Influence and manipulation robert cialdini english pdf

Discussion 2- Persuasion Class

Persuasion

Now in its sixth edition, Persuasion: Social Influence and Compliance Gaining continues to

boast an accessible voice and vibrant aesthetic that appeals to undergraduate students of

communication, psychology, advertising, and marketing. In addition to presenting established

theories and models, this text encourages students to develop and apply general conclusions

about persuasion in real-world settings. Along the way, students are introduced to the

practice of social influence in an array of contexts (e.g., advertising, marketing, politics,

interpersonal relationships, social media, groups) and across a variety of topics (e.g.,

credibility, personality, deception, motivational appeals, visual persuasion). The new edition

features an expanded treatment of digital and social media, up-to-date research on theory and

practice, and enhanced discussions of topics such as political campaigning, emotional

marketing, olfactory influence, and ethics. Instructors can also use the book’s downloadable

test bank, instructor’s manual, and PowerPoint slides in preparing course material.

Robert H. Gass is Professor Emeritus of Communication Studies at California State

University, Fullerton, USA.

John S. Seiter is Professor in the Department of Languages, Philosophy, and

Communication Studies at Utah State University, USA.

4

Persuasion

Social Influence and Compliance Gaining Sixth Edition

Robert H. Gass John S. Seiter

5

Sixth edition published 2018

by Routledge

711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

and by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2018 Taylor & Francis

The right of Robert H. Gass and John S. Seiter to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in

accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic,

mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information

storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for

identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

First edition published by Pearson Education, Inc. 2002

Fifth edition published by Routledge 2016

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Names: Gass, Robert H., author. | Seiter, John S., author.

Title: Persuasion : social influence, and compliance gaining /

Robert H. Gass, John S. Seiter.

Description: Sixth edition. | New York, NY : Routledge, 2018.

Identifiers: LCCN 2017042512| ISBN 9781138630598 (hardback) |

ISBN 9781138630611 (pbk.)

Subjects: LCSH: Persuasion (Psychology) | Influence (Psychology) |

Manipulative behavior.

Classification: LCC BF637.P4 G34 2018 | DDC 153.8/52—dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017042512

ISBN: 978-0-8153-5821-3 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-138-63061-1 (pbk)

ISBN: 978-1-315-20930-2 (ebk)

Typeset in Sabon

by Florence Production Ltd, Stoodleigh, Devon, UK

Visit the eResource: www.routledge.com/9781138630611

6

To Banjo and Julep, my two English Setters, who keep me

company when I’m writing at home.

Bob Gass

To Miss Gordon, my second-grade teacher, for knowing that

self-concept is the proper starting place.

John Seiter

To our families—Susan, Jordan, Graham, Debora, Dean,

Andy, and Christian—for doing without us when we were

writing and for putting up with us when we weren’t.

Robert Gass and John Seiter

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1.

Contents

Preface for the Sixth Edition

Acknowledgments

Why Study Persuasion?

Aims and Goals

Persuasion Is Not a Dirty Word

Persuasion Is Our Friend

The Pervasiveness of Persuasion: You Can Run but You Can’t Hide

Tipping Points, Buzz Marketing, and Word of Mouth

Nudges: Sometimes Less Is More

New Persuasion: Digital and Online Influence

eWOM: Digital Buzz

Sponsored Content: The Native Advertisers Are Getting Restless

Opinion Mining and Sentiment Tracking: I Feel You

Gamification: You’ve Got Game

Crowdsourcing and Crowdfunding: Lending a Helping Hand

Persuasive Technology: My Heart Says Yes, but My Watch Says No

Persuasion in the Sciences

Persuasion in the Arts

Other Not-So-Obvious Contexts for Persuasion

Weird Persuasion

Persuasion in Interpersonal Settings

Five Benefits of Studying Persuasion

The Instrumental Function: Be All That You Can Be

The Knowledge and Awareness Function: Inquiring Minds Want to Know

The Defensive Function: Duck and Cover

The Debunking Function: Puh-Shaw

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2.

3.

Well-Being and Self-Worth: I Feel Good

Two Criticisms of Persuasion

Does Learning About Persuasion Foster Manipulation?

Are Persuasion Findings Too Inconsistent or Confusing?

Ethical Concerns About the Use of Persuasion

What Constitutes Persuasion?

Pure Versus Borderline Cases of Persuasion

Limiting Criteria for Defining Persuasion

Intentionality

Effects

Free Will and Conscious Awareness

Symbolic Action

Interpersonal Versus Intrapersonal

A Model of the Scope of Persuasion

The Context for Persuasion

A Working Definition of Persuasion

So What Isn’t Persuasion?

Dual Processes of Persuasion

The Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion

The Heuristic Systematic Model of Persuasion

The Unimodel of Persuasion

Attitudes and Consistency

What Is an “Attitude” in 20 Words or Less?

So How Do You Measure the Durn Things?

Explicit Measures: Self-Report Scales

Visually Oriented Scales

Pitfalls in Measuring Attitudes

Implicit Measures: What’s Rattling Around Inside Your Brain?

More Roundabout Ways of Measuring Attitudes

Physiological Measures of Attitude

The Reasoned Action Approach (RAA)

Behavioral Beliefs and Attitudes: Believe It or Not

Normative Beliefs: It’s What the Cool Kids Are Doing

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4.

Perceived Behavioral Control: I Got This

The Persistence of Attitudes

Attitudes as Associative Networks: Your Mind Is a Web

Manufacturing Favorable Associations: Jiggling the Web

Brands and Branding: That’s the Life

Who Are You Wearing? Brand Personality

Authenticity: Keeping It Real

Cause-Related Marketing: The Feel-Good Factor

Sloganeering

Sponsorship

Psychological Consistency

The Inner Peace of Consistency

Methods of Maintaining Consistency

Marketing Strategies: How to Have Your Cake and Eat It Too

Brand Loyalty: Accept No Substitute

Write and Tell Us Why You Love This Book in 24 Words or Less

Marketing Inconsistency

Capitalizing on Inconsistency

Cognitive Dissonance Theory (CDT)

Cognitive Dissonance and Buyer’s Remorse

Polarization of Alternatives

Cognitive Dissonance, Self-Image, and Culture

Factors That Affect the Magnitude of Dissonance

Dissonance and Persuasion: Putting It All Together

Forbidden Fruit: Psychological Reactance

Counterattitudinal Advocacy: Playing Devil’s Advocate

I’m All In: Increasing Commitment

Commitments Can “Grow Legs”

Credibility

Celebrity Selling Power: The Answer Is in the Stars

The Match-Up Hypothesis: Why Jonah Hill Should Not Be Revlon’s Spokesperson

Catch a Falling Star

What Is Credibility?

Credibility Is a Receiver-Based Construct

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5.

Credibility Is a Multidimensional Construct

Credibility Is a Situational/Contextual Phenomenon

Credibility Is Dynamic

The Factor Analytic Approach to Credibility

Primary Dimensions of Credibility

Secondary Dimensions of Credibility

The Factor Analytic Approach and the Real World

Credibility as a Peripheral Cue

It’s What’s Up Front That Counts

The Sleeper Effect

Credibility and Image Management

Interpersonal Credibility, Impression Management, Facework, and Accounts

Strategies for Enhancing Credibility: Get Your Mojo Working

Communicator Characteristics and Persuasion

Demographic Variables and Persuasion

Age and Persuasion: Pretty Please With Sugar on Top

Gender Differences and Persuasion: The Times, They Aren’t a-Changin’

Ethnicity, Culture, and Persuasion: “Me” and “We” Perspectives

Intelligence and Persuasion: Dumb and Dumber

Psychological and Communication States and Traits

Self-Esteem and Persuasion: Feelin’ Kinda Low

Anxiety and Persuasion: Living in Fear

Preference for Consistency: I Wouldn’t Change a Thing

Self-Monitoring and Persuasion: Periscope Up

Ego Involvement: Not Budging an Inch

Issue Involvement: What’s This Have to Do With Me?

Dogmatism, Authoritarianism, and Social Vigilantism: You Can’t Teach an Old Dog New Tricks

Narcissism: How Do I Love Me? Let Me Count the Ways

Cognitive Complexity and Need for Cognition

Persuasion and Aggression: Sticks and Stones

Analyzing and Adapting to Audiences

Pay Attention to the Situation

Keep Your Audience’s Mind in Mind

Remember the Importance of Audience States and Traits

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6.

7.

8.

Don’t Forget About Audience Demographics

Conformity and Influence in Groups

Conformity as Persuasion: In With the Crowd

In the Beginning: Early Research on Conformity Effects

Variables Related to Conformity

Social Proof: Using the Sheep Factor to Persuade Others

Ostracism: Shuns and Guns

Deindividuation, Social Loafing, and Social Facilitation: Getting Lost in the Crowd

What a Riot: An Examination of Deindividuation

Social Loafing: Not Pulling Your Own Weight

Social Facilitation: Would You Rather Be Alone?

How Groups Affect Decision Making: To Risk or Not to Risk

Language and Persuasion

Symbols, Meaning, and Persuasion: The Power of Babble

Connotative and Denotative Meaning: That’s Not How I See It

Ultimate Terms: Speak of the Devil

Aphorisms and Familiar Phrases: That Rings a Bell

Metaphors: One and the Same

The Power of Labeling

Euphemisms and Doublespeak: Making the Worse Appear the Better and Vice Versa

Language Intensity, Vividness, and Offensiveness

##@!!!!##: Profanity and Persuasion

Political Correctness

The Effects of Vividness: A Picture’s Worth a Thousand Words

Language Intensity

Powerless Language and Persuasion: Um’s the Word

Nonverbal Influence

The Direct Effects Model of Immediacy

Types of Nonverbal Communication

Kinesics: Head, Shoulders, Knees and Toes, Knees and Toes

Haptics: Reach Out and Touch Someone

Keep Your Distance? Proxemics and Persuasion

Chronemics: All Good Things to Those Who Wait?

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9.

10.

11.

Artifacts and Physical Features of the Environment: Dress for Success

Physical Appearance: Of Beauties and Beasts

Paralinguistics and Persuasion: Pump Up the Volume?

Structuring and Ordering Persuasive Messages

Implicit and Explicit Conclusions: Let Me Spell It Out for You

Gain-Framed Versus Loss-Framed Messages: Keep on the Sunny Side?

Quantity Versus Quality of Arguments: The More the Merrier?

The Use of Evidence: The Proof’s Not in the Pudding

Repetition and Mere Exposure: You Can Say That Again

Order Effects and Persuasion: First Things First

Primacy and Recency Effects: The First Shall Be Last, and the Last Shall Be First

An Ounce of Prevention: Inoculation, Message-Sidedness, and Forewarning

Inoculation Theory: Of Needles and Arguments

One-Sided Versus Two-Sided Messages: Both Sides Now

Forewarning: You’d Better Watch Out

Compliance Gaining

Actions Speak the Loudest: A Definition of Compliance Gaining

In the Beginning: The Roots of Compliance-Gaining Research

Situation: The “It Depends” of Compliance-Gaining Behavior

Seeking Compliance From Strangers and Intimates

Power, Legitimacy, and Politeness

Who Are You? Individual Characteristics and Compliance-Gaining Behavior

The Study of Compliance-Gaining Goals: Eyes on the Prize

How Goals Bring Meaning to Compliance-Gaining Situations: What’s It All About, Alfie?

Primary and Secondary Goals: Wanting and Eating Your Cake

Problems Facing Compliance Research: Trouble in Paradise

Compliance Gaining in Action: Seeing Is Believing

Sequential Persuasion

Pregiving: The Old “I’ll-Scratch-Your-Back-if-You’ll-Scratch-Mine” Approach

Why Is the Pregiving Tactic Persuasive?

Foot in the Door: The “Give-Me-an-Inch-and-I’ll-Take-a-Mile” Tactic

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12.

13.

Why Is a Foot in the Door So Persuasive?

When Does a Foot in the Door Work?

The Door-in-the-Face Tactic: “Ask for the Stars”

Why Is a Door in the Face So Persuasive?

When Does a Door in the Face Work?

The That’s-Not-All Tactic: Seeking Compliance by Sweetening the Deal

The Low-Ball Tactic: Changing the Deal

Why Lowballing Works

“Sorry, We Don’t Have Any More of Those in Your Size, But…”: The Bait-and-

Switch Tactic

The Disrupt-Then-Reframe and Pique Techniques: I’m So Confused

Legitimizing Paltry Contributions: Even a Penny Will Help

The Evoking Freedom Technique: “…But You Are Free to Accept or Refuse”

Fear-Then-Relief and Happiness-Then-Disappointment Procedures: The Emotional

Roller Coasters of Social Influence

Deception

What Is Deception? Lies and Damn Lies

Telling Lies: The Enactment of Deception

Theoretical Frameworks

What Makes a Liar Persuasive?

Detecting Deception: I Can See Right Through You

Factors That Influence Detection

Motivational Appeals

Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Motivation

Emotion and Persuasion: Oh, What a Feeling!

Emotions and the ELM

Emotional Marketing

Logical and Emotional Appeals: A Fuzzy Distinction

Fear Appeals: If You Don’t Stop Doing That, You’ll Go Blind

The Stage Model: Scared Stiff

The Extended Parallel Process Model: Nothing to Fear but Fear Itself

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14.

Negative Emotions: Woe Is Me, Shame on You

Humorous Appeals: Stop Me if You’ve Heard This One

Humor as an Indirect Form of Influence: All Kidding Aside

Self-Disparaging Humor: LOLing at Yourself

But Is Humor Persuasive?

Maximizing Humor’s Potential

Pride and Patriotism: Turning Red, White, and Blue Into Green

For Mature Audiences: Sex Appeals

How Sex Sells

Caveats and Cautions

Warmth Appeals: Straight From the Heart

Ingratiation: Polishing the Apple

Mixed Emotions: Other Appeals and Combinations of Appeals

Visual Persuasion

Image Is Everything

Overlooked and Under-Appreciated

The Power of Images: A Thousand Words

How Images Persuade

Iconicity: Bearing a Resemblance

Indexicality: Seeing Is Believing

Syntactic Indeterminacy: Don’t Look for Logic in Images

The Art of Persuasion Includes Art as Persuasion

The Paintbrush Is Mightier Than the Sword

Art and Social Change: I Must Protest

Cinematic Persuasion: Sex, Drugs, and Popcorn

Acting Out: How Movies Persuade

Images in Advertising: And Now a Word From Our Sponsors

Visual Extravaganzas: Now You’ve Got My Attention

Anti-Ads: You Can’t Fool Me

Image-Oriented Advertising: Materialism as Happinessv

Shock Ads: Edgy Images as Persuasion

Photojournalism as Persuasion: The Camera Does Lie

Playing Tricks With the Camera: Photographic Deception

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15.

16.

Esoteric Forms of Persuasion

Color as Persuasion: The Grass Is Always Greener

Color Coded at Birth: Dyed in the Wool

Colorful Associations: A Blonde Walks Into a Bar…

Color and Branding: Big Blue, Red Bull, and Pink (Victoria’s Secret)

Color and Emotion: Mood Indigo

Color and Behavior: Hue Made Me Do It

Subliminal Influence: Hidden Messages or Hokum?

The Laboratory Versus the Real World

What Is and Isn’t Subliminal

Subliminal Advertising: Much Ado About Nothing

Subliminal Priming: That Rings a Bell

Not So Fast: Limitations of Subliminal Priming

Subaudible Messages: The Power of Suggestion

Backward Masking and Reverse Speech: Turn Me On, Dead Man

What Advertisers Really Do

Neurolinguistic Programming: The Emperor’s New Clothes

Music as Persuasion

Music as a Central and Peripheral Cue

Music in Advertising and Sales

Background Music: Shop Till You Drop

Music Videos and Persuasion: Is Hip-Hop Harmful?

Weaponizing Music: What a Buzz Kill

Cautions: Face the Music

Aroma and Persuasion

Perfume: Romance in a Bottle

Love Stinks

Ambient Aromas: Something Special in the Air

Caveats and Qualifications

The Ethics of Persuasion

Is Persuasion in General Unethical?

The Motives Color the Means

Ethics, Culture, and the Issue of Central Versus Peripheral Processing

Ethical Questions That Can’t Be Answered Through the Study of Persuasion

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Our Approach: Characteristics of Ethical Influence

Ethics and Our Model of Persuasion

Persuaders as Lovers

Bunglers, Smugglers, and Sleuths

Ethical Issues Arising From Previous Chapters

Ethics and Credibility

Ethics and Communicator Characteristics

Ethics and Deception

Ethics of Using Threats as a Compliance-Gaining Strategy

Ethics and Fear Appeals

Ethics and Emotional Appeals

Ethics and Ingratiation

Ethics and Visual Persuasion

Ethics and Subliminal Influence

Author Index

Subject Index

17

P

Preface for the Sixth Edition

ERSUASION CONTINUES TO OCCUPY the attention of academics and nonacademics alike.

Not only scholars, but practitioners such as advertisers, lawyers, lobbyists, marketing

firms, motivational speakers, politicians, public relations experts, social activists, syndicated

columnists, and others have a vested interest in knowing how persuasion works. Therefore,

students who aspire to careers in any of the “people professions” would be wise to acquire a

basic understanding of how persuasion functions.

With each edition of this text, we marvel at how much persuasion changes over time, yet

still remains the same. For example, controversies over “fake news” have altered the way

people perceive facts and assess source credibility. Even so, credibility remains as central to

the process of persuasion as ever. It is perceived credibility that counts. The credibility of news

sources is in the eye of the beholder.

The observation that “the more persuasion changes, the more it remains the same” applies

to almost every aspect of persuasion. Compliance-gaining strategies such as the “foot in the

door” now occur in online settings. Audience analysis is key to persuasion, but rather than

examining demographic data, persuaders can now use microtargeting to tailor their messages

to niche groups. For example, in the 2016 presidential election, rumors swirled that

Cambridge Analytica, a company that specializes in opinion mining and data analysis,

identified low-information voters in key swing states and bombarded them with highly

targeted messages (Confessore & Hakim, 2017). Product placement, once only found on

television and in movies, is now prevalent in novels, pop music, and virtual environments

such as computer games. Fear appeals, long a staple of persuaders, have moved online. In

addition to being fearful of Ebola, terrorism, and clowns, we can now be worried about

cyberstalking, cyberbullying, and whatever diet and nutrition advice Gwyneth Paltrow is

about to post.

In this edition, we address the increasing importance of digital and online persuasion,

while emphasizing the importance of traditional forms of persuasion as well. Since the last

edition, digital persuasion has come into its own. On social media, pop-up ads and banners

have given way to more sophisticated forms of marketing, such as webtracking (Avergin,

18

2016). Using third-party cookies, canvas fingerprinting (Kirk, 2014), and other techniques,

Web marketers can follow users’ activities across websites. “Like” a bluegrass video on

YouTube, “follow” a fiddle player on Facebook, or post some banjo pictures on Instagram,

and you’ll start getting messages about hoedowns and honky-tonks in your area.

Persuasion on the Web also relies on sentiment tracking or opinion mining. For example,

using natural language processing software, millions of tweets can be analyzed to see what

topics, people, or brands are trending and what emotion-laden words or emojis are being used

in connection with those topics or issues. Insights about political preferences, brand images,

and economic trends can be gleaned from the results. As Bannister (2015) noted, “shifts in

sentiment on social media have been shown to correlate with shifts in the stock market”

(para. 3).

The widespread use of mobile technology has also been accompanied by increasing apps

and techniques designed to influence. Texting, tweeting, and other apps disseminate word-

of-mouth (WOM) messages. WOM is perceived by many as more genuine, authentic, and

trustworthy than commercial advertising or expert opinions. Of course, marketers can sneak

into these conversations via sponsored tweets and promoted posts. In many ways, social

media has become a form of mass interpersonal persuasion. Posting a picture on Instagram may

seem interpersonal in nature, but posts can be shared far beyond one’s social network. Just ask

Anthony Weiner.

Despite the advent of digital and social media, most of us still live in a face-to-face world,

too. Traditional forms of influence still matter, and interacting “in person” is by far the most

effective way to persuade other people. A retail salesperson talking to a customer has a much

greater chance of success than a pop-up ad reminding you about the last item you viewed on

Amazon.com. That said, we often underestimate our effectiveness in one-on-one-settings.

For example, Roghanizad and Bohns (2017) found that when people were asked to judge

their influence via email versus in person, they overestimated the former and underestimated

the latter. Groups, too, exert enormous influence over people. Whether within a family, a

classroom, a workplace, at a coffee shop with friends, or some other group setting, the

pressure to conform or risk being isolated is potent. Mass persuasion has greater reach, but

less effectiveness.

As long as humans occupy planet Earth, they will be engaged in persuading one another.

If apes or machines do take over one day, who can say? For now, we believe a solid

understanding of persuasion, social influence, and compliance gaining will be an asset in this

world. With that in mind, we hope you catch our enthusiasm for this field of study and turn

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the pages of this book with a better understanding of how persuasion functions, an improved

knowledge of ways to maximize your own persuasion efforts, and a greater ability to resist

influence attempts, especially unscrupulous influence attempts, by others.

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REFERENCES

Avergin, J. (2016, September 2). Internet tracking has moved beyond cookies. FiveThirtyEight.com. Retrieved on July 26,

2017 from https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/internet-tracking-has-moved-beyond-cookies/

Bannister, K. (2015, January 26). Understanding sentiment analysis: What it is & why it’s used. Brandwatch.com. Retrieved

on July 26, 2017 from www.brandwatch.com/blog/understanding-sentiment-analysis/

Confessore, N., & Hakim, D. (2017, March 6). Data firm says “secret sauce” aided Trump: Many scoff. The New York

Times. Retrieved on July 26, from www.nytimes.com/2017/03/06/us/politics/cambridge-analytica.html

Kirk, J. (2014). Three devious ways online trackers shatter your privacy. PCWorld, 32(10), 38–40.

Roghanizad, M. M., & Bohns, V. K. (2017). Ask in person: You’re less persuasive than you think over email. Journal of

Experimental Social Psychology, 69, 223–226. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2016.10.002

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Acknowledgments

We would like to offer our heartfelt thanks to everyone at Routledge/Taylor & Francis for

their support throughout the process of completing this edition of our text. They are a skilled

and talented group. We are especially grateful to Laura Briskman and Nicole Salazar for their

relentless graciousness in answering our many questions and guiding us through the

requirements for completing this project. Their patience is officially legendary. We also want

to thank Josh Curtis and members of his team for painstakingly proofreading and copyediting

the drafts of all the chapters.

We are also extremely grateful to the graduate and undergraduate students who offered

numerous illustrations of real-life examples of persuasion. In particular, we single out Taylor

Halverson for her excellent work. Every time we think we have taught the brightest group of

students ever, another sharp group comes along. We also want to thank the many instructors

using our book who have sent comments and suggestions for this edition, as well as the many

short-course participants who have offered ideas and insights leading up to this edition.

Finally, we are fortunate to be working alongside the best colleagues anyone could ever

hope for. Thank you all for making “work” a fun and rewarding place to be!

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CHAPTER 1

Why Study Persuasion?

Aims and Goals

Persuasion Is Not a Dirty Word

Persuasion Is Our Friend

The Pervasiveness of Persuasion: You Can Run but You Can’t Hide

Tipping Points, Buzz Marketing, and Word of Mouth

Nudges: Sometimes Less Is More

New Persuasion: Digital and Online Influence

eWOM: Digital Buzz

Sponsored Content: The Native Advertisers Are Getting Restless

Opinion Mining and Sentiment Tracking: I Feel You

Gamification: You’ve Got Game

Crowdsourcing and Crowdfunding: Lending a Helping Hand

Persuasive Technolog: My Heart Says Yes, but My Watch Says No

Persuasion in the Sciences

Persuasion in the Arts

Other Not-So-Obvious Contexts for Persuasion

Weird Persuasion

Persuasion in Interpersonal Settings

Five Benefits of Studying Persuasion

The Instrumental Function: Be All That You Can Be

The Knowledge and Awareness Function: Inquiring Minds Want to Know

The Defensive Function: Duck and Cover

The Debunking Function: Puh-Shaw

23

O

Well-Being and Self-Worth: I Feel Good

Two Criticisms of Persuasion

Does Learning About Persuasion Foster Manipulation?

Are Persuasion Findings Too Inconsistent or Confusing?

Ethical Concerns About the Use of Persuasion

NE OF THE AUTHORS was enjoying a day at the beach with his family. As he sat in a

folding chair, lost in a good book, he could hear the cries of seagulls overhead and the

pounding of the surf. Nothing was bothering him. He was oblivious to the world around him.

Or so he thought. As he reflected more on the situation, however, he became aware that he

was being bombarded by persuasive messages on all sides. A boom box was playing a few

yards away. During commercial breaks, various ads tried to convince him to choose a new

cellphone provider, switch auto insurance companies, and try a hot, spicy cheeseburger. A

nearby sign warned that no alcohol, glass objects, or smoking were permitted on the beach. A

plastic bag in which a nearby family’s children had brought their beach toys advertised

Walmart on its side. The family picnic cooler proudly displayed its manufacturer, Igloo, as

well.

And that was only the beginning. A plane flew overhead, trailing a banner that advertised

a collect calling service. The lifeguard’s tower displayed a Hurley logo. Their swimsuits were

sponsored by Izod. The lifeguard’s truck, a specially equipped Toyota, announced that it was

the “official emergency vehicle” of “Surf City USA,” a moniker trademarked by the city of

Huntington Beach, California. Oh, the indignity of being rescued by an unofficial vehicle.

There were oral influence attempts, too. His son tried to lure him into the water by saying,

“Come on, it’s not that cold.” But he knew better. His son always said that, no matter how

cold the water was. “Would you mind keeping an eye on our things?” the family next to the

author’s asked. I guess our family looks trustworthy, he thought. His wife asked him, “Do you

want to walk down to the pier? They have frozen bananas.” She knew he would be unable to

resist the temptation.

And those were only the overt persuasive messages. A host of more subtle messages also

competed for the author’s attention. A few yards away, a woman was applying sun block to

her neck and shoulders. The author decided he’d better do the same. Had she nonverbally

influenced him to do likewise? Nearby, a young couple was soaking up the sun. Both were

wearing hats with the Nike “swoosh” logo. Were they “advertising” that brand? A young man

24

with a boogie board ran by, headed for the water. His head was shaved and he sported a

goodly amount of body art. Did his appearance advocate a particular set of values or tastes?

Was he a billboard for an “alternative” lifestyle? A half dozen male heads turned in unison as

a trio of bikini-clad women walked by. Were the males “persuaded” to turn their heads or was

this simply an involuntary reflex? Two tan, muscular dudes were tossing a Frisbee back and

forth. Both had six-pack abs. The author made a mental note to do more sit-ups. There

seemed to be as many persuasive messages, or potentially persuasive messages, as there were

shells on the beach.

The preceding examples raise two important issues. First, persuasion and social influence

are pervasive. We are surrounded by influence attempts, both explicit and implicit, no matter

where we are. As Cascio, Scholz, and Falk emphasize (2015):

social influence is omnipresent, occurring through implicit observation of cultural

norms, face-to-face and mediated interpersonal communication, as well as mass

mediated communication. Even though individuals are often unaware of the power of

social influence, research shows its effects on behavior in a wide variety of

circumstances.

(p. 51)

Second, it is difficult to say with any certainty what is and is not “persuasion.” Where

should we draw the line between persuasion and other forms of communication? We address

the first of these issues in this chapter. Here we examine the pervasive nature of persuasion

and offer a rationale for learning more about its workings. In the next chapter, we tackle the

issue of what constitutes persuasion and related terms such as social influence and compliance

gaining.

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AIMS AND GOALS

This is a book about persuasion. Its aims are at once academic and practical. On the academic

side, we examine how and why persuasion functions the way it does. In so doing, we identify

some of the most recent theories and findings by persuasion researchers. On the practical

side, we illustrate these theories and findings with a host of real-life examples. We also offer

useful advice on how to become a more effective persuader and how to resist influence

attempts, especially unethical influence attempts, by others.

If learning how to persuade seems a bit manipulative, remember, we don’t live in a society

populated with unicorns and rainbows. The real world is brimming with persuaders. You can

avoid learning about persuasion, perhaps, but you can’t avoid persuasion itself. Besides, we

can’t tell you everything there is to know about persuasion. Nobody knows all there is to

know about this subject. One of the points we stress throughout this book is that people

aren’t that easy to persuade. Human beings are complex. They can be stubborn,

unpredictable, and intractable, despite the best efforts of persuaders.

Persuasion is still as much an “art” as it is a “science.” Human nature is too complicated,

and our understanding of persuasion too limited, to be certain which influence attempts will

succeed and which will fail. Think how often you flip the channel when a commercial costing

millions of dollars to produce and air appears on television. As one advertising executive put

it, “half the money I spend on advertising is wasted … but I don’t know which half” (cited in

Berger, 2011, p. 1). Think how many candidates for public office have spent fortunes

campaigning, only to lose their elections. Or think how difficult it is for the federal

government to convince people to stop smoking, practice safe sex, or avoid texting while

driving—behaviors that are in their own self-interest.

The science of persuasion is still in its infancy. Despite P. T. Barnum’s axiom that “there’s

a sucker born every minute,” people are uncannily perceptive at times. It is tempting to

believe that if one only knew the right button to push, one could persuade anybody. More

often than not, though, there are multiple buttons to push, in the right sequence, and the

sequence is constantly changing. Even so, persuasion is not entirely a matter of luck. Much is

known about persuasion. Persuasion has been scientifically studied since the 1940s.1 Written

texts on persuasion date back to ancient Greece.2 A host of strategies and techniques have

been identified and their effectiveness or ineffectiveness documented. Persuaders are a long

way from achieving an Orwellian nightmare of thought control, but a good deal is known

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about how to capture people’s hearts and minds. Before proceeding further, we want to

address a common negative stereotype about persuasion.

27

PERSUASION IS NOT A DIRTY WORD

The study of persuasion has gotten some bad publicity over the years. Everyone seems to

agree that the subject is fascinating, but some are reluctant to embrace a field of study that

conjures up images of manipulation, deceit, or brainwashing. There is, after all, a sinister side

to persuasion. Adolf Hitler, Charles Manson, Jim Jones, David Koresh, Marshall

Applewhite, and Osama bin Laden were all accomplished persuaders—much to the

detriment of their followers.3 We, however, do not think of persuasion as the ugly stepsister

in the family of human communication. Rather, we find the study of persuasion to be

enormously intriguing. Persuasion is the backbone of many communicative endeavors. We

can’t resist the urge to learn more about how and why it works. Part of our fascination stems

from the fact that persuasion is, on occasion, used for unsavory ends. It is therefore all the

more important that researchers learn as much as they can about the strategies and tactics of

unethical persuaders.

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PERSUASION IS OUR FRIEND

Persuasion isn’t merely a tool used by con artists, chiselers, charlatans, cheats, connivers, and

cult leaders. Nobel Peace Prize recipients and Pulitzer Prize-winning journalists are also

persuaders. In fact, most “professional” persuaders are engaged in socially acceptable, if not

downright respectable, careers. They include advertising executives, bloggers, campaign

managers, celebrity endorsers, clergy, congresspersons, diplomats, infomercial spokespersons,

lawyers, lobbyists, mediators, media pundits, motivational speakers, political cartoonists, press

secretaries, public relations experts, radio talk-show hosts, recruiters, salespersons, senators,

social activists, syndicated columnists, and whistleblowers, to name just a few.

Let’s focus on the positive side of persuasion for a moment. Persuasion helps forge peace

agreements between nations. Persuasion helps expose corruption and open up closed

societies. Persuasion is crucial to the fundraising efforts of charities and philanthropic

organizations. Persuasion convinces motorists to buckle up when driving or refrain from

driving when they’ve had a few too many. Persuasion is used to convince a substance-abusing

family member to seek professional help. Persuasion is how the coach of an underdog team

inspires the players to give it their all. Persuasion is a tool used by parents to urge children not

to accept rides from strangers or to allow anyone to touch them inappropriately. In short,

persuasion is the cornerstone of a number of positive, prosocial endeavors. Very little of the

good that we see in the world could be accomplished without persuasion.

Persuasion, then, is a powerful and often prosocial force. Having highlighted the positive

side of persuasion, we address the question of why the study of persuasion is so valuable. The

next section, therefore, offers a justification for the study of social influence.

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THE PERVASIVENESS OF PERSUASION: YOU CAN RUN BUT YOU CAN’T HIDE

We’ve already mentioned one of the primary reasons for learning about this subject:

Persuasion is a central feature of every sphere of human communication. The same is true of

social influence. We can’t avoid it. We can’t make it go away. Like Elvis impersonators in Las

Vegas, persuasion is here to stay. Various estimates suggest that the average person is exposed

to anywhere from 300 to 5,000 messages per day.4 There are more ways to persuade than ever

before. Indeed, traditional persuasion in the form of political speeches, television

commercials, print ads, billboards, and product placements in movies and television is alive

and well. So too are protest marches, demonstrations, sit-ins, and other forms of symbolic

action. In the last two decades, social media has been added to the mix. You can submit

online reviews of products and services, post a YouTube video advocating your message,

engage in hashtag activism, advocate a cause via Facebook, Twitter, or Instagram, solicit

funding via crowdfunding platforms such as Kickstarter or GoFundMe, or promote change

through a website such as www.change.org or www.dosomething.org. Let’s consider one of

these pervasive strategies, known as viral persuasion, more closely.

Tipping Points, Buzz Marketing, and Word of Mouth

Key concepts and principles associated with viral persuasion were laid out by Malcolm

Gladwell in his bestseller, The Tipping Point (2000). Gladwell likens word-of-mouth

(WOM) to a virus through which a message is spread until the whole society is “infected.”

Based on what he calls “the law of the few,” a small number of influential people can generate a

groundswell of support for an idea, brand, or phenomenon. If a message gains sufficient

traction, it reaches a tipping point and becomes “contagious.” In order to reach the tipping

point, however, a number of things have to happen.

Über Influencers

First, the right kinds of people must be involved. Gladwell identifies three types of people

who are essential to the process. Mavens possess specialized expertise. They are in the know.

They may be celebrity chefs, fashionistas, fitness gurus, tech geeks, or wine snobs. Mavens

needn’t be rich or famous, but they must be ahead of the curve. They are the early adopters,

opinion leaders, or what some call alpha consumers, the ones who hear about ideas and try out

gadgets first. “One American in ten,” Keller and Barry (2003) maintain, “tells the other nine

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how to vote, where to eat, and what to buy” (p. 1).

In addition to mavens, Gladwell states that connectors are also essential. Based on the viral

metaphor, they are carriers. They have large social networks. When connectors learn from

mavens what the “next big thing” is, they spread the word. Since social circles tend to be

overlapping, forwarding messages spreads them increasingly outward from their epicenter.

The last type Gladwell identifies is salespeople. They receive the message from a connector

and then talk it up within their own circle of friends. Salespeople tell their friends, “You must

see this movie,” “You’ve got to try this restaurant,” or “You gotta read this book.”

FIGURE 1.1

ALS ice-bucket challenge in New York City.

Source: Saklova/Shutterstock.com

Orchestrating the Next Big Thing

In addition to having the right kinds of people, some additional conditions must be satisfied

for an idea to go viral. Context is critical. The idea must come along at the right time and

place. Twitter, for example, wouldn’t have worked before there was widespread mobile access

to the Internet. An idea also must possess stickiness, which means that it is inherently

attractive. Without some sort of natural appeal, people won’t gravitate toward the idea or pass

it along (Heath & Heath, 2008). For example, in 2014, the ALS water bucket challenge,

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which dared people to dump ice water over their own or other people’s heads, went viral,

raising over $100 million in the USA alone (www.als.org). Its stickiness was based, in part,

on its eye-catching appeal, its urgency (there was a 24-hour deadline to respond), and the fact

that it was for a good cause.

Scalability is another requirement: It must be easy to ramp up production of the idea,

product, or message to meet demand. The ice-bucket challenge met this requirement because

almost everyone can find a bucket and some ice. Finally, effortless transfer is yet another

ingredient in the recipe for an effective viral campaign. A viral campaign has to leverage free

media. Ideas that can be spread by forwarding an email, including an attachment, or

embedding a link are easy to disseminate. The more time, effort, or money it takes to spread

the word, the less likely the idea will go viral. In the ice-bucket campaign, most challenges

were issued from one friend to another via video.

Infectious or Inexplicable?

Although viral marketing holds considerable potential, it is often a hit-or-miss strategy, with

far more misses than hits. What’s more, evidence for the effectiveness of tipping points is

largely anecdotal, and there is no guarantee that an idea will gain traction. If one does, its

shelf life is often limited. The ice-bucket challenge, for example, came and went in a few

months. And flash mobs, another approach to viral marketing, were a flash in the pan.

The Word of Mouth Marketing Association (WOMM) offers advice for conducting viral

campaigns. The very concept of viral marketing, however, is something of an oxymoron. A

viral campaign is planned to appear unplanned. It is contrived to seem genuine. As consumers

grow wise to the strategy, it will become less effective. There are also ethical questions about

using friends as shills. The FTC now requires any online endorsement that involves

compensation to be disclosed (Sprague & Wells, 2010).

Nudges: Sometimes Less Is More

The ubiquitous nature of persuasion is also illustrated by nudge theory, developed by Richard

Thaler and Cass Sunstein (2008). They maintain that subtle changes in the way choices are

presented to people can influence, or “nudge,” them to behave in certain ways. For example,

when men use a public restroom, they aren’t always neat and tidy. They often miss the mark,

to put it mildly, which increases janitorial costs significantly. To address this, folks at

Amsterdam’s Schiphol international airport gave men a target of their own. Specifically,

urinals were installed that included a stenciled image of a housefly near the drain. The result?

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Having a target made all the difference. The men’s aim improved considerably (Thaler &

Sunstein, 2008).

As another example, school cafeterias tried offering apples at lunch. Most of them wound

up in the trash can. However, when kids were given sliced apples, as opposed to whole apples,

they were 73 percent more likely to eat them (Schwartz, 2016). Similarly, when vending

machines listed the calories in snack foods, people were more likely to make healthier choices.

Although some critics have accused nudge theory of being paternalistic (Pasquale, 2015),

others (Sunstein, 2014) argue that people are free to resist nudges if they wish. Kids can still

throw apple slices in the trash. They are simply being provided with options that encourage

healthy behaviors (www.nudges.org). That said, some nudges may be perceived as more like

shoves. To encourage organ donors, for example, some countries have adopted a “presumed

consent” policy, meaning that a person must take the initiative to opt out if she or he does not

want to be an organ donor.

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NEW PERSUASION: DIGITAL AND ONLINE INFLUENCE

Some people seem to spend their every waking moment texting, tweeting, blogging, or

posting their views on all matter of subjects large and small. That said, social media isn’t just

an entertaining diversion, it is an important tool for influence. Whenever someone likes,

follows, posts, shares, tweets or retweets, forwards, or comments on a message, online

influence is taking place. Let’s consider a few forms of digital influence.

FIGURE 1.2

Persuasion is everywhere—even in the womb.

Source: Baby Blues © 2001, Baby Blues Partnership. King Features Syndicate. Reprinted with special permission.

eWOM: Digital Buzz

Earlier, we mentioned the importance of viral persuasion and word-of-mouth (WOM). Like

WOM, electronic word of mouth (eWOM) is all the rage. People actively comment on

brands, companies, political issues, and public figures via all manner of social media. By way

of illustration, Twitter alone accounts for 6,000 tweets per second or 500 million tweets per

day (www.internetlivestats.com). Eighty percent of Twitter users have mentioned brands in

their tweets and 54 percent of users report that they have acted based on tweets (Midha,

2014).

Like WOM, eWOM is most effective when it is perceived as genuine rather than

manufactured and peer driven rather than commercially sponsored. eWOM enjoys several

advantages over traditional advertising and marketing techniques (Erkan & Evans, 2016). It

operates largely through interpersonal channels (cellphone, email, texting), lending it an air of

authenticity. It is inexpensive compared to traditional media. And it is self-perpetuating.

Moreover, eWOM is far more effective than traditional media at reaching younger audiences.

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Sponsored Content: The Native Advertisers Are Getting Restless

The rise of social media has spawned a surge in advertising masquerading as genuine peer-to-

peer influence. For example, sponsored content includes promoted tweets and Instagram posts,

which are essentially paid advertisements. Native advertising involves ads posing as news

stories. Native ads function as “clickbait,” luring in readers with snappy headlines or

provocative photos. Both approaches are effective because many users have difficulty

distinguishing such content from genuine material (Wojdynski, 2016).

Opinion Mining and Sentiment Tracking: I Feel You

The Web is an opinion-rich environment. People constantly share their attitudes, opinions,

and values via social media. And marketers are listening. Many companies, for example, now

specialize in opinion mining and sentiment tracking by monitoring social media to gauge the

public’s mood in nearly real time (Ravi & Ravi, 2015). Sophisticated algorithms can track

how a person, brand, or issue is trending based, not only on the number of tweets generated,

but also on how favorable, neutral, or negative those tweets are (Kennedy & Moss, 2015; Lee,

Yang, Chen, Wang, & Sun, 2016). As an example, after analyzing over 10,000 online

mentions from auto-enthusiast websites, the Ford Motor Company adopted a three-blink

turn signal on all of its vehicles (Rosenbush & Totty, 2013).

As sophisticated as such methods seem, a problem with opinion mining is that the data is

often “squishy”—that is, the people commenting aren’t always articulate or coherent.

Furthermore, the tone of a message—that is, whether it is ironic, satirical, or hyperbolic—can

be hard for artificial intelligence to decipher. Nevertheless, programmers are getting better at

analyzing and interpreting words related to feelings, emotions, and opinions.

Gamification: You’ve Got Game

Parents have known for decades that one way to get infants to eat their vegetables is by

turning mealtime into a game. “Here comes the airplane,” the parent says with each spoonful

of strained peas. A modernized version of this approach, known as gamification, is being used

to stimulate consumer interest and involvement (McGonigal, 2011). Gamification applies

video-game methods to other contexts to increase consumer engagement. People like to play

games. They enjoy the competition. Why else would they spend hours on end playing Angry

Birds or Candy Crush? Games are entertaining, challenging, and rewarding. Transforming a

mundane task into a game can make it more fun and exciting.

Games also can be used to influence. Take exercise, for example. Thanks to a shoe sensor

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that allows runners to post information about their running distance, time, and calories

burned, Nike+ provides customers with a fun way to socialize, compete, and “play” with each

other using downloadable apps (Are you game? 2011). What’s more, through points, badges,

leaderboards, and other incentives, gamification keeps people coming back for more. This

approach has been used to enhance education, improve workplace productivity, increase voter

turnout, and promote awareness and participation in social causes.

Gamification is not without its critics, however. Ian Bogost (2011), a professor and expert

in video games as cultural artifacts, cautioned that “‘exploitationware’ is a more accurate name

for gamification’s true purpose” (para. 12). Critics charge that earning badges and points

trivializes activities such as learning, working, exercising, or participating in social causes.

Crowdsourcing and Crowdfunding: Lending a Helping Hand

Moving a heavy object, like a piano, isn’t easy. To accomplish such a task, you might invite

some friends to pitch in. Similarly, crowdsourcing puts out an open call for anyone online to

participate in completing a task or solving a problem. Wikipedia was one of the earliest

crowdsourcing platforms (Lee & Seo, 2016). The online encyclopedia is collaborative.

Content can be contributed and edited by any one. Crowdsourcing is premised on the

assumption that wisdom is not the exclusive province of experts, but is distributed throughout

the commons (Kitter, 2010). As an example, Doritos invited consumers to participate in a

“Crash the Super Bowl” contest by generating their own ideas for a 30-second commercial

(for examples, got to www.youtube.com/watch?v=8vVIUBU1gZs). As another example,

Starbucks’s “White Cup Contest” contest solicited customers’ suggestions for a graphic

design for a limited edition coffee cup. Contestants posted their creations via

#WhiteCupContest.

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FIGURE 1.3

Persuasive messages must struggle to cut through the background of media clutter.

Source: Reprinted with permission: www.andysinger.com

While crowdsourcing has assisted in solving problems in astronomy, legislation, language

translation, and urban planning, among many areas, it is not without its critics. Detractors

complain that crowdsourcing is exploitative; it relies on the unpaid labor and efforts of others.

Another complaint is that the wisdom of the commons isn’t always so wise. For example,

when NASA asked people to submit names for a new section of the International Space

Station, the crowd chose “Colbert” (after the late-night comedian) over names like “Serenity,”

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“Earthrise,” and “Tranquility.” NASA went with the name “Tranquility” anyway.

A related strategy, crowdfunding, involves raising money through online donations.

Websites such as Kickstarter, GoFundMe, and Indiegogo allow people to ask for donations

or start-up funds for a cause or business venture. On the plus side, crowdfunding gives “the

little guy” or a good cause the chance to be noticed. On the downside, some of the requests

are scams (Fredman, 2015) and most start-ups fail. The SEC recently adopted rules

regulating crowdfunding practices online.

Persuasive Technology: My Heart Says Yes, but My Watch Says No

Persuasive technology focuses on devices “aimed at changing users’ attitudes or behaviors

through persuasion and social influence, but not through coercion or deception” (Persuasive

Technology, 2016, para. 1). Smart devices and wearable technology “are not just persuasive

but specifically aimed at forging new habits” (MIT Technology Review, p. 64). Smartwatches,

for example, exhort wearers to take action via taps, vibrations, or other haptic cues (Gilmore,

2016). Got a big date coming up? An app developed by MIT can tell you if you sound

boring, nervous, happy, or sad based on your speech pattern (Lee, 2017). As an alternative,

you could always check to see if your date is asleep.

Fitness trackers not only track your daily step count, they also encourage you to exercise.

For example, Fitbit’s display shows a flower that grows or shrinks based on your activity level.

Taking that concept one step further, Nissan Leaf owners can view an LCD display of a pine

tree that grows as they drive more efficiently.

As part of the Internet of Things, smart pill bottles can remind people when to take their

medicine (Orji & Moffat, 2016). Skip a dose and a light will glow or a chime will sound,

followed by a text or phone-call reminder. For some patients, taking their medicine at the

right time each day is a matter of life and death. As many as 125,000 deaths per year and

$105 billion in medical costs are attributable to patients not taking medicine properly

(Ruggerio & Wick, 2016).

Persuasion will continue to play a major role in traditional contexts, such as advertising

and marketing. It is worth noting, though, that persuasion also plays a key role in a variety of

not-so-obvious contexts. We examine two such contexts next: persuasion in the sciences, and

persuasion in the arts.

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39

PERSUASION IN THE SCIENCES

You may not think of them this way, but scientists are persuaders (Glassner, 2011). The

ongoing debate about climate change illustrates the persuasive challenge facing climatologists.

Despite widespread agreement among evolutionary biologists that evolution is a fact rather

than a theory, there is a continuing social controversy over the teaching of creationism

alongside evolution in public school curriculums. Even in fields such as chemistry,

mathematics, or physics—the so-called hard sciences— persuasion plays a major role.5

Scientists often have to convince others that their research possesses scientific merit and

social value. They also have to argue for the superiority of their theories over rival theories. In

this respect, Thomas Kuhn (1970) argues that all scientists employ “techniques of persuasion

in their efforts to establish the superiority of their own paradigms over those of their rivals”

(p. 151). Similarly, Mitroff (1974) comments that “the notion of the purely objective,

uncommitted scientist [is] naïve. … The best scientist … not only has points of view but also

defends them with gusto” (p. 120). Scientists must do more than conduct experiments and

report their results. They also must persuade other scientists, funding agencies, and the public

at large of the merits of their work.

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PERSUASION IN THE ARTS

Another not-so-obvious context for persuasion is the arts. Not all art is created “for art’s

sake.” Art serves more than an aesthetic or decorative function. Artists have strong opinions

and they lend expression to their opinions in and through their work. Consider film as an art

form, for example. Movies such as 12 Years a Slave, Life Is Beautiful, and Schindler’s List

demonstrate the power of the camera to increase awareness, change attitudes, alter beliefs,

and shape opinions. Other art forms have the capability to persuade as well. Playwrights,

painters, muralists, sculptors, photographers, and dancers give voice to their political and

social views through their art.

Think about painting for a moment. Many of the famous works hanging in museums were

created out of a sense of social conscience. Using images rather than words, artists comment

on social conditions, criticize society, and attempt to transform the social order. We examine

this issue in more detail in Chapter 14, but for now let’s consider one particular work of art,

Pablo Picasso’s Guernica. Through this painting, Picasso offered a moral indictment of war

and man’s inhumanity to man. The painting features people and animals, the victims of the

indiscriminate bombing of a Basque town during the Spanish Civil War, in various states of

agony, torment, and grief. As Von Blum (1976) notes, “the purpose of the painting is frankly

propagandistic. The artist’s intent was to point out the inhuman character of Franco’s fascist

rebellion” (p. 92). Picasso wasn’t trying to paint a “pretty” picture. He was making a moral

statement. The painting has been dubbed by one art historian “the highest achievement in

modernist political painting” (Clark, 1997, p. 39). Not only Picasso, but also many other

artists express persuasive points of view in and through their art.

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OTHER NOT-SO-OBVIOUS CONTEXTS FOR PERSUASION

Persuasion operates in a variety of other contexts, some of which are not so obvious. We

highlight a few here as illustrations. Social scientists have studied bumper stickers as a form of

political expression and as an unobtrusive means of measuring attitudes (Endersby & Towle,

1996; Sechrest & Belew, 1983). Scholars have examined the effects of intercessory prayer

(offered for the benefit of another person) on recovery from illness (Frank & Frank, 1991;

Hodge, 2007). Studies have examined the military’s use of social influence (Cialdini, 2011;

King, 2010). Other researchers have focused on 12-step programs, such as Alcoholics

Anonymous, and other support groups as forms of self-help and group influence (Kassel &

Wagner, 1993). Some studies have investigated terrorism as a form of persuasion by

examining how jihadists are radicalized and recruited and how effective the use of violence is

on the groups who are targeted (Bhui & Ibrahim, 2013; Iyer, Hornsey, Vanman, Esposo, &

Ale, 2015; Kydd & Walter, 2006). As Tuman (2010) observed, “the real goal of the

communicated message in terrorism may be persuasion: to persuade audience members that

chaos and fear will be their lot in life, to persuade them to pay attention to an issue they have

ignored” (p. 37). One scholar has written about compliance-gaining tactics found in dramatic

plays, such as Shakespeare’s Hamlet and Ibsen’s A Doll’s House (Kipnis, 2001). One of the

authors investigated various styles and strategies of panhandling to see which ones proved

most effective (Robinson, Seiter, & Acharya, 1992). Research on the study of robotic

persuasion is just beginning to emerge. One study found, for example, that having a robot

whisper instructions to people increased their motivation to perform a boring task

(Nakagawa, Shiomi, Shinozawa, Matsumura, Ishiguro, & Hagita, 2013). Another study

focused on the effect of robot-to-human touch as a method of compliance gaining (Shiomi,

Nakagawa, Shinozawa, Matsumura, Ishiguro, & Hagita, 2017).

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WEIRD PERSUASION

Sometimes persuasion is downright weird. A case in point involved Kensington, Canada,

where the police department threatened that any motorist arrested for drunk driving would be

subjected to Nickelback music while riding in the police cruiser to the station (Zenteno,

2016). When the story went viral, Colin Jost, the news co-host of Saturday Night Live, joked,

“Just make sure the crash kills you.” Ultimately, the policy was rescinded because the

seriousness of the message was obscured by the frivolousness of the strategy.

Yet another example of weird persuasion occurred in Mansfield, Nottinghamshire, UK.

The citizens wanted to stop rowdy teens from loitering at an underpass at night. Their

solution was to install street lights with a bright pink hue. Why pink, you ask? Pink light

highlights acne. Teens with blemishes didn’t want to be seen with bright, glowing acne. The

plan worked: The teens moved on (Spotty teens, 2009).

Scholars sometimes investigate quirky aspects of persuasion, too. Did you know that

participants in a study who consumed caffeine were more easily persuaded than participants

who had no caffeine (Martin, Hamilton, McKimmie, Terry, & Martin, 2007)? Now you do.

As long as the participants were motivated to pay attention to the message, caffeine

consumption increased agreement. Here is another strange finding: Washing one’s hands not

only produces cleaner hands, it also reduces a person’s sense of guilt (Kaspa, 2013). The

explanation for this is related to a phenomenon called embodied cognition, wherein physical

behaviors often affect higher mental states.