If the radius of platinum is 0.139 nm, what is the pd of the (100) plane for platinum in m-2?

An Introduction

MATERIALS SCIENCE and ENGINEERING

William D. Callister, Jr. David G. Rethwisch

9E

Characteristics of Selected Elements

Atomic Density of Crystal Atomic Ionic Most Melting Atomic Weight Solid, 20�C Structure, Radius Radius Common Point

Element Symbol Number (amu) (g/cm3) 20�C (nm) (nm) Valence (�C)

Aluminum Al 13 26.98 2.71 FCC 0.143 0.053 3� 660.4 Argon Ar 18 39.95 — — — — Inert �189.2 Barium Ba 56 137.33 3.5 BCC 0.217 0.136 2� 725 Beryllium Be 4 9.012 1.85 HCP 0.114 0.035 2� 1278 Boron B 5 10.81 2.34 Rhomb. — 0.023 3� 2300 Bromine Br 35 79.90 — — — 0.196 1� �7.2 Cadmium Cd 48 112.41 8.65 HCP 0.149 0.095 2� 321 Calcium Ca 20 40.08 1.55 FCC 0.197 0.100 2� 839 Carbon C 6 12.011 2.25 Hex. 0.071 �0.016 4� (sublimes at 3367) Cesium Cs 55 132.91 1.87 BCC 0.265 0.170 1� 28.4 Chlorine Cl 17 35.45 — — — 0.181 1� �101 Chromium Cr 24 52.00 7.19 BCC 0.125 0.063 3� 1875 Cobalt Co 27 58.93 8.9 HCP 0.125 0.072 2� 1495 Copper Cu 29 63.55 8.94 FCC 0.128 0.096 1� 1085 Fluorine F 9 19.00 — — — 0.133 1� �220 Gallium Ga 31 69.72 5.90 Ortho. 0.122 0.062 3� 29.8 Germanium Ge 32 72.64 5.32 Dia. cubic 0.122 0.053 4� 937 Gold Au 79 196.97 19.32 FCC 0.144 0.137 1� 1064 Helium He 2 4.003 — — — — Inert �272 (at 26 atm) Hydrogen H 1 1.008 — — — 0.154 1� �259 Iodine I 53 126.91 4.93 Ortho. 0.136 0.220 1� 114 Iron Fe 26 55.85 7.87 BCC 0.124 0.077 2� 1538 Lead Pb 82 207.2 11.35 FCC 0.175 0.120 2� 327 Lithium Li 3 6.94 0.534 BCC 0.152 0.068 1� 181 Magnesium Mg 12 24.31 1.74 HCP 0.160 0.072 2� 649 Manganese Mn 25 54.94 7.44 Cubic 0.112 0.067 2� 1244 Mercury Hg 80 200.59 — — — 0.110 2� �38.8 Molybdenum Mo 42 95.94 10.22 BCC 0.136 0.070 4� 2617 Neon Ne 10 20.18 — — — — Inert �248.7 Nickel Ni 28 58.69 8.90 FCC 0.125 0.069 2� 1455 Niobium Nb 41 92.91 8.57 BCC 0.143 0.069 5� 2468 Nitrogen N 7 14.007 — — — 0.01–0.02 5� �209.9 Oxygen O 8 16.00 — — — 0.140 2� �218.4 Phosphorus P 15 30.97 1.82 Ortho. 0.109 0.035 5� 44.1 Platinum Pt 78 195.08 21.45 FCC 0.139 0.080 2� 1772 Potassium K 19 39.10 0.862 BCC 0.231 0.138 1� 63 Silicon Si 14 28.09 2.33 Dia. cubic 0.118 0.040 4� 1410 Silver Ag 47 107.87 10.49 FCC 0.144 0.126 1� 962 Sodium Na 11 22.99 0.971 BCC 0.186 0.102 1� 98 Sulfur S 16 32.06 2.07 Ortho. 0.106 0.184 2� 113 Tin Sn 50 118.71 7.27 Tetra. 0.151 0.071 4� 232 Titanium Ti 22 47.87 4.51 HCP 0.145 0.068 4� 1668 Tungsten W 74 183.84 19.3 BCC 0.137 0.070 4� 3410 Vanadium V 23 50.94 6.1 BCC 0.132 0.059 5� 1890 Zinc Zn 30 65.41 7.13 HCP 0.133 0.074 2� 420 Zirconium Zr 40 91.22 6.51 HCP 0.159 0.079 4� 1852

Values of Selected Physical Constants

Quantity Symbol SI Units cgs Units

Avogadro’s number NA 6.022 � 10 23 6.022 � 1023

molecules/mol molecules/mol Boltzmann’s constant k 1.38 � 10�23 J/atom K 1.38 � 10�16 erg/atom K

8.62 � 10�5 eV/atom K Bohr magneton mB 9.27 � 10

�24 A m2 9.27 � 10�21 erg/gaussa

Electron charge e 1.602 � 10�19 C 4.8 � 10�10 statcoulb

Electron mass — 9.11 � 10�31 kg 9.11 � 10�28 g Gas constant R 8.31 J/mol K 1.987 cal/mol K Permeability of a vacuum m0 1.257 � 10

�6 henry/m unitya

Permittivity of a vacuum �0 8.85 � 10 �12 farad/m unityb

Planck’s constant h 6.63 � 10�34 J s 6.63 � 10�27 erg s 4.13 � 10�15 eV s

Velocity of light in a vacuum c 3 � 108 m/s 3 � 1010 cm/s a In cgs-emu units. b In cgs-esu units.

# ##

##

# # ##

Unit Abbreviations

A � ampere in. � inch N � newton � angstrom J � joule nm � nanometer

Btu � British thermal unit K � degrees Kelvin P � poise C � Coulomb kg � kilogram Pa � Pascal

�C � degrees Celsius lbf � pound force s � second cal � calorie (gram) lbm � pound mass T � temperature cm � centimeter m � meter �m � micrometer eV � electron volt Mg � megagram (micron) �F � degrees Fahrenheit mm � millimeter W � watt ft � foot mol � mole psi � pounds per square g � gram MPa � megapascal inch

Å

SI Multiple and Submultiple Prefixes

Factor by Which Multiplied Prefix Symbol

109 giga G 106 mega M 103 kilo k 10�2 centia c 10�3 milli m 10�6 micro � 10�9 nano n 10�12 pico p

a Avoided when possible.

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9th Edition

Materials Science and Engineering

AN INTRODUCTION

WILLIAM D. CALLISTER, JR. Department of Metallurgical Engineering

The University of Utah

DAVID G. RETHWISCH Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering

The University of Iowa

Front Cover: Depiction of a unit cell for iron carbide (Fe3C) from three different perspectives. Brown and blue spheres represent iron and carbon atoms, respectively. Back Cover: Three representations of the unit cell for body-centered cubic iron (a-ferrite); each unit cell contains an interstitial carbon atom.

VICE PRESIDENT AND EXECUTIVE PUBLISHER Donald Fowley EXECUTIVE EDITOR Daniel Sayre EDITORIAL PROGRAM ASSISTANT Jessica Knecht SENIOR CONTENT MANAGER Kevin Holm PRODUCTION EDITOR James Metzger EXECUTIVE MARKETING MANAGER Christopher Ruel DESIGN DIRECTOR Harry Nolan SENIOR DESIGNER Madelyn Lesure SENIOR PHOTO EDITOR MaryAnn Price COVER ART Roy Wiemann and William D. Callister, Jr.

This book was set in 9.5/11.5 Times Ten LT Std by Aptara, Inc., and printed and bound by Quad Graphics/Versailles. The cover was printed by Quad Graphics/Versailles.

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Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007, 2003, 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, website www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, website www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

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ISBN: 978-1-118-32457-8 Wiley Binder Version ISBN: 978-1-118-47770-0

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Dedicated to Bill Stenquist, editor and friend

In this ninth edition we have retained the objectives and approaches for teaching materials science and engineering that were presented in previous editions. The first, and primary, objective is to present the basic fundamentals on a level appropriate for university/college students who have completed their freshmen calculus, chemistry, and physics courses.

The second objective is to present the subject matter in a logical order, from the simple to the more complex. Each chapter builds on the content of previous ones.

The third objective, or philosophy, that we strive to maintain throughout the text is that if a topic or concept is worth treating, then it is worth treating in sufficient detail and to the extent that students have the opportunity to fully understand it without having to consult other sources; in addition, in most cases, some practical relevance is provided.

The fourth objective is to include features in the book that will expedite the learning process. These learning aids include the following:

• Numerous illustrations, now presented in full color, and photographs to help visualize what is being presented

• Learning objectives, to focus student attention on what they should be getting from each chapter

• “Why Study . . .” and “Materials of Importance” items as well as case studies that provide relevance to topic discussions

• “Concept Check” questions that test whether a student understands the subject matter on a conceptual level

• Key terms, and descriptions of key equations, highlighted in the margins for quick reference

• End-of-chapter questions and problems designed to progressively develop students’ understanding of concepts and facility with skills

• Answers to selected problems, so students can check their work

• A glossary, a global list of symbols, and references to facilitate understanding of the subject matter

• End-of-chapter summary tables of important equations and symbols used in these equations

• Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance correlations and summary concept maps for four materials (steels, glass-ceramics, polymer fibers, and silicon semiconductors), which integrate important concepts from chapter to chapter

• Materials of Importance sections that lend relevance to topical coverage by discussing familiar and interesting materials and their applications

The fifth objective is to enhance the teaching and learning process by using the newer tech- nologies that are available to most instructors and today’s engineering students.

Preface

• vii

viii • Preface

New/Revised Content Several important changes have been made with this Ninth Edition. One of the most signifi- cant is the incorporation of several new sections, as well as revisions/amplifications of other sections. These include the following:

• Numerous new and revised example problems. In addition, all homework problems requiring computations have been refreshed.

• Revised, expanded, and updated tables

• Two new case studies: “Liberty Ship Failures” (Chapter 1) and “Use of Composites in the Boeing 787 Dreamliner” (Chapter 16)

• Bond hybridization in carbon (Chapter 2)

• Revision of discussions on crystallographic planes and directions to include the use of equations for the determination of planar and directional indices (Chapter 3)

• Revised discussion on determination of grain size (Chapter 4)

• New section on the structure of carbon fibers (Chapter 13)

• Revised/expanded discussions on structures, properties, and applications of the nanocarbons: fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, and graphene (Chapter 13)

• Revised/expanded discussion on structural composites: laminar composites and sandwich panels (Chapter 16)

• New section on structure, properties, and applications of nanocomposite materials (Chapter 16)

• Tutorial videos. In WileyPLUS, Tutorial Videos help students with their “muddiest points” in conceptual understanding and problem-solving.

• Exponents and logarithms. In WileyPLUS, the exponential functions and natural logarithms have been added to the Exponents and Logarithms section of the Math Skills Review.

• Fundamentals of Engineering homework problems and questions for most chapters. These appear at the end of Questions and Problems sections and provide students the opportunity to practice answering and solving questions and problems similar to those found on Fundamentals of Engineering examinations.

Online Learning Resources—Student Companion Site at www.wiley.com/college/callister. Also found on the book’s website is a Students’ Companion page on which is posted several important instructional elements for the student that complement the text; these include the following:

• Answers to Concept Check questions, questions which are found in the print book.

• Library of Case Studies. One way to demonstrate principles of design in an engineering curriculum is via case studies: analyses of problem-solving strategies applied to real-world examples of applications/devices/failures encountered by engineers. Five case studies are provided as follows: (1) Materials Selection for a Torsionally Stressed Cylindrical Shaft; (2) Automobile Valve Spring; (3) Failure of an Automobile Rear Axle; (4) Artificial Total Hip Replacement; and (5) Chemical Protective Clothing.

• Mechanical Engineering (ME) Module. This module treats materials science/ engineering topics not covered in the printed text that are relevant to mechanical engineering.

• Extended Learning Objectives. This is a more extensive list of learning objectives than is provided at the beginning of each chapter. These direct the student to study the subject material to a greater depth.

Preface • ix

• Student Lecture PowerPoint® Slides. These slides (in both Adobe Acrobat® PDF and PowerPoint® formats) are virtually identical to the lecture slides provided to an instructor for use in the classroom. The student set has been designed to allow for note taking on printouts.

• Index of Learning Styles. Upon answering a 44-item questionnaire, a user’s learning-style preference (i.e., the manner in which information is assimilated and processed) is assessed.

Online Resources for Instructors—Instructors Companion Site at www.wiley.com/college/callister. The Instructor Companion Site is available for instructors who have adopted this text. Please visit the website to register for access. Resources that are available include the following:

• All resources found on the Student Companion Site. (Except for the Student Lecture PowerPoint® Slides.)

• Instructor Solutions Manual. Detailed solutions for all end-of-chapter questions and problems (in both Word® and Adobe Acrobat® PDF formats).

• Homework Problem Correlation Guide—8th edition to 9th edition. This guide notes, for each homework problem or question (by number), whether it appeared in the eighth edition and, if so, its number in this previous edition.

• Virtual Materials Science and Engineering (VMSE). This web-based software package consists of interactive simulations and animations that enhance the learning of key concepts in materials science and engineering. Included in VMSE are eight modules and a materials properties/cost database. Titles of these modules are as follows: (1) Metallic Crystal Structures and Crystallography; (2) Ceramic Crystal Structures; (3) Repeat Unit and Polymer Structures; (4) Dislocations; (5) Phase Diagrams; (6) Diffusion; (7) Tensile Tests; and (8) Solid-Solution Strengthening.

• Image Gallery. Illustrations from the book. Instructors can use them in assignments, tests, or other exercises they create for students.

• Art PowerPoint Slides. Book art loaded into PowerPoints, so instructors can more easily use them to create their own PowerPoint Slides.

• Lecture Note PowerPoints. These slides, developed by the authors and Peter M. Anderson (The Ohio State University), follow the flow of topics in the text, and include materials taken from the text as well as other sources. Slides are available in both Adobe Acrobat® PDF and PowerPoint® formats. [Note: If an instructor doesn’t have available all fonts used by the developer, special characters may not be displayed correctly in the PowerPoint version (i.e., it is not possible to embed fonts in PowerPoints); however, in the PDF version, these characters will appear correctly.]

• Solutions to Case Study Problems.

• Solutions to Problems in the Mechanical Engineering Web Module.

• Suggested Course Syllabi for the Various Engineering Disciplines. Instructors may consult these syllabi for guidance in course/lecture organization and planning.

• Experiments and Classroom Demonstrations. Instructions and outlines for experiments and classroom demonstrations that portray phenomena and/or illustrate principles that are discussed in the book; references are also provided that give more detailed accounts of these demonstrations.

x • Preface

WileyPLUS is a research-based online environment for effective teaching and learning. WileyPLUS builds students’ confidence by taking the guesswork out of studying by

providing them with a clear roadmap: what is assigned, what is required for each assign- ment, and whether assignments are done correctly. Independent research has shown that students using WileyPLUS will take more initiative so the instructor has a greater impact on their achievement in the classroom and beyond. WileyPLUS also helps students study and progress at a pace that’s right for them. Our integrated resources–available 24/7– function like a personal tutor, directly addressing each student’s demonstrated needs by providing specific problem-solving techniques.

What do students receive with WileyPLUS? • The complete digital textbook that saves students up to 60% of the cost of the

in-print text.

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What do instructors receive with WileyPLUS? • The ability to effectively and efficiently personalize and manage their course.

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WileyPLUS

We have a sincere interest in meeting the needs of educators and students in the materi- als science and engineering community, and therefore we solicit feedback on this edition. Comments, suggestions, and criticisms may be submitted to the authors via email at the following address: billcallister@comcast.net.

Feedback

Since we undertook the task of writing this and previous editions, instructors and stu- dents, too numerous to mention, have shared their input and contributions on how to make this work more effective as a teaching and learning tool. To all those who have helped, we express our sincere thanks.

We express our appreciation to those who have made contributions to this edition. We are especially indebted to the following:

Audrey Butler of The University of Iowa, and Bethany Smith and Stephen Krause of Arizona State University, for helping to develop material in the WileyPLUS course.

Grant Head for his expert programming skills, which he used in developing the Vir- tual Materials Science and Engineering software.

Eric Hellstrom and Theo Siegrist of Florida State University for their feedback and suggestions for this edition.

Acknowledgments

Preface • xi

In addition, we thank the many instructors who participated in the fall 2011 market- ing survey; their valuable contributions were driving forces for many of the changes and additions to this ninth edition.

We are also indebted to Dan Sayre, Executive Editor, Jennifer Welter, Senior Prod- uct Designer, and Jessica Knecht, Editorial Program Assistant, for their guidance and assistance on this revision.

Last, but certainly not least, we deeply and sinc erely appreciate the continual en- couragement and support of our families and friends.

William D. Callister, Jr. David G. Rethwisch

October 2013

Contents

LIST OF SYMBOLS xxi

1. Introduction 1

Learning Objectives 2 1.1 Historical Perspective 2 1.2 Materials Science and Engineering 2 1.3 Why Study Materials Science and

Engineering? 4 Case Study—Liberty Ship Failures 5 1.4 Classification of Materials 6 Case Study—Carbonated Beverage

Containers 11 1.5 Advanced Materials 12 1.6 Modern Materials’ Needs 14 1.7 Processing/Structure/Properties/

Performance Correlations 15 Summary 17 References 17 Questions 18

2. Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding 19

Learning Objectives 20 2.1 Introduction 20

ATOMIC STRUCTURE 20

2.2 Fundamental Concepts 20 2.3 Electrons in Atoms 22 2.4 The Periodic Table 28

ATOMIC BONDING IN SOLIDS 30

2.5 Bonding Forces and Energies 30 2.6 Primary Interatomic Bonds 32 2.7 Secondary Bonding or van der Waals

Bonding 39 Materials of Importance—Water (Its

Volume Expansion Upon Freezing) 42 2.8 Mixed Bonding 43 2.9 Molecules 44 2.10 Bonding Type-Materials Classification

Correlations 44 Summary 45

Equation Summary 46 List of Symbols 46 Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 47 Important Terms and Concepts 47 References 47 Questions and Problems 48 Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 50

3. The Structure of Crystalline Solids 51

Learning Objectives 52 3.1 Introduction 52

CRYSTAL STRUCTURES 52

3.2 Fundamental Concepts 52 3.3 Unit Cells 53 3.4 Metallic Crystal Structures 54 3.5 Density Computations 60 3.6 Polymorphism and Allotropy 60 Materials of Importance—Tin (Its

Allotropic Transformation) 61 3.7 Crystal Systems 62

CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC POINTS, DIRECTIONS, AND PLANES 64

3.8 Point Coordinates 64 3.9 Crystallographic Directions 67 3.10 Crystallographic Planes 75 3.11 Linear and Planar Densities 81 3.12 Close-Packed Crystal Structures 82

CRYSTALLINE AND NONCRYSTALLINE MATERIALS 84

3.13 Single Crystals 84 3.14 Polycrystalline Materials 84 3.15 Anisotropy 86 3.16 X-Ray Diffraction: Determination of

Crystal Structures 87 3.17 Noncrystalline Solids 92

Summary 93 Equation Summary 95 List of Symbols 96

• xiii

xiv • Contents

Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 96 Important Terms and Concepts 97 References 97 Questions and Problems 97 Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 104

4. Imperfections in Solids 105

Learning Objectives 106 4.1 Introduction 106

POINT DEFECTS 106

4.2 Vacancies and Self-Interstitials 106 4.3 Impurities in Solids 108 4.4 Specification of Composition 111

MISCELLANEOUS IMPERFECTIONS 115

4.5 Dislocations—Linear Defects 115 4.6 Interfacial Defects 118 Materials of Importance—Catalysts (and

Surface Defects) 121 4.7 Bulk or Volume Defects 122 4.8 Atomic Vibrations 122

MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION 123

4.9 Basic Concepts of Microscopy 123 4.10 Microscopic Techniques 124 4.11 Grain-Size Determination 128

Summary 131 Equation Summary 132 List of Symbols 133 Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 134 Important Terms and Concepts 135 References 135 Questions and Problems 135 Design Problems 138 Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 139

5. Diffusion 140

Learning Objectives 141 5.1 Introduction 141 5.2 Diffusion Mechanisms 142 5.3 Fick’s First Law 143 5.4 Fick’s Second Law—Nonsteady-State

Diffusion 145 5.5 Factors That Influence Diffusion 149 5.6 Diffusion in Semiconducting

Materials 154 Material of Importance—Aluminum for

Integrated Circuit Interconnects 157

5.7 Other Diffusion Paths 158 Summary 158 Equation Summary 159 List of Symbols 160 Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 160 Important Terms and Concepts 162 References 162 Questions and Problems 162 Design Problems 166 Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 167

6. Mechanical Properties of Metals 168

Learning Objectives 169 6.1 Introduction 169 6.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain 170

ELASTIC DEFORMATION 174

6.3 Stress–Strain Behavior 174 6.4 Anelasticity 177 6.5 Elastic Properties of Materials 177

PLASTIC DEFORMATION 180

6.6 Tensile Properties 180 6.7 True Stress and Strain 187 6.8 Elastic Recovery After Plastic

Deformation 190 6.9 Compressive, Shear, and Torsional

Deformation 191 6.10 Hardness 191

PROPERTY VARIABILITY AND DESIGN/SAFETY FACTORS 197

6.11 Variability of Material Properties 197 6.12 Design/Safety Factors 199

Summary 203 Equation Summary 205 List of Symbols 205 Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 206 Important Terms and Concepts 206 References 207 Questions and Problems 207 Design Problems 213 Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 214

7. Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms 216

Learning Objectives 217 7.1 Introduction 217

DISLOCATIONS AND PLASTIC DEFORMATION 217

Contents • xv

7.2 Basic Concepts 218 7.3 Characteristics of Dislocations 220 7.4 Slip Systems 221 7.5 Slip in Single Crystals 223 7.6 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline

Materials 226 7.7 Deformation by Twinning 228

MECHANISMS OF STRENGTHENING IN METALS 229

7.8 Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction 229 7.9 Solid-Solution Strengthening 231 7.10 Strain Hardening 232

RECOVERY, RECRYSTALLIZATION, AND GRAIN GROWTH 235

7.11 Recovery 235 7.12 Recrystallization 236 7.13 Grain Growth 240

Summary 242 Equation Summary 244 List of Symbols 244 Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 245 Important Terms and Concepts 246 References 246 Questions and Problems 246 Design Problems 250 Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 250

8. Failure 251

Learning Objectives 252 8.1 Introduction 252

FRACTURE 253

8.2 Fundamentals of Fracture 253 8.3 Ductile Fracture 253 8.4 Brittle Fracture 255 8.5 Principles of Fracture Mechanics 257 8.6 Fracture Toughness Testing 265

FATIGUE 270

8.7 Cyclic Stresses 270 8.8 The S–N Curve 272 8.9 Crack Initiation and Propagation 276 8.10 Factors That Affect Fatigue Life 278 8.11 Environmental Effects 280

CREEP 281

8.12 Generalized Creep Behavior 281 8.13 Stress and Temperature Effects 282 8.14 Data Extrapolation Methods 285 8.15 Alloys for High-Temperature Use 286

Summary 287

Equation Summary 290 List of Symbols 290 Important Terms and Concepts 291 References 291 Questions and Problems 291 Design Problems 295 Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 296

9. Phase Diagrams 297

Learning Objectives 298 9.1 Introduction 298

DEFINITIONS AND BASIC CONCEPTS 298

9.2 Solubility Limit 299 9.3 Phases 300 9.4 Microstructure 300 9.5 Phase Equilibria 300 9.6 One-Component (or Unary) Phase

Diagrams 301

BINARY PHASE DIAGRAMS 302

9.7 Binary Isomorphous Systems 303 9.8 Interpretation of Phase Diagrams 305 9.9 Development of Microstructure in

Isomorphous Alloys 309 9.10 Mechanical Properties of Isomorphous

Alloys 312 9.11 Binary Eutectic Systems 312 9.12 Development of Microstructure in

Eutectic Alloys 318 Materials of Importance—Lead-Free

Solders 319 9.13 Equilibrium Diagrams Having Intermediate

Phases or Compounds 325 9.14 Eutectoid and Peritectic Reactions 328 9.15 Congruent Phase Transformations 329 9.16 Ceramic and Ternary Phase

Diagrams 330 9.17 The Gibbs Phase Rule 330

THE IRON–CARBON SYSTEM …