How to cite if author is unknown

What does documenting sources have to do with argument? First, the sources that a writer chooses form part of any argument, showing that he/she has done some research, knows what others have said about the topic, and understands how to use these items as support for a claim. Similarly, the list of works cited or references makes a statement, saying, “Look at how thoroughly this essay has been researched” or “Note how up-to-date I am!”

Writers working in digital spaces sometimes simply add hotlinks so that their readers can find their sources. If you are writing a multimodal essay that will appear on the Web, such links will be appreciated. But for now, college assignments generally call for full documentation rather than simply a link. You’ll find the information you need to create in-text citations and works cited/references lists in this chapter.

Documentation styles vary from discipline to discipline, with one for- mat favored in the social sciences and another in the natural sciences,

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for example. Your instructor will probably assign a documentation style for you to follow. If not, you can use one of the two covered in this chap- ter. But note that even the choice of documentation style makes an argu- ment in a subtle way. You’ll note in the instructions that follow, for example, that the Modern Language Association (MLA) style requires putting the date of publication of a print source at or near the end of a works cited list entry, whereas the American Psychological Association (APA) style places that date near the beginning of a references list cita- tion. Such positioning suggests that in MLA style, the author and title are of greater importance than the date for humanities scholars, while APA puts a priority on the date — and timeliness — of sources. Pay attention to such fine points of documentation style, always asking what these choices suggest about the values of scholars and researchers who use a particular system of documentation.

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MLA Style

Widely used in the humanities, MLA style is fully described in the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (7th edition, 2009). In this discus- sion, we provide guidelines drawn from the MLA Handbook for in-text citations, notes, and entries in the list of works cited.

In-Text Citations

MLA style calls for in-text citations in the body of an argument to docu- ment sources of quotations, paraphrases, summaries, and so on. For in- text citations, use a signal phrase to introduce the material, often with the author’s name (As Geneva Smitherman explains, . . .). Keep an in-text citation short, but include enough information for readers to locate the source in the list of works cited. Place the parenthetical citation as near to the relevant material as possible without disrupting the flow of the sentence, as in the following examples.

1. Author Named in a Signal Phrase

Ordinarily, use the author’s name in a signal phrase to introduce the material, and cite the page number(s) in parentheses.

Ravitch chronicles how the focus in education reform has shifted toward privatizing school management rather than toward improving curriculum, teacher training, or funding (36).

2. Author Named in Parentheses

When you don’t mention the author in a signal phrase, include the author’s last name before the page number(s) in the parentheses.

Oil from shale in the western states, if it could be extracted, would be equivalent to six hundred billion barrels, more than all the crude so far produced in the world (McPhee 413).

3. Two or Three Authors

Use all authors’ last names.

Gortner, Hebrun, and Nicolson maintain that “opinion leaders” influence other people in an organization because they are respected, not because they hold high positions (175).

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4. Four or More Authors

The MLA allows you to use all authors’ last names or to use only the first author’s name with et al. (in regular type, not italicized). Although either format is acceptable when applied consistently throughout a paper, in an argument it is more fair and accurate to name all authors who contributed to the work.

Similarly, as Goldberger, Tarule, Clinchy, and Belenky note, their new book builds on their collaborative experiences (xii).

5. Organization as Author

Give the full name of a corporate author if it’s brief or a shortened form if it’s long.

Many global economists assert that the term “developing countries” is no longer a useful designation, as it ignores such countries’ rapid economic growth (Gates Foundation 112).

6. Unknown Author

Use the full title of the work if it’s brief or a shortened form if it’s long.

“Hype,” by one analysis, is “an artificially engendered atmosphere of hysteria” (“Today’s Marketplace” 51).

7. Author of Two or More Works

When you use two or more works by the same author, include the title of the work or a shortened version of it in the citation.

Gardner presents readers with their own silliness through his description of a “pointless, ridiculous monster, crouched in the shadows, stinking of dead men, murdered children, and martyred cows” (Grendel 2).

8. Authors with the Same Last Name

When you use works by two or more authors with the same last name, include each author’s first initial in the in-text citation.

Public health officials agree that the potential environmental risk caused by indoor residual spraying is far lower than the potential risk of death caused by malaria-carrying mosquitoes (S. Dillon 76).

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9. Multivolume Work

Note the volume number first and then the page number(s), with a colon and one space between them.

Aristotle’s “On Plants” is now available in a new translation edited by Barnes (2: 1252).

10. Literary Work

Because literary works are often available in many different editions, you need to include enough information for readers to locate the pas- sage in any edition. For a prose work such as a novel or play, first cite the page number from the edition you used, followed by a semicolon; then indicate the part or chapter number (114; ch. 3) or act or scene in a play (42; sc. 2).

In Ben Jonson’s Volpone, the miserly title character addresses his treasure as “dear saint” and “the best of things” (1447; act 1).

For a poem, cite the stanza and line numbers. If the poem has only line numbers, use the word line(s) in the first reference (lines 33–34) and the number(s) alone in subsequent references.

On dying, Whitman speculates, “All that goes onward and outward, nothing collapses, / And to die is different from what any one supposed, and luckier” (6.129-30).

For a verse play, omit the page number, and give only the act, scene, and line numbers, separated by periods.

Before he takes his own life, Othello says he is “one that loved not wisely but too well” (5.2.348).

As Macbeth begins, the witches greet Banquo as “Lesser than Macbeth, and greater” (1.3.65).

11. Works in an Anthology

For an essay, short story, or other short work within an anthology, use the name of the author of the work, not the editor of the anthology; but use the page number(s) from the anthology.

In the end, if the black artist accepts any duties at all, that duty is to express the beauty of blackness (Hughes 1271).

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12. Sacred Text

To cite a sacred text, such as the Qur’an or the Bible, give the title of the edition you used, the book, and the chapter and verse (or their equiv- alent), separated by a period. In your text, spell out the names of books. In a parenthetical reference, use an abbreviation for books with names of five or more letters (for example, Gen. for Genesis).

He ignored the admonition “Pride goes before destruction, and a haughty spirit before a fall” (New Oxford Annotated Bible, Prov. 16.18).

13. Indirect Source

Use the abbreviation qtd. in to indicate that what you’re quoting or paraphrasing is quoted (as part of a conversation, interview, letter, or excerpt) in the source you’re using.

As Catherine Belsey states, “to speak is to have access to the language which defines, delimits and locates power” (qtd. in Bartels 453).

14. Two or More Sources in the Same Citation

Separate the information for each source with a semicolon.

Adefunmi was able to patch up the subsequent holes left in worship by substituting various Yoruba, Dahomean, or Fon customs made available to him through research (Brandon 115-17; Hunt 27).

15. Entire Work or One-Page Article

Include the citation in the text without any page numbers or parentheses.

Kazuo Ishiguro’s dystopian novel Never Let Me Go explores questions of identity and authenticity.

16. Nonprint or Electronic Source

Give enough information in a signal phrase or parenthetical citation for readers to locate the source in the list of works cited. Usually give the author or title under which you list the source. If the work isn’t numbered by page but has numbered sections, parts, or paragraphs, include the name and number(s) of the section(s) you’re citing. (For

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paragraphs, use the abbreviation par. or pars.; for section, use sec.; for part, use pt.)

In his film version of Hamlet, Zeffirelli highlights the sexual tension between the prince and his mother.

Zora Neale Hurston is one of the great anthropologists of the twentieth century, according to Kip Hinton (par. 2).

Describing children’s language acquisition, Pinker explains that “what’s innate about language is just a way of paying attention to parental speech” (qtd. in Johnson, sec. 1).

17. Visual Included in the Text

Number all figures (photos, drawings, cartoons, maps, graphs, and charts) and tables separately.

This trend is illustrated in a chart distributed by the College Board as part of its 2014 analysis of aggregate SAT data (see fig. 1).

Include a caption with enough information about the source to direct readers to the works cited entry. (For an example of an image that a stu- dent created, see the sample page from an MLA-style essay on p. 485 in this chapter.)

Explanatory and Bibliographic Notes

The MLA recommends using explanatory notes for information or commentary that doesn’t readily fit into your text but is needed for clarification, further explanation, or justification. In addition, the MLA allows bibliographic notes for citing several sources for one point and for offering thanks to, information about, or evaluation of a source. Use a superscript number in your text at the end of a sentence to refer readers to the notes, which usually appear as endnotes (with the head- ing Notes, not underlined or italicized) on a separate page before the list of works cited. Indent the first line of each note five spaces, and double- space all entries.

Text with Superscript Indicating a Note

Stewart emphasizes the existence of social contacts in Hawthorne’s life so that the audience will accept a different Hawthorne, one more attuned to modern times than the figure in Woodberry.3

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Note

3 Woodberry does, however, show that Hawthorne was often unsociable. He emphasizes the seclusion of Hawthorne’s mother, who separated herself from her family after the death of her husband, often even taking meals alone (28). Woodberry seems to imply that Mrs. Hawthorne’s isolation rubbed off on her son.

List of Works Cited

A list of works cited is an alphabetical listing of the sources you cite in your essay. The list appears on a separate page at the end of your argu- ment, after any notes, with the heading Works Cited centered an inch from the top of the page; don’t underline or italicize it or enclose it in quotation marks. Double-space between the heading and the first entry, and double-space the entire list. (If you’re asked to list everything you’ve read as background — not just the sources you cite — call the list Works Consulted.) The first line of each entry should align on the left; subse- quent lines indent one-half inch or five spaces. See p. 486 for a sample works cited page.

Print Books

The basic information for a book includes four elements, each followed by a period:

● the author’s name, last name first (for a book with multiple authors, only the first author’s name is inverted)

● the title and subtitle, italicized

● the publication information, including the city followed by a colon, a shortened form of the publisher’s name (such as Harvard UP) fol- lowed by a comma, and the publication date

● the medium of publication (Print)

1. One Author

Larsen, Erik. Dead Wake: The Last Crossing of the Lusitania. New York: Crown, 2015. Print.

2. Two or More Authors

Jacobson, Sid, and Ernie Colón. The 9/11 Report: A Graphic Adaptation. New York: Hill, 2006. Print.

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3. Organization as Author

American Horticultural Society. The Fully Illustrated Plant-by-Plant Manual of Practical Techniques. New York: American Horticultural Society and DK, 1999. Print.

4. Unknown Author

National Geographic Atlas of the World. New York: Natl. Geographic, 2004. Print.

5. Two or More Books by the Same Author

List the works alphabetically by title. Use three hyphens for the author’s name for the second and subsequent works by that author.

Lorde, Audre. A Burst of Light. Ithaca: Firebrand, 1988. Print.

---. Sister Outsider. Trumansburg: Crossing, 1984. Print.

6. Editor

Rorty, Amelie Oksenberg, ed. Essays on Aristotle’s Poetics. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1992. Print.

7. Author and Editor

Shakespeare, William. The Tempest. Ed. Frank Kermode. London: Routledge, 1994. Print.

8. Selection in an Anthology or Chapter in an Edited Book

List the author(s) of the selection or chapter; its title; the title of the book in which the selection or chapter appears; Ed. and the name(s) of the editor(s); the publication information; and the inclusive page num- bers of the selection or chapter.

Brown, Paul. “ ‘This thing of darkness I acknowledge mine’: The Tempest and the Discourse of Colonialism.” Political Shakespeare: Essays in Cultural Materialism. Ed. Jonathan Dollimore and Alan Sinfield. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1985. 48-71. Print.

9. Two or More Works from the Same Anthology

Include the anthology itself in the list of works cited.

Gates, Henry Louis, Jr., and Nellie McKay, eds. The Norton Anthology of African American Literature. New York: Norton, 1997. Print.

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Then list each selection separately by its author and title, followed by a cross-reference to the anthology.

Karenga, Maulana. “Black Art: Mute Matter Given Force and Function.” Gates and McKay 1973-77.

Neal, Larry. “The Black Arts Movement.” Gates and McKay 1960-72.

10. Translation

Hietamies, Laila. Red Moon over White Sea. Trans. Borje Vahamaki. Beaverton: Aspasia, 2000. Print.

11. Edition Other Than the First

Lunsford, Andrea A., John J. Ruszkiewicz, and Keith Walters. Everything’s an Argument with Readings. 7th ed. Boston: Bedford, 2016. Print.

12. Graphic Narrative

If the words and images are created by the same person, cite a graphic narrative just as you would a book (see item 1 on p. 472).

Bechdel, Alison. Are You My Mother? New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2012. Print.

If the work is a collaboration, indicate the author or illustrator who is most important to your research before the title. Then list other con- tributors in order of their appearance on the title page. Label each per- son’s contribution to the work.

Stavans, Ilan, writer. Latino USA: A Cartoon History. Illus. Lalo Arcaraz. New York: Basic, 2000. Print.

13. One Volume of a Multivolume Work

Byron, Lord George. Byron’s Letters and Journals. Ed. Leslie A. Marchand. Vol. 2. London: Murray, 1973. Print. 12 vols.

14. Two or More Volumes of a Multivolume Work

Byron, Lord George. Byron’s Letters and Journals. Ed. Leslie A. Marchand. 12 vols. London: Murray, 1973-82. Print.

15. Preface, Foreword, Introduction, or Afterword

Kean, Thomas H., and Lee H. Hamilton. Foreword. The 9/11 Report: A Graphic Adaptation. By Sid Jacobson and Ernie Colón. New York: Hill, 2006. ix-x. Print.

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16. Article in a Reference Work

Bierman, Paul R. “Earth.” World Book Encyclopedia. 2015 ed. Print.

17. Book That Is Part of a Series

Include the title and number of the series after the publication information.

Moss, Beverly J. A Community Text Arises. Cresskill: Hampton, 2003. Print. Language and Social Processes Ser. 8.

18. Republication

Scott, Walter. Kenilworth. 1821. New York: Dodd, 1996. Print.

19. Government Document

United States. Cong. House Committee on the Judiciary. Impeachment of the President. 40th Cong., 1st sess. H. Rept. 7. Washington: GPO, 1867. Print.

20. Pamphlet

An Answer to the President’s Message to the Fiftieth Congress. Philadelphia: Manufacturers’ Club of Philadelphia, 1887. Print.

21. Published Proceedings of a Conference

Edwards, Ron, ed. Proceedings of the Third National Folklore Conference. 26-27 Nov. 1988. Canberra, Austral.: Australian Folk Trust, 1988. Print.

22. Title within a Title

Tavernier-Courbin, Jacqueline. Ernest Hemingway’s A Moveable Feast: The Making of Myth. Boston: Northeastern UP, 1991. Print.

Print Periodicals

The basic entry for a periodical includes four elements, each followed by a period:

● the author’s name, last name first

● the article title, in quotation marks

● the publication information, including the periodical title (italicized), the volume and issue numbers (if any, not italicized), the date of pub- lication, and the page number(s)

● the medium of publication (Print)

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For works with multiple authors, only the first author’s name is inverted. Note that the period following the article title goes inside the closing quotation mark. Finally, note that the MLA omits the in titles such as The New Yorker.

23. Article in a Print Journal

Give the issue number, if available.

Anderson, Virginia. “ ‘The Perfect Enemy’: Clinton, the Contradictions of Capitalism, and Slaying the Sin Within.” Rhetoric Review 21 (2002): 384-400. Print.

Radavich, David. “Man among Men: David Mamet’s Homosocial Order.” American Drama 1.1 (1991): 46-66. Print.

24. Article That Skips Pages

Seabrook, John. “Renaissance Pears.” New Yorker 5 Sept. 2005: 102+. Print.

25. Article in a Print Monthly Magazine

Thompson, Derek. “The Miracle of Minneapolis.” Atlantic March 2015: 30-32. Print.

26. Article in a Print Weekly Magazine

Reed, Julia. “Hope in the Ruins.” Newsweek 12 Sept. 2005: 58-59. Print.

27. Article in a Print Newspaper

Friend, Tim. “Scientists Map the Mouse Genome.” USA Today 2 Dec. 2002: A1. Print.

28. Editorial or Letter to the Editor

Posner, Alan. “Colin Powell’s Regret.” Editorial. New York Times 9 Sept. 2005: A20. Print.

29. Unsigned Article

“Court Rejects the Sale of Medical Marijuana.” New York Times 26 Feb. 1998, late ed.: A21. Print.

30. Review

Wildavsky, Ben. “Bad Educations.” Rev. of Academically Adrift: Limited Learning on College Campuses, by Richard Arum and Josipa Roksa. Wilson Quarterly 35.2 (2011): 98-99. Print.

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Digital Sources

Most of the following models are based on the MLA’s guidelines for citing electronic sources in the MLA Handbook (7th edition, 2009), as well as on up-to-date information available at its Web site (mla.org). The MLA no longer requires the use of URLs but assumes that readers can locate a source by searching the author, title, and other publication information given in the citation. The basic MLA entry for most electronic sources should include the following elements:

● name of the author, editor, or compiler

● title of the work, document, or posting

● publication information (volume, issue, year or date). List page num- bers (or n. pag., not italicized, if none are listed).

● name of database, italicized

● medium of publication (Web, CD-ROM, etc.)

● date of access

31. Document from a Web Site

Begin with the author, if known, followed by the title of the work, title of the Web site, publisher or sponsor, date of publication or latest update, medium (Web), and the date you accessed the site.

Stauder, Ellen Keck. “Darkness Audible.” Romantic Circle Praxis Series. U of Maryland, 2003. Web. 28 Sept 2014.

32. Entire Web Site

Include the name of the person or group who created the site, if rele- vant; the title of the site, italicized, or (if there is no title) a description such as Home page, not italicized; the publisher or sponsor of the site; the date of publication or last update; the medium consulted (Web); and the date of access.

Kotaku. Gawker Media, 12 Jan. 2011. Web. 30 Aug. 2014.

Mitten, Lisa. Native American Sites. Lisa A. Mitten, 16 Sept. 2008. Web. 3 Dec. 2013.

33. Course, Department, or Personal Web Site

For a course Web site, include the instructor’s name; the title of the site, italicized; a description of the site (such as Course home page, Dept.

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home page, or Home page — not italicized); the sponsor of the site (aca- demic department and institution); dates of the course or last update to the page; the medium; and the date of access. Note that the MLA spells home page as two separate words. For an academic department, list the name of the department; a description; the academic institution; the date the page was last updated (use n.d. for “no date,” not italicized); the medium (Web); and the date of access.

Dept. of English. Home page. Amherst Coll., n.d. Web. 5 Apr. 2007.

Lunsford, Andrea A. Home page. Stanford U, 27 Mar. 2003. Web. 10 Sept. 2014.

Lunsford, Andrea A. Memory and Media. Course home page. Dept. of English, Stanford U, Sept.-Dec. 2002. Web. 13 Mar. 2006.

34. Online Book

Cite an online book as you would a print book. After the print publica- tion information (if any), give the title of the Web site or database in which the book appears, italicized; the medium (Web); and the date of access.

Riis, Jacob A. How the Other Half Lives: Studies among the Tenements of New York. Ed. David Phillips. New York: Scribner’s, 1890. The Authentic History Center. Web. 26 Mar. 2014.

Treat a poem, essay, or other short work within an online book as you would a part of a print book. After the print publication information (if any), give the title of the Web site or database, italicized; the medium (Web); and the date of access.

Dickinson, Emily. “The Grass.” Poems: Emily Dickinson. Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1891. Humanities Text Initiative American Verse Project. Web. 6 Jan. 2015.

35. Article in a Journal on the Web

For an article in an online journal, cite the same information that you would for a print journal. If the online article does not have page num- bers, use n. pag. (not italicized). Then add the medium consulted (Web) and the date of access.

Edwards, Chris. “A Wealth of Opportunity: An Undergraduate Consultant’s Look into the Benefits of Working at a Writing Center.” Praxis: A Writing Center Journal 7.2 (2010): n. pag. Web. 28 May 2011.

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36. Article in a Magazine or Newspaper on the Web

For an article in an online magazine or newspaper, cite the author; the title of the article, in quotation marks; the name of the magazine or newspaper, italicized; the sponsor of the Web site; the date of publica- tion; the medium (Web); and the date you accessed the article.

Broad, William J. “In Ancient Fossils, Seeds of a New Debate on Warming.” New York Times. New York Times, 7 Nov. 2006. Web. 12 Jan. 2015.

McIntosh, Jill. “First Drive: 2013 Audi Q5 Hybrid.” Canadian Driver. Canadian Driver Communications, 20 June 2011. Web. 15 Aug. 2011.

37. Entry in a Web Reference Work

Cite the entry as you would an entry from a print reference work (see item 16). Follow with the name of the Web site, the sponsor, the date of publication, the medium, and the date of access.

“Tour de France.” Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2006. Web. 21 May 2014.

38. Post or Comment on a Web Site

Begin with the author’s name; the title of the posting, in quotation marks (if there is no title, use the description Weblog post or Weblog com- ment, not italicized); the name of the blog, italicized; the sponsor of the blog (use N.p., not italicized, if there is no sponsor); the date of the most recent update; the medium (Web); and the date of access.

Marcotte, Amanda. “Rights without Perfection.” Pandagon. N.p., 16 May 2010. Web. 16 May 2012.

39. Entry in a Wiki

Since wikis are collectively edited, do not include an author. Treat a wiki as you would a work from a Web site (see item 31). Include the title of the entry; the name of the wiki, italicized; the sponsor or publisher (use N.p., not italicized, if there is no sponsor); the date of the latest update; the medium (Web); and the date of access.

“Fédération Internationale de Football Association.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 17 June 2011. Web. 18 July 2014.

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40. Posting on a Social Networking Site

To cite a posting on Facebook or another social networking site, include the writer’s name, a description of the posting, the date of the posting, and the medium of delivery.

Ferguson, Sarah. Status update. 6 Mar. 2014. Facebook posting.

41. Email or Message on a Social Networking Site

Include the writer’s name; the subject line, in quotation marks (for email); Message to (not italicized or in quotation marks) followed by the recipient’s name; the date of the message; and the medium of delivery (E-mail, not italicized). Note that the MLA hyphenates e-mail.

Harris, Jay. “Thoughts on Impromptu State Productions.” Message to the author. 16 July 2014. E-mail.

42. Tweet

Include the writer’s real name, if known, with the user name (if differ- ent) in parentheses. If you don’t know the real name, give just the user name. Include the entire tweet, in quotation marks. End with the date and time of the message and the medium (Tweet).

Andrea A. Lunsford (aalrhetorician). “Just read (again) about demise of the apostrophe. Argument getting a bit old.” 27 Aug. 2014, 1:59 p.m. Tweet.

43. Work from an Online Database or a Subscription Service

For a work from an online database, list the author’s name; the title of the work, in quotation marks; any print publication information; the name of the database, italicized; the medium consulted (Web); and the date of access.

“Bolivia: Elecciones Presidenciales de 2002.” Political Database of the Americas. Web. 12 Nov. 2006.

Penn, Sean, and Jon Krakauer. “Into the Wild Script.” Internet Movie Script Database. Web. 12 June 2011.

For a work from an online service to which your library subscribes, include the same information as for an online database. After the

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information about the work, give the name of the database, italicized; the medium; and the date you accessed the work.

“Breaking the Dieting Habit: Drug Therapy for Eating Disorders.” Psychology Today Mar. 1995: 12+. ProQuest. Web. 30 Nov. 2014.