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Proposal Writting

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John D. Ramage Arizona State University

John C. Bean Seattle University

June Johnson Seattle University

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ramage, John D. Writing arguments: a rhetoric with readings / John D. Ramage, John C. Bean, June Johnson. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-321-90673-1 (student edition) 1. English language—Rhetoric. 2. Persuasion (Rhetoric) 3. College readers. 4. Report writing. I. Bean, John C. II. Johnson, June III. Title. PE1431.R33 2014 808’.0427—dc23 2014018668

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Brief Contents Part One Overview of Argument 1 1 Argument: An Introduction 2 2 Argument as Inquiry: Reading and Exploring 17 Part Two Writing an Argument 51 3 The Core of an Argument: A Claim with Reasons 52 4 The Logical Structure of Arguments 67 5 Using Evidence Effectively 88 6 Moving Your Audience: Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos 104 7 Responding to Objections and Alternative Views 121 Part Three Analyzing Arguments 153 8 Analyzing Arguments Rhetorically 154 9 Analyzing Visual Arguments 175 Part Four Arguments in Depth: Types of Claims 209 10 An Introduction to the Types of Claims 210 11 Definition and Resemblance Arguments 220 12 Causal Arguments 248 13 Evaluation and Ethical Arguments 278 14 Proposal Arguments 304 Part Five The Researched Argument 339 15 Finding and Evaluating Sources 340 16 Incorporating Sources into Your Own Argument 359 17 Citing and Documenting Sources 375 Appendix Informal Fallacies 397

Part Six An Anthology of Arguments 405 The Future of Food and Farming 406 Higher Education: How and Why We Learn Matters 432 Immigration in the Twenty-First Century 460 Millennials Entering Adulthood 477 Choices for a Sustainable World 499 Digital Literacies 519 Argument Classics 542

iv

Detailed Contents

Preface xxii Acknowledgments xxviii

Part One Overview of Argument 1

1 Argument: An Introduction 2 What Do We Mean by Argument? 2

Argument Is Not a Fight or a Quarrel 2 Argument Is Not Pro-Con Debate 3 Arguments Can Be Explicit or Implicit 3

JUAN LUCAS (STUDENT), “An Argument Against Banning Phthalates” 5 A student opposes a ban on a chemical that makes toys soft and flexible.

The Defining Features of Argument 7 Argument Requires Justification of Its Claims 8 Argument Is Both a Process and a Product 10 Argument Combines Truth Seeking and Persuasion 10

Argument and the Problem of Truth 12 Conclusion 16

2 Argument as Inquiry: Reading and Exploring 17 Finding Issues to Explore 18

Do Some Initial Brainstorming 18 Be Open to the Issues All around You 18 Explore Ideas by Freewriting 22 Explore Ideas by Idea Mapping 23 Explore Ideas by Playing the Believing and Doubting Game 24

Reading Texts Rhetorically 25 Genres of Argument 25 Authorial Purpose and Audience 29 Determining Degree of Advocacy 31

Reading to Believe an Argument’s Claims 32

JAMES SUROWIECKI, “The Pay Is Too Damn Low” 33 An American journalist argues for an increased federally mandated minimum wage combined with government policies to promote job growth and ensure a stable safety net for the poor.

Detailed Contents v

Summary Writing as a Way of Reading to Believe 34 Practicing Believing: Willing Your Own Belief in the Writer’s Views 37

Reading to Doubt 37 Thinking Dialectically 38

MICHAEL SALTSMAN, “To Help the Poor, Move Beyond ‘Minimum’ Gestures” 40 The chief economist for the Employment Policy Institute opposes an increased minimum wage, arguing that it does nothing for the jobless poor and will in fact lead to increased joblessness.

Three Ways to Foster Dialectic Thinking 41 Conclusion 42

Writing Assignment: An Argument Summary or a Formal Exploratory Essay 42

Reading 44

TRUDIE MAKENS (STUDENT), “Should Fast-Food Workers Be Paid $15 per Hour?” 44 Examining articles by Surowiecki, Saltsman, and others, a student narrates the evolution of her thinking as she researches the issue of minimum wage.

Part Two Writing an Argument 51

3 The Core of an Argument: A Claim with Reasons 52 The Classical Structure of Argument 52 Classical Appeals and the Rhetorical Triangle 54 Issue Questions as the Origins of Argument 56

Difference between an Issue Question and an Information Question 56 How to Identify an Issue Question 57 Difference between a Genuine Argument and a Pseudo-Argument 58 Pseudo-Arguments: Committed Believers and Fanatical Skeptics 58 A Closer Look at Pseudo-Arguments: The Lack of Shared Assumptions 59

Frame of an Argument: A Claim Supported by Reasons 60 What Is a Reason? 60 Expressing Reasons in Because Clauses 62

Conclusion 65

Writing Assignment: An Issue Question and Working Thesis Statements 65

4 The Logical Structure of Arguments 67 An Overview of Logos: What Do We Mean by the “Logical Structure” of an

Argument? 67 Formal Logic versus Real-World Logic 67 The Role of Assumptions 68

vi Detailed Contents

The Core of an Argument: The Enthymeme 68 The Power of Audience-Based Reasons 70

Adopting a Language for Describing Arguments: The Toulmin System 71 Using Toulmin’s Schema to Plan and Test Your Argument 76

Hypothetical Example: Cheerleaders as Athletes 76 Extended Student Example: Girls and Violent Video Games 80

CARMEN TIEU (STUDENT), “Why Violent Video Games Are Good for Girls” 82 A student argues that playing violent video games helps girls gain insight into male culture.

The Thesis-Governed “Self-Announcing” Structure of Classical Argument 85 Conclusion 86 A Note on the Informal Fallacies 86

Writing Assignment: Plan of an Argument’s Details 87

5 Using Evidence Effectively 88 Kinds of Evidence 88 The Persuasive Use of Evidence 92

Apply the STAR Criteria to Evidence 92 Establish a Trustworthy Ethos 93 Be Mindful of a Source’s Distance from Original Data 94

Rhetorical Understanding of Evidence 95 Angle of Vision and the Selection and Framing of Evidence 95

Examining Visual Arguments: Angle of Vision 98 Rhetorical Strategies for Framing Evidence 99 Special Strategies for Framing Statistical Evidence 101 Creating a Plan for Gathering Evidence 102

Conclusion 103

Writing Assignment: A Supporting-Reasons Argument 103

6 Moving Your Audience: Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos 104 Logos, Ethos, and Pathos as Persuasive Appeals: An Overview 104 How to Create an Effective Ethos: The Appeal to Credibility 106 How to Create Pathos: The Appeal to Beliefs and Emotions 107

Use Concrete Language 108 Use Specific Examples and Illustrations 109 Use Narratives 110 Use Words, Metaphors, and Analogies with Appropriate Connotations 110

Detailed Contents vii

Kairos: The Timeliness and Fitness of Arguments 111 Using Images to Appeal to Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos 113

Examining Visual Arguments: Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos 115

How Audience-Based Reasons Appeal to Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos 116 Conclusion 119

Writing Assignment: Revising a Draft for Ethos, Pathos, and Audience-Based Reasons 120

7 Responding to Objections and Alternative Views 121 One-Sided, Multisided, and Dialogic Arguments 121 Determining Your Audience’s Resistance to Your Views 122 Appealing to a Supportive Audience: One-Sided Argument 124 Appealing to a Neutral or Undecided Audience: Classical Argument 125

Summarizing Opposing Views 125 Refuting Opposing Views 126 Strategies for Rebutting Evidence 127 Conceding to Opposing Views 128 Example of a Student Essay Using Refutation Strategy 129

TRUDIE MAKENS (STUDENT), “Bringing Dignity To Workers: Make the Minimum Wage a Living Wage” 129 A student writer refutes three arguments against increasing the minimum wage.

Appealing to a Resistant Audience: Dialogic Argument 131 Creating a Dialogic Argument with a Delayed Thesis 132

ROSS DOUTHAT, “Islam in Two Americas” 133 A conservative columnist asks readers to explore aspects of American identity that suggest that Muslims should not build a community center near Ground Zero.

Writing a Delayed-Thesis Argument 135 A More Open-Ended Approach: Rogerian Communication 136

Rogerian Communication as Growth for the Writer 137 Rogerian Communication as Collaborative Negotiation 138 Writing Rogerian Communication 138

COLLEEN FONTANA (STUDENT), “An Open Letter to Robert Levy in Response to His Article ‘They Never Learn’ ” 140 Using the strategies of Rogerian argument, a student writes an open letter about the problem of gun violence on college campuses to an advocate of minimal gun control laws and more guns.

Conclusion 144

Writing Assignment: A Classical Argument or a Rogerian Letter 145

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Readings 145

LAUREN SHINOZUKA (STUDENT), “The Dangers of Digital Distractedness” (A Classical Argument) 145 Using the classical argument form, a student writer argues that being a skilled digital native also “harms us by promoting an unproductive habit of multitasking, by dehumanizing our relationships, and by encouraging a distorted self-image.”

MONICA ALLEN (STUDENT), “An Open Letter to Christopher Eide in Response to His Article ‘High-Performing Charter Schools Can Close the Opportunity Gap’ ” (Rogerian Communication) 149 Using the strategies of Rogerian communication, a student writer skeptical about charter schools initiates dialogue with a charter school advocate on ways to improve education for low-income and minority students.

Part Three Analyzing Arguments 153

8 Analyzing Arguments Rhetorically 154 Thinking Rhetorically about a Text 154

Questions for Rhetorical Analysis 155 Conducting a Rhetorical Analysis 159

KATHRYN JEAN LOPEZ, “Egg Heads” 159 Writing in 1998 for the conservative magazine National Review, Kathryn Jean Lopez argues against the emerging practice of egg donation enabled by new reproductive technology.

Our Own Rhetorical Analysis of “Egg Heads” 162 Conclusion 166

Writing Assignment: A Rhetorical Analysis 166 Generating Ideas for Your Rhetorical Analysis 167 Organizing Your Rhetorical Analysis 168

Readings 169

ELLEN GOODMAN, “Womb for Rent” 169 Columnist Ellen Goodman explores the ethical dilemmas created when first-world couples “outsource” motherhood to third-world women.

ZACHARY STUMPS (STUDENT), “A Rhetorical Analysis of Ellen Goodman’s ‘Womb for Rent’ ” 171 A student analyzes Ellen Goodman’s rhetorical strategies in “Womb for Rent,” emphasizing her delayed-thesis structure and her use of language with double meanings.

9 Analyzing Visual Arguments 175 Understanding Design Elements in Visual Argument 176

Use of Type 176 Use of Space or Layout 177

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An Analysis of a Visual Argument Using Type and Spatial Elements 178 Use of Color 180 Use of Images and Graphics 180 An Analysis of a Visual Argument Using All the Design Components 180

The Compositional Features of Photographs and Drawings 184 An Analysis of a Visual Argument Using Images 188

The Genres of Visual Argument 191 Posters and Fliers 192 Public Affairs Advocacy Advertisements 194 Cartoons 197 Web Pages 198

Constructing Your Own Visual Argument 198 Guidelines for Creating Visual Arguments 199

Using Information Graphics in Arguments 200 How Tables Contain a Variety of Stories 200 Using a Graph to Tell a Story 202 Incorporating Graphics into Your Argument 205

Conclusion 206

Writing Assignment: A Visual Argument Rhetorical Analysis, a Visual Argument, or a Microtheme Using Quantitative Data 207

Part Four Arguments in Depth: Types of Claims 209

10 An Introduction to the Types of Claims 210 The Types of Claims and Their Typical Patterns of Development 210 Using Claim Types to Focus an Argument and Generate Ideas:

An Example 213 Writer 1: Ban E-Cigarettes 213 Writer 2: Promote E-Cigarettes as a Preferred Alternative to

Real Cigarettes 214 Writer 3: Place No Restrictions on E-Cigarettes 215

Hybrid Arguments: How Claim Types Work Together in Arguments 215 Some Examples of Hybrid Arguments 216 An Extended Example of a Hybrid Argument 217

ALEX HUTCHINSON, “Your Daily Multivitamin May Be Hurting You” 217 Writing for an outdoor sports magazine targeting health and fitness enthusiasts, a journalist reviews the scientific literature against daily multivitamins and other supplements.

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11 Definition and Resemblance Arguments 220 What Is at Stake in a Categorical Argument? 221

Consequences Resulting from Categorical Claims 222 The Rule of Justice: Things in the Same Category Should Be Treated the

Same Way 222 Types of Categorical Arguments 224

Simple Categorical Arguments 224 Definition Arguments 225 Resemblance Argument Using Analogy 225 Resemblance Arguments Using Precedent 227

Examining Visual Arguments: Claim about Category (Definition) 228

The Criteria-Match Structure of Definition Arguments 229

Overview of Criteria-Match Structure 229 Toulmin Framework for a Definition Argument 230 Creating Criteria Using Aristotelian Definition 231 Creating Criteria Using an Operational Definition 233 Conducting the Match Part of a Definition Argument 233

Idea-Generating Strategies for Creating Your Own Criteria-Match Argument 234

Strategy 1: Research How Others Have Defined the Term 234 Strategy 2: Create Your Own Extended Definition 235

Writing Assignment: A Definition Argument 238 Exploring Ideas 238 Identifying Your Audience and Determining What’s at Stake 239 Organizing a Definition Argument 240 Questioning and Critiquing a Definition Argument 240

Readings 242

ARTHUR KNOPF (STUDENT), “Is Milk a Health Food?” 242 A student argues that milk, despite its reputation for promoting calcium-rich bones, may not be a health food.

ALEX MULLEN (STUDENT), “A Pirate But Not a Thief: What Does ‘Stealing’ Mean in a Digital Environment?” 244 A student argues that his act of piracy—downloading a film from a file- sharing torrent site—is not stealing because it deprives no one of property or profit.

LOS ANGELES TIMES EDITORIAL BOARD, “College Football—Yes, It’s a Job” 247 The Editorial Board of the Los Angeles Times supports a court decision that scholarship football players at Northwestern University are “paid employees” of the university and therefore have the right to unionize.

Detailed Contents xi

12 Causal Arguments 248 An Overview of Causal Arguments 249

Kinds of Causal Arguments 250 Toulmin Framework for a Causal Argument 252

Two Methods for Arguing That One Event Causes Another 254 First Method: Explain the Causal Mechanism Directly 255 Second Method: Infer Causal Links Using Inductive Reasoning 256

Examining Visual Arguments: A Causal Claim 257

Key Terms and Inductive Fallacies in Causal Arguments 258

Writing Assignment: A Causal Argument 260 Exploring Ideas 260 Identifying Your Audience and Determining What’s at Stake 261 Organizing a Causal Argument 262 Questioning and Critiquing a Causal Argument 262

Readings 265

JULEE CHRISTIANSON (STUDENT), “Why Lawrence Summers Was Wrong: Culture Rather Than Biology Explains the Underrepresentation of Women in Science and Mathematics” (APA-format research paper) 266 A student writer disagrees with Harvard president Lawrence Summers’s claim that genetic factors may account for fewer women than men holding professorships in math and science at prestige universities.

DEBORAH FALLOWS, “Papa, Don’t Text: The Perils of Distracted Parenting” 272 Linguist Deborah Fallows argues in The Atlantic that by texting and talking on cell phones instead of interacting with their young children adults are jeopardizing their children’s language learning.

CARLOS MACIAS (STUDENT), “ ‘The Credit Card Company Made Me Do It!’—The Credit Card Industry’s Role in Causing Student Debt” 274 A student writer examines the causes of college students’ credit card debt and puts the blame on the exploitive practices of the credit card industry.

13 Evaluation and Ethical Arguments 278 An Overview of Categorical Ethical Evaluation Arguments 280 Constructing a Categorical Evaluation Argument 280

Criteria-Match Structure of Categorical Evaluations 280 Developing Your Criteria 281 Making Your Match Argument 283

Examining Visual Arguments: An Evaluation Claim 284

Constructing an Ethical Evaluation Argument 286 Consequences as the Base of Ethics 286

xii Detailed Contents

Principles as the Base of Ethics 287 Example Ethical Arguments Examining Capital Punishment 287

Common Problems in Making Evaluation Arguments 289

Writing Assignment: An Evaluation or Ethical Argument 290 Exploring Ideas 290 Identifying Your Audience and Determining What’s at Stake 291 Organizing an Evaluation Argument 291 Questioning and Critiquing a Categorical Evaluation Argument 291 Critiquing an Ethical Argument 293

Readings 294

LORENA MENDOZA-FLORES (STUDENT), “Silenced and Invisible: Problems of Hispanic Students at Valley High School” 294 A physics major critiques her former high school for marginalizing its growing numbers of Hispanic students.

CHRISTOPHER MOORE (STUDENT), “Information Plus Satire: Why The Daily Show and The Colbert Report Are Good Sources of News for Young People” 297 A student favorably evaluates The Daily Show and The Colbert Report as news sources by arguing that they keep us up to date on major world events and teach us to read the news rhetorically.

JUDITH DAAR AND EREZ ALONI, “Three Genetic Parents—For One Healthy Baby” 300 Lawyers specializing in medical research argue that mitochondrial replacement (which enables a child to inherit DNA from three parents) “might be a way to prevent hundreds of mitochondrial-linked diseases, which affect about one in 5,000 people.”

SAMUEL AQUILA, “The ‘Therapeutic Cloning’ of Human Embryos” 302 A Catholic archbishop finds therapeutic cloning “heinous,” despite its potential health benefits, “because the process is intended to create life, exploit it, and then destroy it.”

14 Proposal Arguments 304 The Special Features and Concerns of Proposal Arguments 306

Practical Proposals versus Policy Proposals 306 Toulmin Framework for a Proposal Argument 306 Special Concerns for Proposal Arguments 308

Examining Visual Arguments: A Proposal Claim 309

Developing a Proposal Argument 309 Convincing Your Readers that a Problem Exists 309 Showing the Specifics of Your Proposal 310 Convincing Your Readers that the Benefits of Your Proposal Outweigh the Costs 311

Using Heuristic Strategies to Develop Supporting Reasons for Your Proposal 311 The “Claim Types” Strategy 312 The “Stock Issues” Strategy 314

Detailed Contents xiii

Proposal Arguments as Advocacy Posters or Advertisements 316

Writing Assignment: A Proposal Argument 316 Exploring Ideas 318 Identifying Your Audience and Determining What’s at Stake 319 Organizing a Proposal Argument 319 Designing a One-Page Advocacy Poster or Advertisement 319 Designing PowerPoint Slides or Other Visual Aids for a Speech 320 Questioning and Critiquing a Proposal Argument 321

Readings 322

MEGAN JOHNSON (STUDENT), “A Proposal to Allow Off-Campus Purchases with a University Meal Card” 322 A student writes a practical proposal urging her university’s administration to allow off-campus use of meal cards as a way of increasing gender equity and achieving other benefits.

IVAN SNOOK (STUDENT), “Flirting with Disaster: An Argument Against Integrating Women into the Combat Arms” (MLA-format research paper) 326 A student writer and Marine veteran returned from combat duty in Iraq argues that women should not serve in combat units because the inevitable sexual friction un- dermines morale and endangers soldiers’ lives.

SAVE-BEES.ORG, “SAVE THE BEES ADVOCACY AD” 331 An organization devoted to saving bees calls for support for a moratorium on the use of certain chemical pesticides that are deadly to bees.

SANDY WAINSCOTT (STUDENT), “Why McDonald’s Should Sell Meat and Veggie Pies: A Proposal to End Subsidies for Cheap Meat” (speech with PowerPoint slides) 333 A student proposes the end of subsidies for cheap meat for the benefit of both people’s health and the environment.

MARCEL DICKE AND ARNOLD VAN HUIS, “The Six-Legged Meat of the Future” 335 Two Dutch entomologists argue that insects are a nutritious and tasty form of protein and less environmentally harmful than cattle, pigs, or chickens.

Part Five The Researched Argument 339

15 Finding and Evaluating Sources 340 Formulating a Research Question Instead of a “Topic” 341 Thinking Rhetorically about Kinds of Sources 341

Identifying Kinds of Sources Relevant to Your Question 341 Approaching Sources Rhetorically 342

Finding Sources 347 Conducting Interviews 347 Gathering Source Data from Surveys or Questionnaires 348

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Finding Books and Reference Sources 348 Using Licensed Databases to Find Articles in Scholarly Journals, Magazines,

and News Sources 349 Finding Cyberspace Sources: Searching the World Wide Web 350

Selecting and Evaluating Your Sources 350 Reading with Rhetorical Awareness 350 Evaluating Sources 352 Taking Purposeful Notes 356

Conclusion 358

16 Incorporating Sources into Your Own Argument 359 Using Sources for Your Own Purposes 359

Writer 1: A Causal Argument Showing Alternative Approaches to Reducing Risk of Alcoholism 360

Writer 2: A Proposal Argument Advocating Vegetarianism 360 Writer 3: An Evaluation Argument Looking Skeptically at Vegetarianism 361

Using Summary, Paraphrase, and Quotation 362 Summarizing 362 Paraphrasing 363 Quoting 364

Punctuating Quotations Correctly 365 Quoting a Complete Sentence 365 Quoting Words and Phrases 365 Modifying a Quotation 366 Omitting Something from a Quoted Passage 367 Quoting Something That Contains a Quotation 367 Using a Block Quotation for a Long Passage 368

Creating Rhetorically Effective Attributive Tags 368 Attributive Tags versus Parenthetical Citations 369 Creating Attributive Tags to Shape Reader Response 369

Avoiding Plagiarism 370 Why Some Kinds of Plagiarism May Occur Unwittingly 371 Strategies for Avoiding Plagiarism 372

Conclusion 374

17 Citing and Documenting Sources 375 The Correspondence between In-Text Citations and the End-of-Paper List of Cited

Works 375 MLA Style 377

In-Text Citations in MLA Style 377 Works Cited List in MLA Style 379

Detailed Contents xv

Works Cited Citation Models 379 MLA-Style Research Paper 389

APA Style 389 In-Text Citations in APA Style 390 References List in APA Style 391 References Citation Models 391 APA-Style Research Paper 396

Conclusion 396

Appendix Informal Fallacies 397 The Problem of Conclusiveness in an Argument 397 An Overview of Informal Fallacies 398

Fallacies of Pathos 399 Fallacies of Ethos 400 Fallacies of Logos 401

Part Six An Anthology of Arguments 405

The Future of Food and Farming 406 ARTHUR L. CAPLAN, “Genetically Modified Food: Good, Bad, Ugly” 407

A professor of bioethics defends genetic engineering but takes the biotech companies to task for their mismanagement of the technology.

ROBIN MATHER, “The Threats from Genetically Modified Foods” 410 A food columnist outlines the concerns about and consequences of using GMOs.

MICHAEL LE PAGE, “Wrong-Headed Victory” 415 A writer argues that when biotech companies fight labelling efforts they only fuel consumer suspicion and delay promising research.

JOHN HAMBROCK, “Harley, I’m Worried About Gene Transfer” (editorial cartoon) 417 A cartoonist imagines how GMO plants might cross-pollinate with unmodified strains.

JOE MOHR, “Monsanto’s Reasons for Fighting GMO Labeling? It Loves You” 417 A cartoonist satirizes the biotech companies’ arguments against labelling of GM foods.

CAITLIN FLANAGAN, “Cultivating Failure” 418 A journalist questions the value of school gardens as an educational tool, focusing particularly on the effects for Hispanic and low-income students.

BONNIE HULKOWER, “A Defense of School Gardens and Response to Caitlin Flanagan’s ‘Cultivating Failure’ in The Atlantic” 424 A marine scientist and environmental planner performs a rhetorical analysis of Flanagan and refutes her claims.

TOM PHILPOTT, “Thoughts on The Atlantic’s Attack on School Gardens” 426 A food and agriculture columnist reflects on school gardens as a teaching tool, and disagrees with Flanagan’s conclusions.

xvi Detailed Contents

JESSE KURTZ-NICHOLL, “Atlantic Gets It Wrong!: School Gardens Cultivate Minds Not Failure” 428 A former high school teacher with a Master’s in Public Health disputes Flanagan’s claims about access to healthy food and the need for food education.

Higher Education: How and Why We Learn Matters 432 REBECCA MEAD, “Learning by Degrees” 433

A New Yorker staff writer acknowledges the appeal of skipping college to pursue financial success, but also questions economic advancement as the sole reason for attending college.

KEN SAXON, “What Do You Do with a B.A. in History?” 435 An entrepreneur and leader in the nonprofit sector speaks to freshmen at UC Santa Barbara about the value of a liberal arts education.

AARON BADY, “The MOOC Moment and the End of Reform” 442 A postdoctoral fellow interrogates the hype surrounding MOOCs and the wisdom of integrating them into a university education.

SCOTT NEWSTOK, “A Plea for ‘Close Learning’ ” 451 An English professor argues for the value of face-to-face interactive learning.

DAVE BLAZEK, “Melissa Misunderstands Massive Open Online Courses” (editorial cartoon) 454 A cartoonist humorously illustrates one of the drawbacks of MOOCs.

CHRISSIE LONG, “The Changing Face of Higher Education: The Future of the Traditional University Experience” 455 Recognizing that the traditional classroom won’t disappear, a writer argues for the benefits and transformative potential of MOOCs, particularly, the opportunities they offer learners in developing countries.

Immigration in the Twenty-First Century 460 FATEMEH FAKHRAIE, “Scarfing It Down” 461

A media critic argues that coverage of countries’ attempts to ban the wearing of hijab distorts the issue by labeling it a religious freedom issue and by leaving out the voices of the women themselves.

STEPHANIE PAULSELL, “Veiled Voices” 462 A professor at Harvard Divinity School addresses Muslim women’s varying reasons for wearing hijab.

MADELINE ZAVODNY, “Unauthorized Immigrant Arrivals Are on the Rise, and That’s Good News” 463 An economics professor reads the number of illegal immigrants as an economic index and argues for reforms for immigrant workers’ visas over governmental spending on increased border security.

CHIP BOK, “Processing Undocumented Children” (editorial cartoon) 465 An editorial cartoonist comments on the difference in the handling of undocumented children in 2000 and in 2014.

Detailed Contents xvii

MARK KRIKORIAN, “DREAM On” 466 The executive director of the Center for Immigration Studies details the flaws he sees in the DREAM Act and other amnesty legislation.

LEE HABEEB AND MIKE LEVEN, “Immigration, America’s Advantage” 469 A columnist and a businessman team up to advocate for the benefits of maintaining an immigrant workforce.

JOHN K. KAVANAUGH, “Amnesty?: Let Us Be Vigilant and Charitable” 471 A Roman Catholic priest and philosophy professor asks anti-immigration groups to see the human face of undocumented immigrants and to support a path to amnesty.

LOS ANGELES TIMES, “Young, Alone, and in Court” 473 The editors of the Los Angeles Times argue for a multinational, humanitarian response to the issue of child migrants and a better process for handling unaccompanied children in the U.S. immigration system.

NATIONAL REVIEW, “Border Crisis in Texas” 474 The editors of the National Review blame the Obama administration’s amnesty policies for the surge in illegal-immigrant children.

Millennials Entering Adulthood 477 KATHRYN TYLER, “The Tethered Generation” 478

A writer analyzes how technology has affected the way Millennials work and communicate, and proposes management strategies for employers.

ERIN BURNS, “Millennials and Mentoring: Why I’m Calling Out ‘Bullpucky!’ on Generational Differences and Professional Development” 482 A young professional refutes the assumption that her generation requires “special handling” in the workplace.

AMERICA, “Generation S” 488 The editors of a Catholic weekly magazine argue that the spirit of service instilled in the current generation of students should be modeled by all Americans.

RAFFI WINEBURG, “Lip Service Useless for Millennials” 490 A recent graduate reflects on the challenges facing Millennials as they enter the workforce and calls for a more constructive treatment of them.

KAY S. HYMOWITZ, “Where Have the Good Men Gone?” 491 The author of Manning Up: How the Rise of Women Has Turned Men into Boys claims that too many men in their twenties have succumbed to a new kind of extended adolescence.

EVE TUSHNET, “You Can Go Home Again” 495 A writer challenges the stigma faced by young adults who move back in with their parents.

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Choices for a Sustainable World 499 MARK Z. JACOBSON AND MARK A. DELUCCHI, “A Path to Sustainable Energy by 2030” 500

A research scientist and an engineering professor propose a combination of wind, water, and solar power as the best alternative to fossil fuels, and explain how the transition can be made quickly and cost effectively.

ASHUTOSH JOGALEKAR, “Vaclav Smil: ‘The Great Hope for a Quick and Sweeping Transition to Renewable Energy Is Wishful Thinking’ ” 506 A science blogger uses Vaclav Smil’s research to argue that substantial obstacles still stand in the way of the widespread conversion to renewable energy.

U.S. ENERGY INFORMATION ADMINISTRATION, “The U.S. Energy Story in Numbers: Energy Supply and Disposition by Type of Fuel, 1975–2010” 508 Statistics gathered by a U.S. agency tell a wealth of stories about U.S. energy production and consumption.

ROBERT BRYCE, “The Real Energy Revolution Shrinking Carbon Dioxide Emissions? It’s Fracking” 510 A writer from a conservative think tank maintains that fracking has enabled the United States to make greater strides than other nations in reducing its emissions, and at a lower cost.

ABRAHM LUSTGARTEN, “Fracking: A Key to Energy Independence?” 511 An investigative journalist questions the speed with which the U.S. and other nations have embraced fracking.

JASON POWERS, “The Problem Is the Solution: Cultivating New Traditions Through Permaculture” 513 An activist argues that developing a sustainable approach to using resources is critical to the survival of a culture.

VANDANA SHIVA, “The Soil vs. the Sensex” 516 An environmental activist sets the interests of the small farmer against those of the Sensex, India’s stock exchange.

Digital Literacies 519 AN INTERVIEW WITH SHERRY TURKLE, Digital Demands: The Challenges of Constant

Connectivity 520 In an interview on PBS’s Frontline, scholar and researcher Sherry Turkle suggests that constant connectivity may make us more lonely and less inclined to find stillness or think deeply about “complicated things.”

ALISON GOPNIK, “Diagnosing the Digital Revolution: Why It’s So Hard to Tell if It’s Really Changing Us” 523 A professor and expert in child learning and development suggests that claims for the negative impact of technology on young people may be overstated.

Detailed Contents xix

MARY ANN HARLAN, “Deconstructing Digital Natives” 527 In this scholarly article, a teacher and librarian makes the distinction between tech- nological savvy and digital literacy.

CHRISTIAN SCIENCE MONITOR, “Help Teens Erase Their Web Indiscretions” 529 The editors of Christian Science Monitor advocate for legislation allowing teens to erase their digital footprints, comparing it to existing laws allowing juvenile criminal records to be expunged.

SUSAN NIELSEN, “An Internet ‘Eraser’ Law Would Hurt, Not Help, Oregon Teens” 530 A journalist argues that allowing teens to erase past web indiscretions teaches them that they can behave poorly without forethought or consequence.

GARY VARVEL, “Meet Jack” (editorial cartoon) 532 A cartoonist humorously demonstrates the consequences of sharing too much on social media.

ADRIENNE SARASY, “The Age of the Selfie: Taking, Sharing Our Photos Shows Empowerment, Pride” 533 A high school journalist argues in her student newspaper that selfies can be empowering and help to redefine standards of beauty.

ROBERT WILCOX, “The Age of the Selfie: Endless Need to Share Tears Society’s Last Shred of Decency” 534 In the same student newspaper, a student editor argues that oversharing through selfies goes beyond narcissism and may actually be dangerous.

AASHIKA DAMODAR, “The Rise of ‘Great Potential’: Youth Activism against Gender-Based Violence” 535 An anti-trafficking activist analyzes the potential of social media as a tool for activism, arguing that it is most effective when combined with offline action.

Argument Classics 542 GARRETT HARDIN, “Lifeboat Ethics: The Case Against Aid That Does Harm” 542

An ecologist argues against foreign aid and open borders, promoting wider understanding of the “tragedy of the commons” and stimulating new thinking about the causes of poverty and ways to combat it.

RACHEL CARSON, “The Obligation to Endure” 549 A marine biologist and writer exposes the subtle, insidious dangers of the pesticide DDT, and in so doing helps launch the environmental movement.

E. O. WILSON, “Apocalypse Now”/“Letter to a Southern Baptist Minister” 554 A biologist and secular humanist attempts to bridge the gap between science and religion, asking Christians and environmentalists to come together to save the multitude of species threatened by climate change.

MARGARET SANGER, “The Morality of Birth Control” 557 A pioneer of the birth control movement seeks to redefine what is “moral” when considering access to birth control and assessment of the consequences.

Credits 562 Index 567

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Preface Through nine editions, Writing Arguments has established itself as a leading college textbook in argumentation. By focusing on argument as dialogue in search of solutions to problems instead of as pro-con debate with winners and losers, Writing Arguments treats argument as a process of inquiry as well as a means of persuasion. Users and reviewers have consis- tently praised the book for teaching the critical thinking skills needed for writing arguments: how to analyze the occasion for an argument; how to ground an argument in the values and beliefs of the targeted audience; how to develop and elaborate an argument; and how to respond sensitively to objections and alternative views. We are pleased that in this tenth edition, we have made many improvements while retaining the text’s signature strengths.

What’s New in the Tenth Edition? Based on our continuing research into argumentation theory and pedagogy, as well as on the advice of users, we have made significant improvements in the tenth edition that increase the text’s flexibility for teachers and its appeal to students. We have made the following major changes:

■ An updated, revised, and streamlined Chapter 2 on “Argument as Inquiry” now focused on the “living wage” controversy. The previous edition’s inquiry topic about immigration has been replaced by the issue of raising the minimum wage for fast-food workers or retail store clerks. Chapter 2 now has all new stu- dent examples, visual arguments, and professional readings focussed on mini- mum wage, including a new annotated student exploratory essay that models the process of rhetorical reading and dialogic thinking.

■ Expanded treatment of evidence. A revised and expanded Chapter 5 explains with greater clarity the kinds of evidence that can be used in argument and shows students how to analyze evidence rhetorically. A new section shows students how to evaluate evidence encountered in secondary sources by tracing it back to its primary sources.

■ Expanded treatment of Rogerian communication and other means of engag- ing alternative views. In Chapter 7, we expand our treatment of Rogerian argu- ment by reframing it as Rogerian communication, which focuses more on mutual listening, negotiation, and growth than on persuasion. Chapter 7 now contains an additional student example of Rogerian communication addressing the issue of charter schools. In addition, we have strengthened our explanation of how classical argument treats opposing views. A new annotated student essay using a rebuttal strategy shows how classical argument can appeal successfully to neutral, undecided, or mildly resistant audiences.

■ Streamlined organization of each chapter now keyed to learning outcomes. Each chapter now begins with newly formulated learning outcomes. Each main heading in a rhetoric chapter is linked to a respective outcome, enhancing the explanatory power of the outcomes and helping students learn the high-level take- away points and concepts in each chapter

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■ New “For Writing and Discussion” activities. The class discussion activities in this edition now include two types. The first—identified as “For Class Discussion”— helps teachers incorporate small-group discussion tasks that enhance learning of course concepts and skills. The second type—identified as “For Writing and Discussion”—is new to this edition. Each of these activities begins with an “indi- vidual task” that can be assigned as homework in advance of class. These tasks are intended as informal, low-stakes write-to-learn activities that motivate reading of the chapter and help students build their own argumentative skills. Each chapter contains at least one of these “For Writing and Discussion” activities.

■ Seven new student model essays, many of which are annotated. New student model arguments, including many newly annotated models, help demonstrate ar- gument strategies in practice. Showing how other students have developed various types of arguments makes argument concepts and strategies easier for students to grasp and use themselves. New student essays address timely and relevant issues such as raising the minimum wage, evaluating charter schools, analyzing the eth- ics of downloading films from a person-to-person torrent site on the Web, critiqu- ing a school culture that makes minorities “invisible,” opposing women in combat roles, and evaluating the effect of social media on today’s college students.

■ Seven new professional readings throughout the rhetoric section in the text. New readings about issues such as a living wage, the use of dietary supplements among athletes, the “amateur” status of college athletes, the impact of adult cell- phone use on children, and therapeutic cloning have been chosen for their illustra- tive power and student interest.

■ New visual examples throughout the text. New images, editorial cartoons, and graphics throughout the text highlight current issues such as living wage, climate change, bullying, sexual trafficking, date rape, rainwater conservation, fracking, and gender or racial stereotypes.

■ A thoroughly updated and revised anthology. The anthology in the tenth edi- tion features newly updated units as well as one new unit.

A new unit on food and farming explores controversies over labelling genetically modified foods and the educational, nutritional, and social value of school gardens.

An updated unit on digital literacies explores the effects of communications technol- ogies and social media on the way we think, read, and write as well as on our values and social relationships and online identities. The unit also explores the controversy over selfies and shows how social media have been employed to fight gender violence.

An updated unit on education continues its focus on the value of a college edu- cation. A new sequence of arguments examines the benefits and drawbacks of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs), including their effect on teaching, student learning, and society’s commitment to educate its citizens.

The unit on immigration has been updated to reflect the latest controversies over the social and economic benefits of immigrants and the humanitarian cri- sis over undocumented children at the border.

An updated unit on sustainability now presents a range of arguments on the technological, economic, and political challenges of converting to renewable energy sources and on the controversy over fracking.

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An updated unit on the Millennial generation includes the difficulties of enter- ing the workforce, the need to live with parents longer than planned, choosing to delay marriage, and more.

What Hasn’t Changed? The Distinguishing Features of Writing Arguments

Building on earlier success, we have preserved the signature features of earlier editions praised by students, instructors, and reviewers:

■ Focus throughout on writing arguments. Grounded in composition theory, this text combines explanations of argument with exploratory writing activities, sequenced writing assignments, and class-tested discussion tasks with the aim of helping students produce their own strong arguments. The text emphasizes the critical thinking that underlies effective arguments, particularly the skills of criti- cal reading, of active questioning and listening, of believing and doubting, and of developing effective reasons and evidence to support claims.

■ Emphasis on argument as a rhetorical act. Analyzing audience, understanding the real-world occasions for argument, and appreciating the context and genre of arguments are all treated as equally important rhetorical considerations. Focusing on both the reading and the writing of arguments, the text emphasizes the crit- ical thinking that underlies effective arguments, particularly the skills of critical reading, of rhetorical analysis, of believing and doubting, of empathic listening, of active questioning, and of negotiating ambiguity and seeking synthesis.

■ Integration of four different approaches to argument. This text uses the Toulmin system as a means of inventing and analyzing arguments; the enthymeme as a logical structure rooted in the beliefs and values of the audience; the classical concepts of logos, pathos, and ethos as persuasive appeals; and stasis theory (called claim types) as an aid to inventing and structuring argu-

ments through the understanding of generic argumentative moves associated with different categories of claims.

■ Generous treatment of the research process. Coverage includes guidance for finding sources, reading and evaluating them rhetorically, taking notes, integrat- ing source material, and citing sources using two academic citation systems: MLA and APA.

■ Well-sequenced writing assignments. The text provides a variety of sequenced writing assignments that include:

an argument summary a researched, exploratory essay a “supporting-reasons” argument a classical argument a delayed-thesis argument or Rogerian letter a rhetorical analysis of a written argument a rhetorical analysis of a visual argument an advocacy ad a short argument incorporating quantitative data

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an editorial cartoon a definition argument a causal argument an evaluation or ethical argument a proposal argument an advocacy poster a speech with PowerPoint slides

Part Six, the anthology, provides writing assignments focusing on problems related to each topical unit. Instructors can also design anthology assignments requiring argu- ment analysis.

■ “For Writing and Discussion,” “For Class Discussion,” and “Examining Visual Arguments” exercises. These class-tested informal activities, which teach critical thinking and build argumentative skills, are designed to produce active class discus- sion and debate. All “For Class Discussion” exercises can be used either for whole- class discussions or for collaborative group tasks.

■ Effective and engaging student and professional arguments. The tenth edition contains 54 written arguments and 55 visual arguments drawn from public and academic arenas as well as 16 student essays and 2 student visual arguments to il- lustrate argumentative strategies and stimulate discussion, analysis, and debate.

Our Approaches to Argumentation Our interest in argumentation grows out of our interest in the relationship between writing and thinking. When writing arguments, writers are forced to lay bare their thinking processes in an unparalleled way, grappling with the complex interplay be- tween inquiry and persuasion, between issue and audience. In an effort to engage stu- dents in the kinds of critical thinking that argument demands, we draw on four major approaches to argumentation: 1. The enthymeme as a rhetorical and logical structure. This concept, especially

useful for beginning writers, helps students “nutshell” an argument as a claim with one or more supporting because clauses. It also helps them see how real-world arguments are rooted in assumptions granted by the audience rather than in uni- versal and unchanging principles.

2. The three classical types of appeal—logos, ethos, and pathos. These concepts help students place their arguments in a rhetorical context focusing on audience- based appeals; they also help students create an effective voice and style.

3. Toulmin’s system of analyzing arguments. Toulmin’s system helps students see the complete, implicit structure that underlies an enthymeme and develop appro- priate grounds and backing to support an argument’s reasons and warrants. It also highlights the rhetorical, social, and dialectical nature of argument.

4. Stasis theory concerning types of claims. This approach stresses the heuristic value of learning different patterns of support for different types of claims and often leads students to make surprisingly rich and full arguments.

Throughout the text these approaches are integrated and synthesized into generative tools for both producing and analyzing arguments.

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Structure of the Text Writing Arguments provides a sound pedagogical framework for the teaching of argu- ment while giving instructors the flexibility to use what they need. Part One begins with an overview of argument and a chapter on reading arguments and exploring issues. Part Two examines the elements of writing arguments: the enthymeme (a claim with rea- sons); the rhetorical appeals of logos, ethos, and pathos; Toulmin’s system for analyzing arguments; the use of evidence; acknowledging and responding to alternative views; and using delayed-thesis and Rogerian approaches. In Part Three, the focus shifts to analyz- ing written and visual arguments. Part Four provides a deeper understanding of defini- tion, resemblance, causal, evaluation, and proposal arguments. Part Five shows students how to use sources in support of an argument by evaluating, integrating, citing, and documenting them properly. An appendix on logical fallacies is a handy section where all the major informal fallacies are treated at once for easy reference.

Part Six, the anthology, provides a rich and varied selection of professional argu- ments arranged into seven high-interest units including the value of higher educa- tion, digital literacies, current food issues, Millennials in the workplace, immigration, choices for a sustainable world, and a collection of classic arguments. The anthology selections are grouped by topic rather than by issue question to encourage students to see that any conversation of alternative views gives rise to numerous embedded and intertwined issues. Many of the issues raised in the anthology are first raised in the rhetoric (Parts One through Five) so that students’ interest in the anthology topics will already be piqued.

Resources for Instructors and Students Now Available for Composition Writing TMMy Lab Integrated solutions for writing. MyWritingLab is an online homework, tutorial, and assessment program that provides engaging experiences for today’s instructors and students. New features designed specifically for composition instructors and their course needs include a new writing space for students, customizable rubrics for assess- ing and grading student writing, multimedia instruction on all aspects of composition, and advanced reporting to improve the ability to analyze class performance.

Adaptive learning. MyWritingLab offers pre-assessments and personalized remedia- tion so students see improved results and instructors spend less time in class reviewing the basics. Visit www.mywritinglab.com for more information.

eTextbooks Pearson eText gives students access to Writing Arguments, Tenth Edition, when- ever and wherever they can access the Internet. The eText pages look exactly like the printed text, and include powerful interactive and customization functions. Users

http://www.mywritinglab.com
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can create notes, highlight text in different colors, create bookmarks, zoom, click hyperlinked words and phrases to view definitions, and view as a single page or as two pages. Pearson eText also links students to associated media files, enabling them to view videos as they read the text, and offers a full-text search and the ability to save and export notes. The Pearson eText also includes embedded URLs in the chapter text with active links to the Internet.

The Pearson eText app is a great companion to Pearson’s eText browser-based book reader. It allows existing subscribers who view their Pearson eText titles on a Mac or PC to additionally access their titles in a bookshelf on the iPad or an Android tablet either online or via download.

Instructor’s Manual The Instructor’s Manual, Tenth Edition, includes the following features:

■ Discussion of planning decisions an instructor must make in designing an argu- ment course: for example, how to use readings; how much to emphasize Toulmin or claim type theory; how much time to build into the course for invention, peer review of drafts, and other writing instruction; and how to select and sequence assignments.

■ For new instructors, a helpful discussion of how to sequence writing assignments and how to use a variety of collaborative tasks in the classroom to promote active learning and critical thinking.

■ Four detailed syllabi that support a variety of course structures and emphases. ■ An independent, highly teachable introductory lesson on the Toulmin schema

and an additional exercise giving students practice using Toulmin to generate argument frames.

■ Chapter-by-chapter teaching tips, responses to the For Class Discussion exercises, and sample quizzes.

■ Suggestions for encouraging students to explore how visual arguments mold pub- lic thinking about issues and controversies.

■ Helpful suggestions for using the exercises in Part Four on critiquing readings. By focusing on rhetorical context as well as on the strengths and weaknesses of these arguments, our suggestions will help students connect their reading of arguments to their writing of arguments.

■ A list of anthology readings that employ each claim type, either as a major claim or as a substantial portion of the argument.

■ An analysis of anthology readings that points out striking connections among readings, suggesting how the readings participate in larger societal argumenta- tive conversations, but that also connects the anthology to the rhetoric portion of the text. Using a bulleted, quick-reference format, each analysis briefly discusses (1) the core of the argument, (2) the major or dominant claims of the argument, (3) the argument’s use of evidence and argumentative strategies, (4) the appeals to ethos and pathos in the argument, and (5) the argument’s genre.

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Acknowledgments We are happy for this opportunity to give public thanks to the scholars, teachers, and stu- dents who have influenced our approach to composition and argument. For this edition, we owe special thanks to those who helped us revise the anthology of Writing Arguments. Hilary Hawley, our colleague at Seattle University, researched and wrote the apparatus for many of the Anthology units. Her experience teaching argument and the public controver- sies over food appear in the new unit featuring controversies over GMO food and school gardens. We also thank Sarah Bean for her research on the anthology, her keen awareness of social justice issues, and her empathic perspective on Millennials.

We are particularly grateful to our talented students—Trudie Makens, Lauren Shinozuka, Monica Allen, Alex Mullen, Lorena Mendoza-Flores, and Ivan Snook—who contributed to this edition their timely arguments built from their intellectual curiosity, ideas, personal experience, and research. We also thank Janie Bube for her environmental advocacy poster and Trey Tice for his film criticism. Additionally, we are grateful to all our students whom we have been privileged to teach in our writing classes and to our other students who have enabled us to include their arguments in this text. Their insights and growth as writers have inspired our ongoing study of rhetoric and argumentation.

We thank too the many users of our texts who have given us encouragement about our successes and offered helpful suggestions for improvements. Particularly we thank the following scholars and teachers who reviewed this revision of Writing Arguments in its various stages:

Alicia Alexander, Cape Fear Community College; Elijah Coleman, Washington State University; Shannon Collins, Owensboro Community and Technical College; Veronda Hutchinson, Johnston Community College; A. Abby Knoblauch, Kansas State University; Beth Lewis, Moberly Area Community College; Layne Neeper, Morehead State University; Jessie Nixon, University of Alaska Anchorage; Thomas Riddle, Guilford Technical Community College; Dixie A. Shaw-Tillmon, The University of Texas San Antonio; Janice R. Showler, Holy Family University; Coreen Wees, Iowa Western Community College; and Stephen H. Wells, Community College of Allegheny County.

We thank our editor, Brad Potthoff for his publishing knowledge and cordial leader- ship. We also give special, heartfelt thanks to our two development editors, Kassi Radomski and Marion Castellucci, who shepherded this project through every stage, giving us timely insight, collaborative feedback, and professional support. We also thank Martha Beyerlein, our production editor, who has worked with us for years and patiently ushered us into the paperless stages of text preparation.