Herzberg's research found that safe working conditions and good pay

1

This text was adapted by The Saylor Foundation under a Creative

Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 License without

attribution as requested by the work’s original creator or licensee.

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/
2

Chapter 5 Theories of Motivation

L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S

After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Understand the role of motivation in determining employee performance.

2. Classify the basic needs of employees.

3. Describe how fairness perceptions are determined and consequences of these

perceptions.

4. Understand the importance of rewards and punishments.

5. Apply motivation theories to analyze performance problems.

Motivation at Trader Joe’s People in Hawaiian T-shirts. Delicious fresh fruits and vegetables. A place

where parking is tight and aisles are tiny. A place where you will be unable to

find half the things on your list but will go home satisfied. We are, of course,

talking about Trader Joe’s, a unique grocery store headquartered in California

and located in 22 states. By selling store-brand and gourmet foods at

affordable prices, this chain created a special niche for itself. Yet the helpful

employees who stock the shelves and answer questions are definitely a key

part of what makes this store unique and helps it achieve twice the sales of

traditional supermarkets.

Shopping here is fun, and chatting with employees is a routine part of this

experience. Employees are upbeat and friendly to each other and to

customers. If you look lost, there is the definite offer of help. But somehow the

friendliness does not seem scripted. Instead, if they see you shopping for big

trays of cheese, they might casually inquire if you are having a party and then

point to other selections. If they see you chasing your toddler, they are quick to

3

tie a balloon to his wrist. When you ask them if they have any cumin, they get

down on their knees to check the back of the aisle, with the attitude of helping

a guest that is visiting their home. How does a company make sure its

employees look like they enjoy being there to help others?

One of the keys to this puzzle is pay. Trader Joe’s sells cheap organic food, but

they are not “cheap” when it comes to paying their employees. Employees,

including part-timers, are among the best paid in the retail industry. Full-time

employees earn an average of $40,150 in their first year and also earn average

annual bonuses of $950 with $6,300 in retirement contributions. Store

managers’ average compensation is $132,000. With these generous benefits

and above-market wages and salaries, the company has no difficulty attracting

qualified candidates.

But money only partially explains what energizes Trader Joe’s employees.

They work with people who are friendly and upbeat. The environment is

collaborative, so that people fill in for each other and managers pick up the

slack when the need arises, including tasks like sweeping the floors. Plus, the

company promotes solely from within, making Trader Joe’s one of few places

in the retail industry where employees can satisfy their career aspirations.

Employees are evaluated every 3 months and receive feedback about their

performance.

Employees are also given autonomy on the job. They can open a product to

have the customers try it and can be honest about their feelings toward

different products. They receive on- and off-the-job training and are

intimately familiar with the products, which enables them to come up with

ideas that are taken seriously by upper management. In short, employees love

what they do, work with nice people who treat each other well, and are

4

respected by the company. When employees are treated well, it is no wonder

they treat their customers well on a daily basis.

Sources: Based on information in Lewis, L. (2005). Trader Joe’s adventure.

Chicago: Dearborn Trade; McGregor, J., Salter, C., Conley, L., Haley, F., Sacks,

D., & Prospero, M. (2004). Customers first. Fast Company, 87, 79–88;

Speizer, I. (2004). Shopper’s special. Workforce Management, 83, 51–54.

What inspires employees to provide excellent service, market a company’s

products effectively, or achieve the goals set for them? Answering this

question is of utmost importance if we are to understand and manage the

work behavior of our peers, subordinates, and even supervisors. Put a

different way, if someone is not performing well, what could be the reason?

Job performance is viewed as a function of three factors and is expressed with

the equation below. [1]

According to this equation, motivation, ability, and

environment are the major influences over employee performance.

Motivation is one of the forces that lead to performance. Motivation is defined

as the desire to achieve a goal or a certain performance level, leading to goal-

directed behavior. When we refer to someone as being motivated, we mean

that the person is trying hard to accomplish a certain task. Motivation is

clearly important if someone is to perform well; however, it is not

sufficient. Ability—or having the skills and knowledge required to perform the

job—is also important and is sometimes the key determinant of effectiveness.

Finally, environmental factors such as having the resources, information, and

support one needs to perform well are critical to determine performance. At

different times, one of these three factors may be the key to high performance.

For example, for an employee sweeping the floor, motivation may be the most

5

important factor that determines performance. In contrast, even the most

motivated individual would not be able to successfully design a house without

the necessary talent involved in building quality homes. Being motivated is not

the same as being a high performer and is not the sole reason why people

perform well, but it is nevertheless a key influence over our performance level.

So what motivates people? Why do some employees try to reach their targets

and pursue excellence while others merely show up at work and count the

hours? As with many questions involving human beings, the answer is

anything but simple. Instead, there are several theories explaining the concept

of motivation. We will discuss motivation theories under two categories: need-

based theories and process theories.

5.1 Need-Based Theories of Motivation

L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S

1. Explain how employees are motivated according to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

2. Explain how the ERG (existence, relatedness, growth) theory addresses the

limitations of Maslow’s hierarchy.

3. Describe the differences among factors contributing to employee motivation and

how these differ from factors contributing to dissatisfaction.

4. Describe need for achievement, power, and affiliation, and identify how these

acquired needs affect work behavior.

The earliest studies of motivation involved an examination of individual

needs. Specifically, early researchers thought that employees try hard and

demonstrate goal-driven behavior in order to satisfy needs. For example, an

6

employee who is always walking around the office talking to people may have

a need for companionship, and his behavior may be a way of satisfying this

need. At the time, researchers developed theories to understand what people

need. Four theories may be placed under this category: Maslow’s hierarchy of

needs, ERG theory, Herzberg’s two-factor theory, and McClelland’s acquired-

needs theory.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow is among the most prominent psychologists of the twentieth

century. His hierarchy of needs is an image familiar to most business students

and managers. The theory is based on a simple premise: Human beings have

needs that are hierarchically ranked. [1]

There are some needs that are basic to

all human beings, and in their absence nothing else matters. As we satisfy

these basic needs, we start looking to satisfy higher order needs. In other

words, once a lower level need is satisfied, it no longer serves as a motivator.

Figure 5.3 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

7

The most basic of Maslow’s needs are physiological needs. Physiological needs

refer to the need for food, water, and other biological needs. These needs are

basic because when they are lacking, the search for them may overpower all

other urges. Imagine being very hungry. At that point, all your behavior may

be directed at finding food. Once you eat, though, the search for food ceases

and the promise of food no longer serves as a motivator. Once physiological

needs are satisfied, people tend to become concerned about safety needs. Are

they free from the threat of danger, pain, or an uncertain future? On the next

level up, social needs refer to the need to bond with other human beings, be

loved, and form lasting attachments with others. In fact, attachments, or lack

of them, are associated with our health and well-being. [2]

The satisfaction of

social needs makes esteem needs more salient. Esteem need refers to the

desire to be respected by one’s peers, feel important, and be appreciated.

Finally, at the highest level of the hierarchy, the need for self-

actualization refers to “becoming all you are capable of becoming.” This need

manifests itself by the desire to acquire new skills, take on new challenges, and

behave in a way that will lead to the attainment of one’s life goals.

Maslow was a clinical psychologist, and his theory was not originally designed

for work settings. In fact, his theory was based on his observations of

individuals in clinical settings; some of the individual components of the

theory found little empirical support. One criticism relates to the order in

which the needs are ranked. It is possible to imagine that individuals who go

hungry and are in fear of their lives might retain strong bonds to others,

suggesting a different order of needs. Moreover, researchers failed to support

the arguments that once a need is satisfied it no longer serves as a motivator

and that only one need is dominant at a given time. [3]

Despite the lack of strong research support, Maslow’s theory found obvious

applications in business settings. Understanding what people need gives us

8

clues to understanding them. The hierarchy is a systematic way of thinking

about the different needs employees may have at any given point and explains

different reactions they may have to similar treatment. An employee who is

trying to satisfy esteem needs may feel gratified when her supervisor praises

an accomplishment. However, another employee who is trying to satisfy social

needs may resent being praised by upper management in front of peers if the

praise sets the individual apart from the rest of the group.

How can an organization satisfy its employees’ various needs? In the long run,

physiological needs may be satisfied by the person’s paycheck, but it is

important to remember that pay may satisfy other needs such as safety and

esteem as well. Providing generous benefits that include health insurance and

company-sponsored retirement plans, as well as offering a measure of job

security, will help satisfy safety needs. Social needs may be satisfied by having

a friendly environment and providing a workplace conducive to collaboration

and communication with others. Company picnics and other social get-

togethers may also be helpful if the majority of employees are motivated

primarily by social needs (but may cause resentment if they are not and if they

have to sacrifice a Sunday afternoon for a company picnic). Providing

promotion opportunities at work, recognizing a person’s accomplishments

verbally or through more formal reward systems, and conferring job titles that

communicate to the employee that one has achieved high status within the

organization are among the ways of satisfying esteem needs. Finally, self-

actualization needs may be satisfied by the provision of development and

growth opportunities on or off the job, as well as by work that is interesting

and challenging. By making the effort to satisfy the different needs of each

employee, organizations may ensure a highly motivated workforce.

9

ERG Theory

Figure 5.4

ERG theory includes existence, relatedness, and growth.

Source: Based on Alderfer, C. P. (1969). An empirical test of a new theory of

human needs. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 4, 142–175.

ERG theory, developed by Clayton Alderfer, is a modification of Maslow’s

hierarchy of needs. [4]

Instead of the five needs that are hierarchically

organized, Alderfer proposed that basic human needs may be grouped under

three categories, namely, existence, relatedness, and growth. Existence

corresponds to Maslow’s physiological and safety needs, relatedness

corresponds to social needs, and growth refers to Maslow’s esteem and self-

actualization.

ERG theory’s main contribution to the literature is its relaxation of Maslow’s

assumptions. For example, ERG theory does not rank needs in any particular

order and explicitly recognizes that more than one need may operate at a given

time. Moreover, the theory has a “frustration-regression” hypothesis

10

suggesting that individuals who are frustrated in their attempts to satisfy one

need may regress to another. For example, someone who is frustrated by the

growth opportunities in his job and progress toward career goals may regress

to relatedness need and start spending more time socializing with coworkers.

The implication of this theory is that we need to recognize the multiple needs

that may be driving individuals at a given point to understand their behavior

and properly motivate them.

Two-Factor Theory

Frederick Herzberg approached the question of motivation in a different way.

By asking individuals what satisfies them on the job and what dissatisfies

them, Herzberg came to the conclusion that aspects of the work environment

that satisfy employees are very different from aspects that dissatisfy

them. [5]

Herzberg labeled factors causing dissatisfaction of workers as

“hygiene” factors because these factors were part of the context in which the

job was performed, as opposed to the job itself. Hygiene factors included

company policies, supervision, working conditions, salary, safety, and security

on the job. To illustrate, imagine that you are working in an unpleasant work

environment. Your office is too hot in the summer and too cold in the winter.

You are being harassed and mistreated. You would certainly be miserable in

such a work environment. However, if these problems were solved (your office

temperature is just right and you are not harassed at all), would you be

motivated? Most likely, you would take the situation for granted. In fact, many

factors in our work environment are things that we miss when they are absent

but take for granted if they are present.

In contrast, motivators are factors that are intrinsic to the job, such as

achievement, recognition, interesting work, increased responsibilities,

11

advancement, and growth opportunities. According to Herzberg’s research,

motivators are the conditions that truly encourage employees to try harder.

Figure 5.5

The two-factor theory of motivation includes hygiene factors and motivators.

Sources: Based on Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. (1959). The

motivation to work. New York: John Wiley and Sons; Herzberg, F. (1965).

The motivation to work among Finnish supervisors. Personnel

Psychology, 18, 393–402.

Herzberg’s research is far from being universally accepted. [6]

One criticism

relates to the primary research methodology employed when arriving at

hygiene versus motivators. When people are asked why they are satisfied, they

may attribute the causes of satisfaction to themselves, whereas when

explaining what dissatisfies them, they may blame the situation. The

classification of the factors as hygiene or motivator is not that simple either.

For example, the theory views pay as a hygiene factor. However, pay may have

symbolic value by showing employees that they are being recognized for their

contributions as well as communicating that they are advancing within the

company. Similarly, the quality of supervision or the types of relationships

employees form with their supervisors may determine whether they are

assigned interesting work, whether they are recognized for their potential, and

whether they take on more responsibilities.

12

Despite its limitations, the theory can be a valuable aid to managers because it

points out that improving the environment in which the job is performed goes

only so far in motivating employees. Undoubtedly, contextual factors matter

because their absence causes dissatisfaction. However, solely focusing on

hygiene factors will not be enough, and managers should also enrich jobs by

giving employees opportunities for challenging work, greater responsibilities,

advancement opportunities, and a job in which their subordinates can feel

successful.

Acquired-Needs Theory

Among the need-based approaches to motivation, David McClelland’s

acquired-needs theory is the one that has received the greatest amount of

support. According to this theory, individuals acquire three types of needs as a

result of their life experiences. These needs are the need for achievement, the

need for affiliation, and the need for power. All individuals possess a

combination of these needs, and the dominant needs are thought to drive

employee behavior.

McClelland used a unique method called the Thematic Apperception Test

(TAT) to assess the dominant need. [7]

This method entails presenting research

subjects an ambiguous picture asking them to write a story based on it. Take a

look at the following picture. Who is this person? What is she doing? Why is

she doing it? The story you tell about the woman in the picture would then be

analyzed by trained experts. The idea is that the stories the photo evokes

would reflect how the mind works and what motivates the person.

If the story you come up with contains themes of success, meeting deadlines,

or coming up with brilliant ideas, you may be high in need for achievement.

Those who have high need for achievement have a strong need to be

13

successful. As children, they may be praised for their hard work, which forms

the foundations of their persistence. [8]

As adults, they are preoccupied with

doing things better than they did in the past. These individuals are constantly

striving to improve their performance. They relentlessly focus on goals,

particularly stretch goals that are challenging in nature. [9]

They are

particularly suited to positions such as sales, where there are explicit goals,

feedback is immediately available, and their effort often leads to success. In

fact, they are more attracted to organizations that are merit-based and reward

performance rather than seniority. They also do particularly well as

entrepreneurs, scientists, and engineers. [10]

Are individuals who are high in need for achievement effective managers?

Because of their success in lower level jobs where their individual

contributions matter the most, those with high need for achievement are often

promoted to higher level positions. [11]

However, a high need for achievement

has significant disadvantages in management positions. Management involves

getting work done by motivating others. When a salesperson is promoted to be

a sales manager, the job description changes from actively selling to

recruiting, motivating, and training salespeople. Those who are high in need

for achievement may view managerial activities such as coaching,

communicating, and meeting with subordinates as a waste of time and may

neglect these aspects of their jobs. Moreover, those high in need for

achievement enjoy doing things themselves and may find it difficult to

delegate any meaningful authority to their subordinates. These individuals

often micromanage, expecting others to approach tasks a particular way, and

may become overbearing bosses by expecting everyone to display high levels

of dedication. [12]

14

If the story you created in relation to the picture you are analyzing contains

elements of making plans to be with friends or family, you may have a high

need for affiliation. Individuals who have a high need for affiliation want to be

liked and accepted by others. When given a choice, they prefer to interact with

others and be with friends. [13]

Their emphasis on harmonious interpersonal

relationships may be an advantage in jobs and occupations requiring frequent

interpersonal interaction, such as a social worker or teacher. In managerial

positions, a high need for affiliation may again serve as a disadvantage

because these individuals tend to be overly concerned about how they are

perceived by others. They may find it difficult to perform some aspects of a

manager’s job such as giving employees critical feedback or disciplining poor

performers. Thus, the work environment may be characterized by mediocrity

and may even lead to high performers leaving the team.

Finally, if your story contains elements of getting work done by influencing

other people or desiring to make an impact on the organization, you may have

a high need for power. Those with a high need for power want to influence

others and control their environment. A need for power may in fact be a

destructive element in relationships with colleagues if it takes the form of

seeking and using power for one’s own good and prestige. However, when it

manifests itself in more altruistic forms such as changing the way things are

done so that the work environment is more positive, or negotiating more

resources for one’s department, it tends to lead to positive outcomes. In fact,

the need for power is viewed as an important trait for effectiveness in

managerial and leadership positions. [14]

McClelland’s theory of acquired needs has important implications for the

motivation of employees. Managers need to understand the dominant needs of

their employees to be able to motivate them. While people who have a high

15

need for achievement may respond to goals, those with a high need for power

may attempt to gain influence over those they work with, and individuals high

in their need for affiliation may be motivated to gain the approval of their

peers and supervisors. Finally, those who have a high drive for success may

experience difficulties in managerial positions, and making them aware of

common pitfalls may increase their effectiveness.

K E Y T A K E A W A Y

Need-based theories describe motivated behavior as individuals’ efforts to meet

their needs. According to this perspective, the manager’s job is to identify what

people need and make the work environment a means of satisfying these needs.

Maslow’s hierarchy describes five categories of basic human needs, including

physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization needs. These needs are

hierarchically ranked, and as a lower level need is satisfied, it no longer serves as a

motivator. ERG theory is a modification of Maslow’s hierarchy, in which the five

needs are collapsed into three categories (existence, relatedness, and growth). The

theory recognizes that when employees are frustrated while attempting to satisfy

higher level needs, they may regress. The two-factor theory differentiates between

factors that make people dissatisfied on the job (hygiene factors) and factors that

truly motivate employees (motivators). Finally, acquired-needs theory argues that

individuals possess stable and dominant motives to achieve, acquire power, or

affiliate with others. The type of need that is dominant will drive behavior. Each of

these theories explains characteristics of a work environment that motivates

employees. These theories paved the way to process-based theories that explain the

mental calculations employees make to decide how to behave.

E X E R C I S E S

1. Many managers assume that if an employee is not performing well, the reason must

be a lack of motivation. Do you think this reasoning is accurate? What is the problem

with the assumption?

16

2. Review Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Do you agree with the particular ranking of

employee needs?

3. How can an organization satisfy employee needs that are included in Maslow’s

hierarchy?

4. Which motivation theory have you found to be most useful in explaining why people

behave in a certain way? Why?

5. Review the hygiene and motivators in the two-factor theory of motivation. Do you

agree with the distinction between hygiene factors and motivators? Are there any

hygiene factors that you would consider to be motivators?

6. A friend of yours demonstrates the traits of achievement motivation: This person is

competitive, requires frequent and immediate feedback, and enjoys accomplishing

things and doing things better than she did before. She has recently been promoted

to a managerial position and seeks your advice. What would you tell her?

5.2 Process-Based Theories

L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S

1. Explain how employees evaluate the fairness of reward distributions.

2. Describe the three types of fairness that affect employee attitudes and behaviors.

3. List the three questions individuals consider when deciding whether to put forth

effort at work.

4. Describe how managers can use learning and reinforcement principles to motivate

employees.

A separate stream of research views motivation as something more than action

aimed at satisfying a need. Instead, process-based theories view motivation as

a rational process. Individuals analyze their environment, develop thoughts

17

and feelings, and react in certain ways. Process theories attempt to explain the

thought processes of individuals who demonstrate motivated behavior. Under

this category, we will review equity theory, expectancy theory, and

reinforcement theory.

Equity Theory

Imagine that you are paid $10 an hour working as an office assistant. You have

held this job for 6 months. You are very good at what you do, you come up

with creative ways to make things easier around you, and you are a good

colleague who is willing to help others. You stay late when necessary and are

flexible if requested to change hours. Now imagine that you found out they are

hiring another employee who is going to work with you, who will hold the

same job title, and who will perform the same type of tasks. This particular

person has more advanced computer skills, but it is unclear whether these will

be used on the job. The starting pay for this person will be $14 an hour. How

would you feel? Would you be as motivated as before, going above and beyond

your duties? How would you describe what you would be feeling?

Figure 5.7

Equity is determined by comparing one’s input-outcome ratio with the input-

outcome ratio of a referent. When the two ratios are equal, equity exists.

18

Source: Based on Adams, J. S. (1965). Inequity in social exchange. In L.

Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology: Vol. 2 (pp. 267–

299). New York: Academic Press.

If your reaction to this scenario is along the lines of “this would be unfair,”

your behavior may be explained using equity theory. [1]

According to this

theory, individuals are motivated by a sense of fairness in their interactions.

Moreover, our sense of fairness is a result of the social comparisons we make.

Specifically, we compare our inputs and outcomes with other people’s inputs

and outcomes. We perceive fairness if we believe that the input-to-outcome

ratio we are bringing into the situation is similar to the input-to-outcome ratio

of a comparison person, or a referent. Perceptions of inequity create tension

within us and drive us to action that will reduce perceived inequity.

What Are Inputs and Outcomes?

Inputs are the contributions people feel they are making to the environment.

In the previous example, the person’s hard work; loyalty to the organization;

amount of time with the organization; and level of education, training, and

skills may have been relevant inputs. Outcomes are the perceived rewards

someone can receive from the situation. For the hourly wage employee in our

example, the $10 an hour pay rate was a core outcome. There may also be

other, more peripheral outcomes, such as acknowledgment or preferential

treatment from a manager. In the prior example, however, the person may

reason as follows: I have been working here for 6 months. I am loyal, and I

perform well (inputs). I am paid $10 an hour for this (outcomes). The new

person does not have any experience here (referent’s inputs) but will be paid

$14 an hour. This situation is unfair.

19

We should emphasize that equity perceptions develop as a result of a

subjective process. Different people may look at the same situation and

perceive different levels of equity. For example, another person may look at

the same scenario and decide that the situation is fair because the newcomer

has computer skills and the company is paying extra for those skills.

Who Is the Referent?

The referent other may be a specific person as well as a category of people.

Referents should be comparable to us—otherwise the comparison is not

meaningful. It would be pointless for a student worker to compare himself to

the CEO of the company, given the differences in the nature of inputs and

outcomes. Instead, individuals may compare themselves to someone

performing similar tasks within the same organization or, in the case of a

CEO, a different organization.

Reactions to Unfairness

The theory outlines several potential reactions to perceived inequity.

Oftentimes, the situation may be dealt with perceptually by altering our

perceptions of our own or the referent’s inputs and outcomes. For example,

we may justify the situation by downplaying our own inputs (I don’t really

work very hard on this job), valuing our outcomes more highly (I am gaining

valuable work experience, so the situation is not that bad), distorting the other

person’s inputs (the new hire really is more competent than I am and deserves

to be paid more), or distorting the other person’s outcomes (she gets $14 an

hour but will have to work with a lousy manager, so the situation is not

unfair). Another option would be to have the referent increase inputs. If the

other person brings more to the situation, getting more out of the situation

would be fair. If that person can be made to work harder or work on more

complicated tasks, equity would be achieved. The person experiencing a

20

perceived inequity may also reduce inputs or attempt to increase outcomes. If

the lower paid person puts forth less effort, the perceived inequity would be

reduced. Research shows that people who perceive inequity reduce their work

performance or reduce the quality of their inputs. [2]

Increasing one’s

outcomes can be achieved through legitimate means such as negotiating a pay

raise. At the same time, research shows that those feeling inequity sometimes

resort to stealing to balance the scales. [3]

Other options include changing the

comparison person (e.g., others doing similar work in different organizations

are paid only minimum wage) and leaving the situation by

quitting. [4]

Sometimes it may be necessary to consider taking legal action as a

potential outcome of perceived inequity. For example, if an employee finds out

the main reason behind a pay gap is gender related, the person may react to

the situation by taking legal action because sex discrimination in pay is illegal

in the United States.

Table 5.1 Potential Responses to Inequity

Reactions to inequity Example

Distort perceptions

Changing one’s thinking to believe that the referent actually is more skilled than previously thought

Increase referent’s inputs Encouraging the referent to work harder

Reduce own input

Deliberately putting forth less effort at work. Reducing the quality of one’s work

Increase own outcomes

Negotiating a raise for oneself or using unethical ways of increasing rewards such as stealing from the company

Change referent Comparing oneself to someone who is worse off

Leave the Quitting one’s job

21

Reactions to inequity Example

situation

Seek legal action Suing the company or filing a complaint if the unfairness in question is under legal protection

Source: Based on research findings reported in Carrell, M. R., & Dittrich, J.

E. (1978). Equity theory: The recent literature, methodological considerations,

and new directions. Academy of Management Review, 3, 202–210; Goodman,

P. S., & Friedman, A. (1971). An examination of Adams’s theory of

inequity. Administrative Science Quarterly, 16, 271–288; Greenberg, J. (1993).

Stealing in the name of justice: Informational and interpersonal moderators of

theft reactions to underpayment inequity. Organizational Behavior and

Human Decision Processes, 54, 81–103; Schmidt, D. R., & Marwell, G. (1972).

Withdrawal and reward reallocation as responses to inequity. Journal of

Experimental Social Psychology, 8, 207–211.