History of muhajir in pakistan in urdu

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Contents Contents .............................................................................................................................. 2 Profile ................................................................................................................................. 5

Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 5

Geographic Divisions and Topographic Features .................................................................. 6 Northern High Mountains ..................................................................................................................... 6 Western Low Mountains ....................................................................................................................... 7 Western Plateau .................................................................................................................................... 8 Indus River Plain .................................................................................................................................. 8

Climate ....................................................................................................................................... 9

Rivers ......................................................................................................................................... 9 Indus River .......................................................................................................................................... 10 Jhelum River ....................................................................................................................................... 10 Chenab River ...................................................................................................................................... 11 Ravi River ........................................................................................................................................... 11 Sutlej River ......................................................................................................................................... 11

Major Cities ............................................................................................................................. 12 Karachi ................................................................................................................................................ 12 Lahore ................................................................................................................................................. 13 Islamabad ............................................................................................................................................ 14 Rawalpindi .......................................................................................................................................... 14 Peshawar ............................................................................................................................................. 15 Quetta .................................................................................................................................................. 15 Hyderabad ........................................................................................................................................... 16 Sukkur ................................................................................................................................................. 16

History ...................................................................................................................................... 17 Historical Overview ............................................................................................................................ 17

Nationalism and the Birth of Pakistan .................................................................................. 18

Formation of Bangladesh ....................................................................................................... 19

Post-1971 Pakistan and Ethnic Strife .................................................................................... 20

Recent History ......................................................................................................................... 21

Economy ................................................................................................................................... 22

Ethnic Groups and Languages ............................................................................................... 22 Muhajirs .............................................................................................................................................. 22 Punjabis ............................................................................................................................................... 23 Sindhis ................................................................................................................................................ 24 Pashtuns .............................................................................................................................................. 25 Balochs ............................................................................................................................................... 26

Religion............................................................................................................................. 27 Overview .................................................................................................................................. 27

Islam ......................................................................................................................................... 27

Hinduism and Its Background in Pakistan ........................................................................... 29

The Role of Religion in the Government ............................................................................... 31

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Influence of Religion on Daily Life ........................................................................................ 32

Religious Holidays and Events ............................................................................................... 33

Religious Events ...................................................................................................................... 34 Ramadan ............................................................................................................................................. 34 Eid-ul-Fitr ........................................................................................................................................... 35 Eid-ul-Azha ......................................................................................................................................... 35 9th and 10th of Muharrem .................................................................................................................. 35

Sufi Celebrations ..................................................................................................................... 36

Buildings of Worship .............................................................................................................. 36

Behavior in Places of Worship ............................................................................................... 38

Traditions ......................................................................................................................... 40 Traditional Economy and Jobs .............................................................................................. 40

Agriculture .......................................................................................................................................... 40 Textiles ............................................................................................................................................... 41 Textiles in Sindh ................................................................................................................................. 42 Handicrafts .......................................................................................................................................... 43

Greetings........................................................................................................................... 43 Communication, Hospitality, and Gift-Giving .................................................................... 46

Dress Codes ............................................................................................................................. 48

Cuisine ...................................................................................................................................... 49 Eating Traditions ................................................................................................................................. 49 Types of Food .................................................................................................................................... 50

Non-Religious Celebrations and Holidays, .................................................................... 50 Social Events ............................................................................................................................ 52

Weddings ........................................................................................................................................... 52 Funerals ............................................................................................................................................... 53

Muslim Funerals ............................................................................................................. 54 Hindu Funerals ........................................................................................................................ 54

Do’s and Don’ts ....................................................................................................................... 55

Do .............................................................................................................................................. 55

Do not ....................................................................................................................................... 55

Urban Life ........................................................................................................................ 56 Urban Jobs and Unemployment ............................................................................................ 56

Urban Working Conditions .................................................................................................... 58

Child Labor ............................................................................................................................. 59

Urban Life and Living Conditions ......................................................................................... 60

Education ................................................................................................................................. 62

Health Issues ............................................................................................................................ 63

Transportation and Traffic .................................................................................................... 64

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Restaurants and Marketplace ................................................................................................ 67 Restaurants .......................................................................................................................................... 67 Marketplace ........................................................................................................................................ 69

Dealing with Beggars .............................................................................................................. 71

Rural Life ......................................................................................................................... 73 Land Distribution .................................................................................................................... 73

Rural Economy ........................................................................................................................ 74

Rural Transportation Issues .................................................................................................. 75

Rural Health Issues ................................................................................................................. 76

Education ................................................................................................................................. 78

Tribal Distribution .................................................................................................................. 80

Village Life and Gender Roles ............................................................................................... 81

Who’s in Charge ...................................................................................................................... 82

Border Crossings and Checkpoints ....................................................................................... 83

Landmines................................................................................................................................ 86

Family Life ....................................................................................................................... 88 Family Roles and Responsibilities ......................................................................................... 88

Status of Women, Elderly, and Children .............................................................................. 90 Women and Children .......................................................................................................................... 90 Elderly ................................................................................................................................................. 93

Marriage and Divorce ............................................................................................................. 94

Naming Conventions ............................................................................................................... 96

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Profile

Introduction

The name Pakistan reflects the country’s diverse groups; it is an acronym for “the titular provinces of Punjab, Afghan (for the people of the wild northwest), Kashmir, Sindh, and Balochistan.”1 Urdu is the national language, although only the Muhajirs, approximately 7.5% of Pakistan’s population, speak it as a first language.2 Nonetheless, at the time of independence in 1947, a decision was made to give Urdu preeminent status as the country’s official language, along with English, rather than allow several indigenous languages to have equal status.3 This became a source of contention that resulted in language riots. As a scholar observed, “Conflicts over language identity are not merely about language: they are intertwined with struggles over power and access to it.”4

The native Urdu-speaking (Muhajirs) are Muslims from northern India who sought refuge in Pakistan after British India was divided into separate Hindu and Muslim states. The term “muhajir” was originally translated as refugee. Most Indian refugees throughout Pakistan assimilated, but the group which went to Sindh Province were urbanites who did not assimilate well with the local rural Sindhis. These refugees mainly settled in Karachi, Hyderabad, and Sukkur and kept their separate identity as “Muhajirs”5, 6 or settlers. In Sindh Province, they gained employment in urban jobs that opened up as thousands of Hindus returned to India during the partition that turned violent.7

1 Philadelphia Inquirer. Mabry, Tristan. “In Divided Pakistan, Not All Are Mourning Bhutto.” 28 December 2007. No URL.

2 CIA World Factbook. Pakistan. 18 December 2008. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pk.html

3 Open Democracy, Masood, Ehsan. “Urdu’s Last Stand.” 9 January 2007.

http://www.opendemocracy.net/globalization/urdu_4231.jsp

4 Fighting Words: Language Policy and Ethnic Relations in Asia. Brown, Michael Edward and Sumit Ganguly. “Chapter 2: The

Politics of Language Policy in Pakistan [p. 52].” Ayres, Alyssa. 2003, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

http://books.google.com/books?id=fcoDezu1ABoC&pg=PA51&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q&f=false

5 One World South Asia. Sayeed, Vikhar Ahmed. “The Muhajirs of Pakistan.” 13 August 2008.

http://southasia.oneworld.net/opinioncomment/the-muhajirs-of-pakistan

6 Jaffrelot, Christophe, and Gillian Beaumont. A History of Pakistan and Its Origins. p. 17. 2004.

http://books.google.com/books?id=Q9sI_Y2CKAcC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=Muhajirs+took+Hindus'+homes+in+Pakistan&sourc

e=web&ots=NqcMubuKFo&sig=LOaj4rLiY8rUEkMwHIxdpQ7d7-Q&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=result

7 Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. A Country Study: Pakistan. “Chapter 1: Historical Setting. Independent Pakistan –

Problems at Independence.” 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/pktoc.html

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The prospect Islam could serve as a source of national unity was dashed when East Pakistan seceded and became the independent nation of Bangladesh in 1971 with Bengali as its national language. While some resistance to Urdu remains, the use of English by the socio-political elite has also provoked controversy given its association with colonial leadership. Slain leader Benazir Bhutto’s poor command of spoken Urdu was a longstanding source of national jokes, though it was better than her Sindhi, her family’s mother tongue. Former President Pervez Musharraf also reportedly has a poor command of Urdu, though it is his mother tongue.8 Both he and Ms. Bhutto wrote their autobiographies in English which were then translated into Urdu.9

Geographic Divisions and Topographic Features

A country of contrasting terrain, Pakistan consists of high mountains in the north, lower mountains and hills in the west, and a dry plateau region in the southwest. River delta plains occupy much of the country’s central-eastern and southern area.10

Northern High Mountains

Pakistan’s high mountainous region in the northern part of the country includes three major mountain ranges. The Hindu Kush extends out of Afghanistan into northwestern Pakistan, and merges into the Karakoram Range that lies in Pakistan’s far north. Both ranges are part of the Himalayas, which extend along Pakistan’s northeastern side, reaching into India and China. In Pakistan, 35 of the northern mountain peaks rise to heights of more than 7,320 m (24,015 ft), including the world’s second highest mountain, K2.11 The peak of this mountain, 8,611 m (28,251 ft) is on the Pakistan-China border. Lakes, deep valleys, and glaciers are found throughout the region. The high mountain pass known as Gondogoro La is part of the route that hikers or mountain climbers often use to travel to or from the base of K2.12 Located northwest of K2, Khunjerab Pass is the world’s “highest highway pass,” at close to 5,180 m (17,000 ft) elevation. It lies only 50 km (31

8 Language Log, University of Pennsylvania, Liberman, Mark. “Language in Pakistan.” 28 December 2007.

http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/005262.html

9 Express India. “Benazir’s Poor Urdu Inspires Many A Joke.” 4 December 2007. http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/Benazirs-

poor-Urdu-inspires-many-a-joke/246610/

10 Free World Maps. “Physical Map of Pakistan.” No date. http://www.freeworldmaps.net/asia/pakistan/map.html

11 The Commonwealth @ 60. “Pakistan – Geography.” No date.

http://www.thecommonwealth.org/YearbookInternal/138946/geography/

12 Adventurepeaks.com. “K2 Base Camp Trek, Concordia & Gondogoro La 5585 m.” No date.

http://www.adventurepeaks.com/expeditions/k2trek.htm

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mi) from the Chinese border crossing.13A high mountain passage in the Karakoram Range is the Shandur Pass, famous for being the site of the highest polo ground in the world. Nearly 3,738 m (12,264 ft) high, Shandur Pass is located between the towns of Chitral and Gilgit.14

Western Low Mountains

The mountains of the north gradually merge into lower ranges that extend down the western side of Pakistan, past Khyber Pakhunkhwa, formerly the Northwest Frontier Province, and into Balochistan Province.

Near Peshawar, the Khyber Pass, which is 56 km (35 mi) in length, connects with Kabul, Afghanistan.15 Steep, high cliffs loom along both sides of the route. Historically, this famous pass has served as the entry point for armies invading India from the northwest.16 Farther south, the Sulaiman Range extends along the border with Afghanistan and into southern Pakistan. Near the northern part of the Sulaiman Range, the Bolan Pass links Pakistan to Afghanistan. Similar to the Khyber Pass, the Bolan Pass has been a historic entryway to India for nomadic tribes and invaders.17

The Sulaiman Range merges on its south into the Kirthar Range, which reaches almost to the country’s southern border. These low mountains lie close to the Sindhi border, separating Sindh and Balochistan. They are very dry; their maximum height is 3,700 m (12,000 ft).18 East of the Kirthar Range and the Indus River lies the Thar Desert, known in India as the Great Indian Desert. In eastern Pakistan, the Thar Desert is approximately 800 km (500 mi) long and 490 km (300 mi) wide. It consists mostly of sandy, rocky hills covered sparsely with shrubs.19

13 VirtualTourist.com. “Pakistan, Khunjerab Pass.” No date. http://www.virtourist.com/asia/topoftheworld/999.htm

14 All Things Pakistan. Ali Shah, Manzoor. “Shandur Festival: Polo at the Roof of the World.” 7 July 2008.

http://pakistaniat.com/2008/07/07/polo-shandur-festival/

15 The Commonwealth @ 60. “Pakistan – Geography.” No date.

http://www.thecommonwealth.org/YearbookInternal/138946/geography/

16 Encyclopædia Britannica. “Khyber Pass.” 2009. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/317182/Khyber-Pass

17 Encyclopedia.com. From The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. “Bolan Pass.” 2008. http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-

BolanPas.html

18 MSN Encarta. “Kirthar Range.” c. 1997–2008. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_762508915/K%C4%ABrthar_Range.html

19 MSN Encarta. “Thar Desert.” c. 1997–2008. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761565540/thar_desert.html

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Western Plateau

Also called the Balochistan Plateau, Pakistan’s arid western plateau region takes up much of Balochistan Province. The plateau extends to the east of the Sulaiman and Kirthar ranges to Pakistan’s borders with Afghanistan and Iran. Smaller, lower mountains occupy the western side of the plateau.20

Indus River Plain

The Indus River Plain stretches along both sides of the Indus River, but primarily extends east of the river, through both Punjab and Sindh provinces. In Punjab, it is referred to as the Punjab Plain, and in Sindh, as the Sindh Plain. This entire region receives enough water from the Indus River and its eastern tributaries to supply the water needs of two thirds of the entire country.21, 22 The land throughout the plain is lush and fertile. It may qualify as the world’s largest contiguous irrigated surface area, though flooding can have catastrophic consequences. Indeed, the damage caused by the flooding that occurred in August 2010 is said to have exceeded all four of Pakistan border wars with India, and perhaps the partition as well.23 The Kalabagh Dam project, intended to protect Punjab Province from flooding, has generated controversy that it would flood Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The province of Sindh opposes the dam as well since it would cut into Sindhi’s share of the water supplied by the Indus.24

20 Wildlife of Pakistan. “Section 6: Mountain Ranges, Peaks and Passes.” c. 1997–2004.

http://www.wildlifeofpakistan.com/IntroductiontoPakistan/mountainpeakandpassesofPakistan.htm

21 Wildlife of Pakistan. “Section 4: Rivers.” c. 1997–2004.

http://www.wildlifeofpakistan.com/IntroductiontoPakistan/riversofPakistan.htm

22 The Commonwealth @ 60. “Pakistan - Geography.” No date.

http://www.thecommonwealth.org/YearbookInternal/138946/geography/

23 Middle East Online Report. “Disaster Strikes the Indus River Valley.” 17 August 2010.

http://www.merip.org/mero/mero081710.html

24 Radio Free Europe/radio Free Liberty. Khattak, Daud. “Flooding Sinks Pakistan Into a Mire of Regional Divisions.” 18 August

2010. http://www.rferl.org/content/Flooding_Sinks_Pakistan_In_Mire_Of_Regional_Divisions/2131134.html

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Climate25, 26

Pakistan’s diverse topography explains its wide climatic variation. Due to the country’s sub-tropical location, generally high temperatures prevail except in the high areas. Four defining temperature patterns exist in the country, depending on the region. In the plains of the Indus River, summers are hot with temperatures of 32– 49°C (90–120°F), and winters experience an average temperature of 13°C (55°F).27 In the northern and western mountains, summers are mild and winters are characterized by below freezing temperatures.

The mountainous north receives heavy precipitation in the form of snowfall. In other regions, precipitation is controlled by two sources: summer monsoons between July and September, and the western depression between December and March.28 The monsoon winds bring torrential rains and, in low areas, often severe flooding. The western depression originates in the Mediterranean and brings winter rains from the west. In general, most rainfall is received in Punjab Province, which receives over 500 mm (20 in) yearly. Southwestern Balochistan and the Thar Desert in southeastern Sindh Province receive the least rainfall, averaging less than 125 mm, or 5 in per year. 29

Rivers

Much of Pakistan’s territory is defined by its rivers, primarily the Indus River and its tributaries. Without this water network, most of the country would be desert. Five tributaries, the Chenab, Jhelum, Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas, combine into the Panjnad (also called “five rivers” which then joins with the southward flow of the Indus River.30

25 Wildlife of Pakistan. “Sesction 9: Climate.” c. 1997–2004.

http://www.wildlifeofpakistan.com/IntroductiontoPakistan/climateofPakistan.htm

26 MSN Encarta. “Pakistan – Climate.” c. 1993–2008. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761560851_2/Pakistan.html

27 MSN Encarta. “Pakistan – Climate.” c. 1993–2008. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761560851_2/Pakistan.html

28 Wildlife of Pakistan. “Section 9: Climate.” c. 1997–2004.

http://www.wildlifeofpakistan.com/IntroductiontoPakistan/climateofPakistan.htm

29 MSN Encarta. “Pakistan – Climate.” c. 1993–2008. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761560851_2/Pakistan.html

30 Wildlife of Pakistan. “Section 4: Rivers.” c. 1997–2004.

http://www.wildlifeofpakistan.com/IntroductiontoPakistan/riversofPakistan.htm

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Indus River

The Indus River begins in the Himalayas in Tibet, crosses through the section of Jammu and Kashmir that is controlled by India, and rises out of Pakistan’s mountainous northeast. It cuts south through Pakistan and becomes navigable just below its juncture with Afghanistan’s Kabul River, which joins the Indus from the west. Providing irrigation for the otherwise arid land along its banks, the Indus River creates the fertile plains of Punjab and Sindh before it empties into the Arabian Sea. Altogether, the Indus River covers a distance of 2,900 km (1,800 mi). At its delta, the river spreads into an area of approximately 7,770 sq km (3,000 sq mi).31

Along with Egypt and Mesopotamia, the Indus River Valley was one of the early sites of human civilization. It is also the earliest known to exist in South Asia. Cities with a wide variety of houses and building structures have been uncovered here, dating earlier than 2000 or even 3000 B.C.E.32 Indeed, “[t]he fact a country [India] and a religion [Hindu] are named after this river is some indication of its cultural, spiritual, and not the least material significance to the people and civilizations living on its vast and fertile flood plains.”33

Jhelum River

One of the Indus River’s main tributaries, the Jhelum River is the westernmost of the five rivers that irrigate the Punjab Plain. Its origin is Jammu and Kashmir in India. From here, it flows across the Vale of Kashmir (Kashmir Valley) and territory in the foothills occupied by Pakistan, entering Pakistan from the northeast. The river provides hydroelectric power through its Mangla Dam and Reservoir. After flowing a length of 772 km (480 mi), the Jhelum River joins with the Chenab River in Punjab Province.

31 MSN Encarta. “Indus.” c. 1997–2008c. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761558097/Indus.html

32 MSN Encarta. “Indus Valley Civilization.” c. 1993–2008.

http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761556839/Indus_Valley_Civilization.html

33 Atlantic Council. Mustafa, Daanish. “Pakistan Floods: Living with the Mighty Indus.” 23 August 2010.

http://www.acus.org/new_atlanticist/pakistan-floods-living-mighty-indus

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Chenab River

The Chenab, another of the Punjab Plain’s five rivers, originates in India. It passes through the Himalayas in Kashmir and enters Pakistan from the northeast. Flowing toward the southwest, it merges with the Sutlej River and then the Indus in Punjab Province. Its total length is 1,086 km (675 mi).34

Ravi River

The Ravi River begins in the northern Indian Himalayas. It enters Pakistan’s Punjab Province, flowing in a southwesterly direction and eventually joining the Chenab River. The city of Lahore lies on the banks of the Ravi River. Prior to 1960, India and Pakistan contested use of this river’s waters for the purpose of irrigation. The dispute was settled by a 1960 treaty that determined how the waters of the Indus River network would be shared.35, 36

Sutlej River

At 1,450 km (900 mi) in length, the Sutlej River is the longest and also the southernmost of the Punjab’s five rivers. It emerges from Tibet and flows west through the Indian Himalayas, forming part of the border between Pakistan and India before it enters onto the Punjab Plain. Its waters are channeled into several large canals used for irrigation. A portion of the water is impounded and routed into India’s Bhakra Dam, to be used for energy production and irrigation in northern India.3738

34 Encyclopedia.com. From: The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. “Chenab.” 2008. http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-

Chenab.html

35 MSN Encarta. “Ravi.” c. 1993–2008. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555275/R%C4%81vi.html

36 Encyclopedia.com. From The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. “Ravi.”

2008. http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Ravi.html

37 Encyclopedia.com. From The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. “Sutlej.” 2008. http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-

Sutlej.html

38 MSN Encarta. “Sutlej.” c. 1993–2008. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761565292/Sutlej.html

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Major Cities

The growth of urban areas has proceeded rapidly since 1947, when Pakistan became a nation and thousands of Indian refugees emigrated to its cities. In many cities in Sindh and Punjab provinces, over half of the residents were Muhajirs by the 1950s.39 Most of Pakistan’s Muhajirs who were originally from Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat in India settled in the cities of Sindh Province, especially Karachi.40 As members of the “intellectual, trading elite,” they gravitated to urban areas where they could develop interests and environments similar to those they had left behind. Many other Muhajirs also moved to Hyderabad and Sukkur, both in Sindh Province.41

Because of limited opportunities for people to survive economically in the countryside, migration to the cities continued, quadrupling in the 30 years between 1951 and 1981. By 1994, 13% of Pakistan’s entire population lived in three cities: Karachi, Faisalabad, and Lahore.42 Today, Pakistan’s three largest cities are Karachi, Lahore, and the combined cities of Islamabad and nearby Rawalpindi, which together constitute Pakistan’s national capital area.43

Karachi

With a population of over 11.5 million, Karachi is Pakistan’s largest city.44 It is also the nation’s former capital and the present capital of Sindh Province. Located on the Arabian Sea, Karachi is Pakistan’s main seaport and center of industry, as well as a military

39 Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. “Chapter 2 – Society and Its Environment. Population: Migration and Growth of

Major Cities.” April 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/pktoc.html

40 Indian Muslim News and Information. Puri, Balraj. “Crucial Role of Urdu-Speaking Muslims.” December 2004.

http://www.indianmuslims.info/articles/balraj_puri/crucial_role_of_urdu_speaking_muslims.html

41 Jaffrelot, Christophe and Gillian Beaumont. A History of Pakistan and Its Origins p. 17. 1994.

http://books.google.com/books?id=Q9sI_Y2CKAcC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=where+do+muhajirs+live+in+Pakistan%3F&source

=web&ots=NqcLCgsDAl&sig=Yv9WfJb6gldPqSb6X67llYIxfAs&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=8&ct=result

42 Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. A Country Study: Pakistan. “Chapter 2 – Society and Its Environment. Population:

Migration and Growth of Major Cities.” April 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/pktoc.html

43 Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs, U.S. Department of State. “Background Note: Pakistan.” July 2008.

http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3453.htm

44 Population estimate is according to a 2005 census. Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs, U.S. State Department.

“Background Note: Pakistan.” July 2008. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3453.htm

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headquarters and a financial center. Karachi has also served as a seaport for Afghanistan, which is landlocked.45 Not least, Karachi is a center of culture—it is home to the national museum, Karachi University, and several engineering and medical schools. The tomb of Pakistan’s founder, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, is located here.46, 47

Karachi has changed greatly over the years since the 18th century, when Hindu merchants developed it as a trade port. The British assumed control of the city in 1843, when it became a center of Sindhi government. By the 19th century, Karachi was one of India’s major seaports and an export center for agricultural goods produced inland. It became Pakistan’s capital when the nation was founded in 1947, although over a decade later, the national capital was moved to Islamabad. Beginning in 1947, thousands of Hindus fled Karachi, and their jobs were taken over by urban Muhajirs.48 Ethnic tension continued in the region, and since the 1980s, fighting has periodically erupted among local Sindhis, an influx of Punjabis and other ethnic groups, and Muhajirs. This conflict remains unresolved in Karachi.49, 50

Lahore

Lahore, with over six million inhabitants, is the capital of Punjab Province and Pakistan’s second largest city.51 Located near Pakistan’s border with India, Lahore is a commercial and banking city as well as a center of industry and air and rail transportation. It is also known for its architectural remains, which date back to its days as a capital of India’s Mughal Empire (a powerful Muslim empire that lasted from 1526 to 1857).52 Other places of historical interest in Lahore include a palace, mausoleum, gardens, and several mosques. A number of

45 How Stuff Works. “Geography of Karachi.” c. 1998–2009. http://geography.howstuffworks.com/middle-east/geography-of-

karachi.htm

46 Bartleby.com. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. “Karachi.” 2001–2007. http://www.bartleby.com/65/ka/Karachi.html

47 Pakrishta.com. “Karachi Pakistan.” c. 2003–2010.

http://www.pakrishta.com/WebPages/SearchEngine/Page20/Key11KarachiPakistan.htm

48 Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. A Country Study: Pakistan. “Chapter 1: Historical Setting. Independent Pakistan –

Problems at Independence.” 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/pktoc.html

49 One World South Asia. Sayeed, Vikhar Ahmed. “The Muhajirs of Pakistan.” 13 August 2008.

http://southasia.oneworld.net/opinioncomment/the-muhajirs-of-pakistan

50 Asia Times Online. South Asia. Book Review. Sen, Chanakya. “Pakistan’s Beirut, Karachi, a Terror Capital in the Making by

Wilson John.” 17 January, 2004. http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/FA17Df07.html

51 Population estimate is according to a 2005 census. Source: Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs. U.S. State Department.

“Background Note: Pakistan.” July 2008. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3453.htm

52 Bartleby.com. The Columbia Eneyclopedia, Sixth Edition. “Mughal.” 2001–07. http://www.bartleby.com/65/mu/Mughal.html

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colleges, including the oldest in Pakistan, and an institute for atomic research are located here. Finally, Lahore’s museum, which houses antiquities from India, is “among the most noted in the East.”53

Islamabad

For almost 50 years, Islamabad, has been Pakistan’s capital, replacing Karachi. It is also the country’s most modern city, under construction as recently as 1960. The city is organized into eight administrative districts including an industrial area, a higher education distict, a diplomatic quarter, and a commercial district. Each has its own park and shopping area. A few miles from Islamabad are the ruins of the ancient city of Taxila (500 B.C.E.), with its Buddhist and Sikh shrines. Much of the architecture here reveals Greek influence, dated to Alexander the Great’s passage through the region.54

Rawalpindi

Rawalpindi, being adjacent to Islamabad, is often referred to as Islamabad’s “twin city.” It served as Pakistan’s interim capital (after Karachi) while Islamabad, the current capital, was under construction.55 The U.S. State Department refers to both cities together (Rawalpindi and Islamabad) as comprising a “national capital area.” 56

Rawalpindi’s history is much longer than that of Islamabad. It was originally built on the site of a Yogi tribe, the Rawals, after Huns invaded the region. In 1765, Sikhs began moving into the area, followed by the British, who turned the town into a military outpost in 1849. Since that time, it has turned into a modern, cosmopolitan city. Its strategic location between Pakistan’s Punjab and India’s Kashmir region has underwritten its military importance, and it is here that the Pakistani Army keeps its headquarters. The city is also home to several colleges, including a medical school of the armed forces.57, 58

53 Bartleby.com. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. “Lahore.” 2001–07. http://www.bartleby.com/65/la/Lahore.html

54 UK Asian – The Website for UK’s Asian Community. “Islamabad.” 2008. http://www.ukasian.co.uk/Pakistan/Islamabad.html

55 UK Asian – The Website for UK’s Asian Community. “Rawalpindi.” c. 2008. http://www.ukasian.co.uk/Pakistan/Rawalpindi.html

56 Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs. U.S. Department of State. “Background Note: Pakistan.” July 2008.

http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3453.htm

57 Bartleby.com. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. “Rawalpindi.” 2001–07. http://www.bartleby.com/65/ra/Rawalpin.html

58 UK Asian – The Website for UK’s Asian Community. “Rawalpindi.” c. 2008. http://www.ukasian.co.uk/Pakistan/Rawalpindi.html

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Peshawar 59

Located in northwestern Pakistan, Peshawar is capital of the volatile region known as Khyber Pakhunkhwa. It lies close to the heavily-traveled Khyber Pass, a famous historical route that links Peshawar to Kabul, Afghanistan. Peshawar is a major trade center for Afghanistan and also a center for military operations. Its primary economic activities are agriculture, manufacturing (firearms, steel, furniture, paper, and textiles), and food processing.

Peshawar came into existence as the capital of the Persian region called Gandara, later a Greco-Buddhist artistic center within Indian borders. In the 5th century, Huns conquered the region.60 Formerly known as Purushapura, the city was renamed Peshawar by the Mughal emperor Akbar in the 16th century. It came under the control of Afghans, Sikhs, and in 1848 by the British, who made it a military outpost when they were fighting Pathan (Pushtun) tribes in the region. When the Soviets occupied Afghanistan (1979–89), Peshawar became a refugee aid center for Afghans and a military center for guerrillas fighting the Soviets in Afghanistan. The Pakistani military still uses Peshawar’s 15th- century Bala Hisar Fort as a headquarters for military operations.

Quetta

Situated at the entrance to the Bolan Pass and the roadway that links to Kandahar, Afghanistan, Quetta is capital of Balochistan Province. It is a trading center for Iran, Afghanistan, and cities in Central Asia, producing manufactured goods such as carpets and textiles. Quetta is also the site of ongoing military operations. Due to its proximity to Afghanistan, thousands of refugees fled across the border after the Soviets invaded Afghanistan and resettled there. After the Taliban government was routed from Afghanistan in 2001, some top ranked leaders also fled to Quetta.61 Many Pashtuns (who primarily live in northwestern Pakistan) and Hazara people (from Afghanistan) live among the Balochs in this region.62, 63

59 Bartleby.com. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. “Peshawar.” 2001–07. http://www.bartleby.com/65/pe/Peshawar.html

60 Bartleby.com. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. “Gandara.” 2001–07. http://www.bartleby.com/65/ga/Gandhara.html

61 BBC News. Khan, Ilyas. “On the Trail of the Taliban in Quetta.” 25 January 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8472740.stm

62 UK Asian. The Website for UK’s Asian Community. “Quetta.” 2008. http://www.ukasian.co.uk/Pakistan/Quetta.html

63 Bartleby.com. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. “Quetta.” 2001–07. http://www.bartleby.com/65/qu/Quetta.html

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Hyderabad

Hyderabad, located northeast of Karachi in Sindh Province, is one of the main cities where Muhajirs settled in Pakistan after partition.64 It lies on the Indus River’s east bank and is an industrial center, producing textiles, pottery and handicrafts, soap and glass, film, and cement. Hyderabad is also an agricultural center. Cotton, millet, wheat, rice, and fruit are grown in the surrounding locale and sent to the city for processing.65

Hyderabad was the capital of Sindh until the British captured the province in 1843 and began using it for troop headquarters and storage of ammunition. After 1947, Sindhi Hindus abandoned the area for India and incoming Muhajirs settled in the vacated properties.

Sukkur

Sukkur is one of the cities where Muhajirs settled after the 1947 partitioning of India. By 1951, they constituted 55% of Sukkur’s population, according to a census taken at that time.66 The city is located in Sindh on the banks of the Indus River near the Sukkur Barrage, a dam nearly one mile long that allows for the irrigation of a vast area. The city conducts a significant amount of trade with Afghanistan and is a center of industry and commerce.67, 68

64 Leonard, Karen Isaksen. Locating Home p. 36. 2007.

http://books.google.com/books?id=HQCvgavbQjgC&pg=PA35&lpg=PA35&dq=Muhajirs+took+Hindus'+homes+in+Pakistan&sourc

e=web&ots=UxzVH1pLP-

&sig=9NZXoerIwcHOT81z_xPWvBmol8E&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=10&ct=result#PPA36,M1

65 The Free Dictionary by Farlex. “Hyderabad.” 2004. http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Hyderabad+(Pakistan)

66 Jaffrelot, Christophe, and Gillian Beaumont. A History of Pakistan and Its Origins p. 17. 1994.

http://books.google.com/books?id=Q9sI_Y2CKAcC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=where+do+muhajirs+live+in+Pakistan%3F&source

=web&ots=NqcLCgsDAl&sig=Yv9WfJb6gldPqSb6X67llYIxfAs&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=8&ct=result

67 Bartleby.com. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. “Sukkur.” 2001–07. http://www.bartleby.com/65/su/Sukkur.html

68 Encyclopædia Britannica. “Sukkur.” 2009. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/572285/Sukkur#ref=ref32295

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History

Historical Overview69

Before its independence in 1947, Pakistan was part of India. The region that is present-day Pakistan is heir to the Indus Valley civilization, one of the world’s oldest. The area has been influenced not only by Indo-Aryan peoples who merged with remnants of this early civilization, but also by Greek, Persian, Afghan, Turkish, and Arab invaders who mingled for centuries. Islam arrived in the 8th century, when Muslim traders journeyed to Sindh. The entire area became part of India’s Mughal Empire in 1526, but by 1857, the British had become the main regional power.70

When Pakistan was partitioned from British-controlled India and became an independent nation in 1947, its population changed from an integrated Hindu-Muslim-Sikh region to one that was primarily Muslim. The Pakistani people today live in ethnically-based provinces that include Punjabi, Sindh, Northwest Frontier Province, and Baluchistan. Conflict with India since 1947 has been ongoing, and the two nations have engaged in successive wars with each other, the third (1971) resulting in the division of Pakistan itself. The western section of the country kept its name, Pakistan, and the eastern section became Bangladesh, populated mainly by the Bengali people (also Muslims) who had originated in eastern India.

69 CIA World Factbook. Pakistan. 18 December 2008. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pk.html

70 Fact Monster. “Pakistan – History.” c. 2008. http://www.factmonster.com/ipka/A0107861.html

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Nationalism and the Birth of Pakistan

Indian nationalism grew out of British control of India in the 19th century, and it was accompanied by increasing antagonism between Muslims and Hindus. Although cultural exchange took place between Muslims and Hindus in India, the two groups were not homogeneous. They were further separated socially and economically when “a rising Hindu middle class began to assume dominant positions in industry, education, the professions, and the civil service.”71 Divisions between Muslims and Hindus deepened, and in 1885, Western-educated Indians founded the All-India National Congress, primarily Hindu, to promote Indian self-rule.72, 73 Seeking to protect their particular political and economic interests, Muslims founded their own political organization in 1906, the All-India Muslim League led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Although these groups cooperated to some extent while attempting to foster Indian independence, ultimately their differences prevailed. The poet Muhammad Iqbal introduced the idea of a Muslim state separate from Hindu India in 1930, but it wasn’t until some Pakistani students in England began a campaign to support it, that the idea was seriously pursued.74 Responding to a defeat in India’s first elections under the 1935 constitution, the Muslim League in 1940 called for a separate Muslim state in the Muslim-majority regions of India.75

In 1947, the partition of British India created the new nation of Pakistan, primarily populated by Muslims. As soon as the boundary commission released information on the new boundary locations, at least 10 million Muslims, Hindus, and Sikhs “fled from their homes on one side of the newly demarcated borders to what they thought would be ‘shelter’ on the other.”76 Hindus fled to India, Muslims to Pakistan, and Sikhs to the

71 Fact Monster. “Pakistan – History – British Control and the Muslim League.” c. 2008.

http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/world/A0860200.html

72 Global Perspectives. South Asia. “Political Definitions – Indian National Congress Party.” c. 1999–2002.

http://www.cotf.edu/earthinfo/sasia/SAdef.html

73 Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs, U.S. Department of State. “Background Note: Pakistan.” July 2008.

http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3453.htm

74 Woking Muslim Mission. Khwaja Salahuddin Ahmad. “The Woking Muslim Mission’s Role in the Creation of Pakistan.” 1997.

http://www.wokingmuslim.org/work/pakistan.htm

75 Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs. U.S. Department of State. “Background Note: Bangladesh.” May 2007.

http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3452.htm

76 PTIC. “History of Pakistan.” October 2005. http://www.unigroup.com/PTIC/body_history.html

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Indian border state of Punjab.77 In the process, approximately 1 million people were killed in communal massacres.78, 79

Following the establishment of nationhood, Pakistan was marked by political and economic instability. In 1945–48 and in 1965, India and Pakistan were at war over territory in Kashmir that was disputed between the two nations. The constitution was suspended and martial law imposed in 1958, followed by military dictatorship and army rule for several years. Relations between eastern and western Pakistan (separated geographically) never resolved, and the instability polarized and deteriorated after the 1970 general elections, leading to the breakup of Pakistan as a nation.80

Formation of Bangladesh

The formation of Bangladesh had its roots in Indian partition. In 1947, the Indian state of Bengal had divided into east and west, and both East Bengal and Muslim- majority areas of northwestern India formed the new nation of Pakistan. Later, in 1955, East Bengal was renamed East Pakistan. However, 1,600 km (994 mi) separated the two parts of Pakistan, a distance which marginalized Bengalis in East Pakistan. This geographic division disrupted commerce and industry, created transportation problems, and separated factories from raw materials. Language and cultural differences also created social instability. When the Pakistani government subsequently mandated that Urdu was the national language, Bengalis rebelled, their cultural identity threatened. Their attempts to push for Bengali, also known as Bangla, as their official language morphed into a drive for political autonomy. Bengali political leaders formed the Awami League in 1949, spearheading a fight for the independence of East Pakistan. A long period of conflict followed and culminated in civil war. In 1971, India intervened on the side of Bengali nationalists, who had proclaimed the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, independent from Pakistan. The new country’s 1972 constitution established Bangladesh as a parliamentary democracy.81, 82, 83

77 Infochange Agenda. Sayeed, Vikhar Ahmed. “The Muhajirs in the Promised Land.” July 2008.

http://infochangeindia.org/Agenda/Migration-Displacement/The-Muhajirs-in-the-promised-land.html

78 PTIC. “History of Pakistan.” October 2005. http://www.unigroup.com/PTIC/body_history.html

79 Infochange Agenda. Sayeed, Vikhar Ahmed. “The Muhajirs in the Promised Land.” July 2008.

http://infochangeindia.org/Agenda/Migration-Displacement/The-Muhajirs-in-the-promised-land.html

80 Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs. U.S. Department of State. “Background Note: Pakistan.” July 2008.

http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3453.htm

81 PTIC. “History of Pakistan.” October 2005. http://www.unigroup.com/PTIC/body_history.html

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Post-1971 Pakistan and Ethnic Strife

After 1971, Pakistan was characterized by a pattern of political instability, much of it due to a changing balance of power among ethnic groups. The Muhajirs, who had occupied leading positions in commerce, the military, and the civil service, began to experience the effects of policies that removed them from prominence politically and economically. Zukfuqar Ali Bhutto, the Sindhi prime minister of Pakistan in the 1970s, revised the quota system for recruiting federal employees, resulting in the decline of job opportunities for Muhajirs. Bhutto further favored the Sindhis, his base of political support, by changing Sindh’s official language from Urdu to Sindhi in 1972. In response to this act, Muhajirs rioted, and Bhutto gave some ground by making both Urdu and Sindhi official languages of the province. Muhajirs in Karachi were further marginalized by the increasing immigration of Punjabis and Pushtuns into the city, threatening the economic dominance of the Muhajirs. Tensions increased, leading to open conflict. In the 1980s, violence flared up between Muhajirs and Sindhis in urban Sindh, resulting in approximately 3,000 deaths that occurred from “street battles” in the cities of Karachi and Hyderabad. These combined events led to the forming in 1984 of the Muhajir Qaumi Mahaz (MQM), or Refugee People’s Movement, to organize and represent the interests of Muhajirs in Sindh. Members changed the name to Muttahida Qaumi Mahaz in 1997 and began to focus on national issues.84

82 Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs. U.S. Department of State. “Background Note: Bangladesh.” May 2007.

http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3452.htm

83 CIA World Factbook. “Bangladesh.” 24 January 2008. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bg.html

84 Infochange Agenda. Sayeed, Vikhar Ahmed. “The Muhajirs in the Promised Land.” July 2008.

http://infochangeindia.org/Agenda/Migration-Displacement/The-Muhajirs-in-the-promised-land.html

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Recent History

The instability in Pakistan’s government continued through the 1980s and into 1990. In 1988, after President Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq died in an airplane crash, Ghulam Ishaq Khan became Acting President of the nation. Elections were held, and the Pakistan People’s Party (PPP), led by Benazir Bhutto (the first woman to lead an Islamic nation), formed a coalition government.85 It was dismissed by President Khan in 1990, followed by formation of a new government that was also later disbanded. The same disruptive pattern continued throughout the decade.86

In 1999, General Pervez Musharraf came into power in a military coup. Musharraf suspended the Parliament and the constitution and became chief of state in 2001. In 2002, parliamentary elections were held and civilian rule commenced with the appointment of a prime minister who was a civilian. Musharraf, still chief of state, received harsh public criticism for his policies and was at least indirectly blamed when Benazir Bhutto was assassinated in 2007. In November 2007, Musharaff, under increasing pressure, gave up his army post, and he resigned public office in 2008. Through elections that were held, Syed Yousuf Raza Gilani became prime minister in March 2008 and Bhutto’s widower, Asif Ali Zardari, became president and chief of state.87, 88

Unresolved issues in Pakistan continue to have a destabilizing effect upon the nation, the region, and the world. Within Pakistan, ethnic tension has continued between Muhajirs, Punjabis, and Sindhis, destabilizing Sindh Province. Another major issue concerns Islamist militants who operate lawlessly in the northern border region near Afghanistan. Looking outward from Pakistan, demarcation lines in northern border areas of Pakistan are still disputed between India and Pakistan. In addition, the militant attacks that took place in November 2008 against targets in Mumbai, India, have “again inflamed Indo- Pakistan relations.”89 Finally, all of this is set against the backdrop of Pakistan’s nuclear capability, revealed in 1998 when Pakistan answered India’s nuclear weapons tests with a test of its own.

85 Encyclopedia.com. From Encyclopædia Britannica. “Pakistan.” c. 2009. http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1B1-374390.html

86 Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs. U.S. Department of State. “Background Note: Pakistan.” July 2008.

http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3453.htm

87 CIA World Factbook. “Pakistan.” 22 January 2009. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pk.html

88 Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs. U.S. Department of State. “Background Note: Pakistan.” July 2008.

http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3453.htm

89 CIA World Factbook. “Pakistan.” 22 January 2009. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pk.html

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Economy

Pakistan is a country characterized by unequal distribution of income, coupled with low spending in the social services. Within this context, the country is also severely overpopulated, a factor that contributes to the nation’s poverty. Largely agrarian at the time of its independence, Pakistan is nonetheless reliant on food imports to feed its population. Paying for imports, which also includes oil, requires it to export. The fourth largest cotton producer in the world,90 Pakistan has developed a textile industry which exports clothing, linens and leather products to developed country markets.

Reliance on clothing and textile export leave Pakistan’s economy vulnerable to global economic downturns. To reduce this vulnerability, the government has attempted to make inroads in diversifying and expanding the nation’s industrial base, and in 2005–06, growth of 8.6% took place in the manufacturing sector.91 Other industries besides textiles include production of construction materials, manufacture of paper products, and processing of food. Despite privatization attempts, the public sector contributes significantly to industrial production.92

According to a 2008 estimate, Pakistan’s service sector occupies a prominent position in the economy, accounting for 53% of the nation’s GDP. In addition, the service sector employs an estimated 36% or more of the workforce.93 Service businesses include information technology, banking, health care, legal, accounting, insurance, and financial management.94

Ethnic Groups and Languages

Muhajirs

The Urdu-speaking Muhajirs are urban Muslim refugees—mostly educated tradespeople and bureaucrats—from northern India who migrated to Pakistan, seeking a Muslim

90 Just-Style. Abdullah, Ahmed. “Pakistan Snapshot: Apparel Trade Overview.” 20 August 2010. http://www.just-

style.com/analysis/apparel-trade-overview_id108702.aspx

91 Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs. U.S. Department of State. “Background Note: Pakistan.” July 2008.

http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3453.htm

92 Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs. U.S. Department of State. “Background Note: Pakistan.” July 2008.

http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3453.htm

93 CIA World Factbook. “Pakistan.” 22 January 2009. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-

factbook/geos/pk.html#Econ

94 Daily Times. Ahmed, Tanveer. “Govt sic Shifting Focus on Services Sector to Boost Imports.” 24 January 2009.

http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2009%5C01%5C24%5Cstory_24-1-2009_pg5_5

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homeland.95 Many Urdus who had lived in India’s Uttar Pradesh region (formerly center of the Mughal Empire) moved to the cities of Sindh, a province in southeastern Pakistan. Here, especially in Karachi and Hyderabad, they claimed homes and jobs that had been vacated when Hindus left Pakistan for India, fleeing the violence that accompanied partition.96,97

Muhajirs became politically and economically dominant in Sindh, and Urdu became the official language of the province, displacing the Sindhi language. This policy was later reversed and Sindhi became the official language, followed by a dual Urdu–Sindhi language policy. A perceived overrepresentation of Muhajirs in public service and other high-level jobs in Sindh has continued to cause tension and division between Sindhis and Muhajirs.98, 99, 100

Punjabis101

The origin of the Punjabi people is diverse. Many have descended from pre-Islamic castes and various Indian clans or tribes, and others are from Persia, Afghanistan, Arabia, and Kashmir. Historically, Punjabis have been known for the emphasis they place “on farming and on fighting,” the latter a necessity that resulted from repeated invasion of Punjabi territory.102 Today, Punjabis often farm on the fertile plain of the province or they hold jobs

95 One World South Asia. Sayeed, Vikhar Ahmed. “The Muhajirs of Pakistan.” 13 August 2008.

http://southasia.oneworld.net/opinioncomment/the-muhajirs-of-pakistan

96 Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. A Country Study: Pakistan. “Chapter 1: Historical Setting. Independent Pakistan –

Problems at Independence.” 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/pktoc.html

97 Leonard, Karen Isaksen. Locating Home p. 36. 2007.

http://books.google.com/books?id=HQCvgavbQjgC&pg=PA35&lpg=PA35&dq=Muhajirs+took+Hindus'+homes+in+Pakistan&sourc

e=web&ots=UxzVH1pLP-

&sig=9NZXoerIwcHOT81z_xPWvBmol8E&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=10&ct=result#PPA36,M1

98 Library of Congress. Pakistan. Social Structure. “Punjabis.” 1994. http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-9799.html

99 Library of Congress. Pakistan. Social Structure. “Sindhis.” 1994. http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-9801.html

100 Infochange Agenda. Sayeed, Vikhar Ahmed. “The Muhajirs in the Promised Land.” July 2008.

http://infochangeindia.org/Agenda/Migration-Displacement/The-Muhajirs-in-the-promised-land.html

101 Library of Congress. Pakistan. Social Structure. “Punjabis.” 1994. http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-9799.html

102 Library of Congress. Pakistan. Social Structure. “Punjabis.” 1994. http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-9799.html

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of upper rank in the government and the military. They are one of Pakistan’s dominant ethnic groups, and their language is spoken by 48% of the nation’s people. 103, 104

Punjabis identified ethnically in social groups based on kinship, where they pooled and shared resources with other members of the clan or tribe. Traditionally, members of a tribe earned their living by pursuing the same occupation, specializing in one area. Many Sikhs lived in the same areas, influencing the culture of the region as they developed their religion that synthesizes elements of both Islam and Hinduism. They formed kingdoms here by the 18th century that they merged into one state, the Sikh Kingdom of the Punjab.105 When India was partitioned in 1947, the Punjab region was divided between Pakistan and India, disrupting land ownership, water rights, and clan membership for thousands of Punjabis, including Sikhs.

Sindhis

Historically, large landholders occupied the Sindh region, and the majority of people were tenant farmers who worked for the landlords. This pattern of disparity between extreme wealth and poverty persisted through much of the 20th century. After partition, the rural Sindhi population was polarized as Muhajirs poured into the Sindh cities of Karachi and Hyderabad, and began to exert economic and political dominance.106, 107

An issue that continues to fuel division between Sindhis and Muhajirs is the fact that the latter monopolize higher-level jobs, such as those in commerce and the bureaucracy. Muhajirs live and work primarily in urban areas of the province, whereas the indigenous Sindhis are rural and have less benefit of education and training in business or professional fields. After Pakistan’s capital city was moved to Islamabad (Punjab) from Karachi (Sindh), tensions increased as a result of shifting power differentials between affected ethnic groups.108

103 Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs. U.S. Department of State. “Pakistan.” July 2008.