to imagine in this age of seemingly everything being connected. However, not too long ago, when you bought a computer, its main purpose was to run applications such as word-processing and spreadsheet programs, not Web browsers and e-mail. In fact, a com- puter had neither the hardware nor software needed to run these programs. These computers were called stand-alone computers. If you wanted to network this type of computer, you had to add these required components:

• Network interface card—A NIC is an add-on card that’s plugged into a motherboard expansion slot and provides a connection between the computer and the network. Most computers have a NIC built into the motherboard, so no additional card is necessary. NICs are discussed in more detail in Chapter 2.

• Network medium—A cable that plugs into the NIC and makes the connection between a computer and the rest of the network. In networks with just two computers, the other end of the cable can plug into the second computer’s NIC. More likely, the other end of the cable plugs into an interconnecting device that accommodates several computer connections. Network media can also be the air waves, as in wireless networks. In this case, the connection is between the antenna on the NIC and the antenna on another NIC or interconnecting device. Network media are discussed in more detail in Chapter 4.

• Interconnecting device—Although this component isn’t always necessary because two computers can be connected directly with a cable and small wireless networks can be configured without an interconnecting device, most networks include these components. They allow computers to communicate on a network without having to be connected directly to one another. They include switches, hubs, routers, and wireless access points, discussed in Chapters 2 and 8. A small network connected to a switch is shown in Figure 1-5.

The Fundamentals of Network Communication 13

Hands-On Project 1-2: Upgrading a Stand-alone Computer to a Networked Computer Time Required: 30 minutes

Objective: Upgrade a stand-alone computer to a networked computer.

Required Tools and Equipment: Lab computer (as specified in the book’s lab setup instruc- tions), a NIC, a patch cable, and a hub or switch

Description: In this project, you install a NIC and connect it to an interconnecting device with a cable. This project can be done in groups or as an instructor demonstration. It’s intended only to familiarize you with the hardware components needed to make a stand- alone computer a networked computer.

1. Install the NIC, following the steps your instructor provides. This process might involve opening the computer case or simply plugging a USB NIC into a USB slot.

2. Turn on the computer. If necessary, insert a disk containing the NIC driver and follow the instructions for installing it.

3. Using the supplied cable, plug one end into the NIC and the other end into the intercon- necting device, which should be a hub or a switch.

4. Examine the indicator lights on the NIC and the hub or switch. There might be one or two lights on each port of the device, depending on its features. There’s at least one indicator on the NIC and on each port of the hub or switch that’s usually referred to as a “link light.” The link light glows when a data connection has been made between the NIC and the hub or switch. Your instructor can supply more details about the indi- cator lights available on your hub or switch. List the status of indicators on the NIC and the hub or switch port into which the NIC is plugged:

Figure 1-5 A network of computers connected to a switch

14 Chapter 1 Introduction to Computer Networks

5. Shut down the computer and unplug and put away the cables.

The previous list of components satisfies the hardware components needed to make a stand-alone computer a networked computer. The computer must also have the neces- sary software to interact with network hardware and communicate with other compu- ters on the network. Network software transforms a stand-alone OS into a network OS. It’s the software that allows a word-processing program to open a document on a server or knows how to request a Web page or send an e-mail. It’s also the software that communicates between the OS and network hardware. Network software can be divided into the following categories:

• Network clients and servers—Network client software requests information that’s stored on another network computer or device. Network server software allows a computer to share its resources by fielding resource requests generated by network clients. Network client software can be an integral part of well-known applications, such as Web browsers and e-mail programs. A Web browser, for example, sends a request for a Web page to a Web server. Network client software can also run in the background, usually installed as a networking service. In this case, it enables programs without built-in client software to access shared network resources on other computers. For example, Client for Microsoft Networks, which is installed automatically in Windows, allows a word-processing program to open a file that’s shared on another Windows computer or print to a printer attached to another Windows computer. In this setup, the server software called File and Printer Shar- ing for Microsoft Networks receives the request from the client and provides access to the shared file or printer.

• Protocols—When clients and servers need to send information on the network, they must pass it to network protocols, which define the rules and formats a com- puter must use when sending information across the network. A network protocol can be likened to a human language. Just as two people who want to communi- cate must speak the same language, two computers that want to communicate must use the same protocol. An example of a network protocol is TCP/IP. Network protocols do all the behind-the-scenes tasks required to make network- ing work and handle most of the complexity in networking; they’re discussed in depth in Chapter 5.

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