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Instruction of students with severe disabilities 8th edition pdf free

15/10/2021 Client: muhammad11 Deadline: 2 Day

1. Identify six (6) guidelines for planning instruction. Describe four (4) recommended tenets for each.

2. Identify and explain strategies to teach community skills:

3. Identify and explain strategies to teach home skills:

4. Students that complete their credits and requirements to meet graduation may defer receipt of their high school diploma and remain in K-12 through the age of 21.

a.) What is a perceived advantage to deferment of the high school diploma?

b.) What is a perceived disadvantage to deferment of the high school diploma?

c.) What course of study would you recommend for a student that chooses to defer receipt of their diploma?

Instruction of Students with Severe Disabilities

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Delhi Mexico City São Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo

Eighth Edition

Fredda Brown Queens College

City University of New York

John McDonnell University of Utah

Martha E. Snell University of Virginia

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For our children, grand children, partners, and for our friends and colleagues

who continue to give us support without conditions.

And to all the individuals with disabilities and their families with whom we have worked–we

thank you for allowing us to be part of your lives.

Fredda, John, and Marti

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v

Preface

In this eighth edition, we have, as a foundation, many of the same principles about teaching students with severe disabilities that were present in earlier editions because these principles have continued relevance: • Inclusive schools create new opportunities for all students to learn relevant skills

and to form meaningful and supportive social relationships. • Inclusive schools enable teachers to become better teachers of all of their students. • Teams of people, not any one individual, are responsible for designing, implement-

ing, and evaluating educational programs. • The skills identified for each student to learn should be functional (matching the

student’s current and future needs), suited to the student’s chronological age, and respectful of the student’s and family’s preferences.

• To be appropriate, instruction must be planned to suit the individual student. • If special education is merged with general education instead of viewed as a sepa-

rate educational structure, the diverse talents of both special and general educators will be preserved and instruction for all students will be improved.

• The teaching methods that we use need to be solidly based on research and demon- strated to be effective and appropriate for a variety of students in inclusive settings.

In this eighth edition, as in the seventh, we continue to emphasize that learning is more than increasing specific isolated skills. Learning and supportive efforts should be organized toward the achievement of three outcomes: membership, belonging, and skills. To reach these outcomes, schools need to appreciate the relationship among them and focus on supporting students and their families to follow a vision of a satisfying, meaningful, and personally determined quality of life. There is great value in building self-determination in our students, as there is for all students; the challenge is to understand the many individualized ways that this characteristic can be developed. For example, teachers can match job training opportunities to students’ preferences, and team members can teach their students to make choices and initiate preferred activities. Furthermore, when teams view their students’ problem behaviors as having legitimate motivations, then those motivations can drive the development of positive and respectful behavior support planning.

Support for InStructorS and StudentS

In addition to these principles and foundations, we have incorporated several fea- tures into the text to make it more valuable to its readers and more practical for in- structors and professors who have adopted it. One of the most effective ways to learn is through examples. Thus, we begin each chapter with case studies of students and then apply chapter concepts to these individuals. Because heterogeneity is character- istic of those with severe disabilities, our examples are diverse and include individu- als across the age range—from kindergarten to adult—and with a variety of abilities and disabilities, including intellectual, behavioral, and physical disabilities, and those with autism spectrum disorders. As the incidence of individuals with autism spectrum

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vi Preface

disorders have increased dramatically, each chapter (other than the chapter on physi- cal disabilities) includes a vignette of a student with ASD.

As in prior editions, the instructor supplements include PowerPoint presentations for each chapter created by the chapter authors, and an Instructor’s Manual with a variety of useful teaching resources. To access both go to www.pearsonhighered.com and search the catalog for this title and then click on the “Resources” tab.

new to thIS edItIon

Over the years, this text has gained a reputation for being both comprehensive and current. The aim of earlier editions was to present issues and strategies that were documented as being effective and not to “jump on treatment bandwagons.” The eighth edition maintains this reputation. The goal of this revision was to present the latest evidence-based research available with regard to all aspects of educational pro- grams for students with severe disabilities, both intellectual disabilities and autism. It has been and continues to be our aim to align the content of this text with evidence- based strategies. As the field continues to evolve, we strive to have this book evolve.

Digital Format. One of the most significant changes in the eighth edition is the format of the book. For the first time, Instruction of Students with Severe Disabilities is available as a digital book. An eText format benefits you in three ways: It is afford- able, it has a search function that allows you to efficiently locate coverage of con- cepts, and many chapters have links to videos to support its content.

New Chapters. In addition to updating each chapter, and some new author col- laborations on chapters maintained from the seventh edition, the eighth edition of this text includes five new chapters:

• New chapter on Assessment.. This chapter includes not only a comprehensive update on research and practices in the area of assessment, but has a special focus on assessment related to the Common Core State Standards.

• New chapter on Positive Behavior Support. This chapter includes updated research and a focus on moving from assessment to the development of behavior support plans. It is also updated to include the use of technology related to behavioral assessment and behavior plan development.

• New chapter on Teaching Communication Skills. This chapter includes updated research, a focus on selecting appropriate communication strategies, and embed- ding instruction on communication skills in daily routines and activities.

• New chapter on Understanding Special Health Care Procedures. This chapter includes new information on strategies for ensuring that school personnel develop the skills necessary to provide safe care to students with complex health needs, promoting effective communication among team members to meet student needs, and supporting students participation in general education classes and encouraging peer acceptance.

• New chapter on Motor Disabilities. This chapter includes updated photos on equipment, using equipment to enhance classroom participation, and integration of physical therapy in the classroom.

• New Pedagogy. Each chapter begins with learning objectives and ends with summaries based on the learning objectives.

organIzatIon of the text

We begin this edition with six chapters that lay the foundation for the rest of the book. The first two chapters focus on basic concepts that are central to the education of students with severe disabilities—inclusion and families. The discussion by Michael

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viiPreface

Giangreco, Stacy Dymond, and Karrie Shogren introduces readers to students with severe disabilities by exploring definitions of severe disabilities and how these defini- tions and societal perceptions affect the lives of these individuals and their families. These authors offer us a historic retrospective of where we’ve been, how far we’ve come, and where we need to be heading. Finally, Giangreco and his colleagues help us to un- derstand what is meant by appropriate education for students with severe disabilities.

Students grow up as members of families, and families are most often the primary advocates for their children throughout life. In Chapter 2, Kathleen Kyzar, Nina Zuna, and Ann and Rud Turnbull explore the factors that make successful partnerships be- tween home and school. Two such factors are ongoing, reciprocal communication between home and school and interactions that reflect and respect families from di- verse cultural backgrounds.

Chapters 3, 4, 5, and 6 are core chapters that set forth the basic strategies and tools that educators use in concert with other team members to plan, teach, and monitor the progress of their students. Chapter 3, a new chapter, is written by Diane Browder, Leah Wood, Jenny Root, and Caryn Allison. Chapters 4, 5, and 6 are written by the edi- tors, with Rachel Janney as first author of Chapter 6. All other chapters build on the foundations set forth in these chapters. Four key words sum up the content of this section: assessment, teaching, evaluation, and implementation.

In Chapter 7, a new chapter, Robert O’Neill and Matthew Jameson set forth the principles of positive behavior support. Using comprehensive case examples, these authors describe how the process of functional behavioral assessment is conducted and used to design effective behavioral support plans that are based on the values of self-determination, respect, and inclusion.

In Chapter 8, Donna Lehr and Nancy Harayama describe health care procedures required by some students during the school day. This chapter explains how to incor- porate special health care procedures into the school day and how educators can contribute to the prevention of related health problems and conditions.

In the new Chapter 9, Mary Jane Rapport, Amy Barr, and Maria Jones teach us about the impact of motor disabilities on school participation and learning, and how to successfully address these challenges. Because all team members interact with a student over a range of daily activities, practical knowledge about motor disabilities must be shared. When students with motor disabilities have consistent and conscien- tious management of their physical needs in their home, school, work, and commu- nity environments, they can thrive.

The skills of caring for oneself, toileting, eating, dressing, and grooming are impor- tant goals for all individuals regardless of the severity of the disability. In Chapter 10, Monica Delano, Martha Snell, and Virginia Walker provide a comprehensive and cur- rent review of effective methods for teaching self-care skills while also showing how these methods apply to specific students.

One of the most important elements that schools can offer students is social rela- tionships with peers. In Chapter 11, Erik Carter and Matthew Brock illustrate strate- gies that teams can use to promote membership and a sense of belonging and to build a variety of personal relationships among students in classrooms and schools.

In the new Chapter 12, Susan Johnston addresses functional communication and the importance of socially responsive environments. She highlights the pervasive in- fluence of communication in all aspects of life, including education, friendships, well- being, and self-determination.

Basic skills in reading, writing, mathematics, and science are increasingly impor- tant as states respond to federal laws and policies. In Chapter 13, John McDonnell and Susan Copeland present methods for identifying what academic skills to teach and evidence-based strategies for teaching those skills in inclusive settings.

Chapter 14 guides teachers on the instruction of skills to increase active participa- tion in home and community life. Linda Bambara, Freya Koger, Raquel Burns, and Dolly Singley begin with a series of guiding values and principles that characterize

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the outcomes of skill instruction referenced to students’ homes and communities. These themes are coupled with instructional methods that have been found to be ef- fective with students who have severe disabilities.

Our special education laws require a clear focus on and preparation for the transi- tion to adulthood. Preparing students for real work in the community is a longitudinal process requiring extensive team effort over the teenage years. In Chapter 15, Valerie Mazzotti and David Test set forth the essential elements of secondary vocational pro- grams that will allow students and their teams to plan the transition from school to adulthood and then to make the transition.

The book closes with Chapter 16, in which Dianne and Phil Ferguson discuss, both as parents and as scholars, the promises that adulthood can offer to individuals with severe disabilities. The Fergusons take us on a remarkable journey across the years with their son Ian, now middle-aged, and his friend Douglas. These family stories describe a path that has been “often confusing and frustrating, but also filled with many exciting achievements.” The concept of supported adulthood is discussed within the context of current policy, social services, educational practices, and societal expectations.

acknowledgmentS

Many people have assisted in the task of developing the eighth edition. First, we are indebted to the children, adolescents, young adults, and mature adults, who add real- ity to each chapter and whose abilities and disabilities have challenged and shaped our own skills and those of our contributors. Their families and their educators de- serve equal gratitude for providing a vast array of teaching ideas, for granting permis- sion to use their photographs, and for giving us extensive examples and information.

Finally, we are grateful for the helpful comments of our reviewers at various stages in the revision process—James Dennis Cavitt, Abilene Christian University; Jeri Katz, Bridgewater State University; and Sharon M. Kolb, University of Wisconsin Whitewater.

We would also like to thank many of our students who continually inspire our thinking and writing. Recognition also is given to the contributions of those at Pear- son including Executive Editor, Ann Davis and her assistant, Janelle Criner and also to Joe Sweeney and Kerry Rubadue. At Cenveo, we acknowledge the incredible work of Susan McNally.

Fredda Brown, John McDonnell, and Martha E. Snell

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ix

Chapter 1 Educating Students with Severe Disabilities Foundational Concepts and Practices 1

Chapter 2 Fostering Family–Professional Partnerships 27

Chapter 3 Assessment and Planning 55

Chapter 4 Measuring Student Behavior and Learning 89

Chapter 5 Selecting Teaching Strategies and Arranging Educational Environments 130

Chapter 6 Designing and Implementing Instruction for Inclusive Classes 190

Chapter 7 Designing and Implementing Individualized Positive Behavior Support 223

Chapter 8 Understanding and Meeting the Health Care Needs of Students with Severe Disabilities 264

Chapter 9 Key Concepts in Understanding Motor Disabilities 292

Chapter 10 Teaching Self-Care Skills 327

Chapter 11 Promoting Social Competence and Peer Relationships 371

Chapter 12 Teaching Communication Skills 404

Chapter 13 Teaching Academic Skills 438

Chapter 14 Building Skills for Home and Community 474

Brief Contents

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x Brief Contents

Chapter 15 Transitioning from School to Employment 508

Chapter 16 The Promise of Adulthood 554

References 588

Name Index 623

Subject Index 630

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1 Educating Students with Severe Disabilities 1 Michael F. GianGreco, Stacy K. DyMonD, anD Karrie a. ShoGren Who Are Students With Severe Disabilities? 2

Definitions, 2 ● Societal Perceptions and Expectations, 3 ● Opportunities for Interaction and Reciprocal Benefit, 4

Reasons For Optimism and Concern 4 Reasons for Optimism, 4 ● Reasons for Concern, 6

Access to Quality Education 8 Access to Inclusive Environments, 8 ● Access to Individualized Curriculum, 10 ● Access to Purposeful Instruction, 17 ● Access to the Necessary Related Services and Supports, 22

Learning Outcome Summaries 25

2 Fostering Family–Professional Partnerships 27 ann P. turnbull, h. rutherForD turnbull, Kathleen Kyzar, anD nina zuna Two Families and Two Windows for Understanding Families in Special Education 29

Individuals With Disabilities Education Act: Parental Rights and Responsibilities 29 IDEA’s Six Principles, 30 ● Assisting Families to Advocate: Parent Training and Information Resource Centers, 36

A Family Systems Perspective 37 Family Characteristics, 39 ● Family Interaction, 42 ● Family Functions, 46 ● Family Life Cycle, 48

Learning Outcome Summaries 52

Suggested Activity: A Tale of Two Families 53

3 Assessment and Planning 55 Diane M. browDer, Jenny root, leah wooD, anD caryn alliSon Assumptions of Assessment 56

Qualities and Types of Assessment 59 Technical Adequacy, 59 ● Types of Assessments, 59

Purpose of Assessment 64 Multidisciplinary Assessments Used to Determine Eligibility, 65 ● Assessments for School Accountability, 69 ● Assessments Used for IEP and Other Educational Planning, 71

Using the Assessment Information 82 Developing the IEP, 82

Learning Outcome Summaries 84

Overview to Chapters 4, 5, and 6 86

Contents

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4 Measuring Student Behavior and Learning 89 FreDDa brown, anD Martha e. Snell Why Measure Student Behavior? 89

Using an Evidence Base to Guide Instruction, 90 ● Accountability Through Evaluation, 91

Foundations of Meaningful Measurement 92 Measurement of Important Behaviors, 92 ● Measurement That Is Contextually Appropriate, 95 ● Measurement That Is Accurate and Reliable, 96

Quantitative Measures 97 Rationale, 97 ● Measurement Strategies, 98

Organizing Student Performance Data 110 Designing Data Sheets, 110 ● Graphing Your Data, 110 ● Computer-Generated Graphs, 113 ● Saving Ungraphed Data, 114 ● Frequency of Data Collection, 114

Data Analysis for Better Decision-Making 115 Measures of Accuracy, 116 ● Types of Data, 118 ● Obtaining a Baseline, 119 ● Baseline–Intervention Comparison, 119 ● Graphing Conventions, 120 ● Visual Analysis, 121

Learning Outcome Summaries 127

Suggested Activities 129

5 Selecting Teaching Strategies and Arranging Educational Environments 130 Martha e. Snell, FreDDa brown, anD John McDonnell Principles to Guide Instruction 131

Work as Collaborative Teams, 132 ● Determine What to Teach, 132 ● Understand How the Stage of Learning Affects Instruction, 132 ● Reach Agreement on How Students Will Be Taught, 133 ● Monitor Student Learning with Performance Data, 134

“Universal” Strategies that are Effective With a Wide Range of Students 134 Information About Students, 135 ● Materials and Universal Design, 135 ● The Instructor, 137 ● Schedule for Instruction, 138 ● Teaching Arrangements, 139 ● One-to-One Instruction, 140 ● Small Group Instruction, 140 ● Enhanced Group Instruction, 142 ● Observation Learning, 142 ● Cooperative Learning Groups, 143 ● Group Instruction Guidelines, 144 ● Peer-Mediated Instruction and Peer Support, 144 ● Peer Tutoring, 145 ● Peer Support Programs, 146 ● Individualized Adaptations: Accommodations and Modifications, 147 ● Self-Management, 147

Specialized Teaching Strategies that are Effective With Students Who Have Severe Disabilities 150

Visual Modality Strategies, 150 ● Visual Supports, 151 ● Video Modeling, 155 ● Task Analysis and Chaining, 157 ● Task Analysis, 158 ● Approaches for Teaching Chained Tasks, 160 ● Elements of Discrete Teaching Trials, 161 ● Discriminative Stimuli, 163 ● Instructional Cues, 165 ● Stimulus and Response Prompting, 165 ● Stimulus Prompts, 165 ● Response Prompts, 166 ● Types of Instructional Prompts, 167 ● Response Latency, 167 ● Prompt Fading, 169 ● Prompting Systems, 170 ● General Guidelines for Using Structured Prompts and Cues, 176 ● Consequence Strategies, 176 ● Positive Reinforcement 177 ● Planned Ignoring, 180 ● Response to Errors, 181 ● Arranging Teaching Trials, 184 ● Distributed or Massed Trial Instruction, 184 ● Contextualized or Decontextualized Instruction, 185 ● Embedding Instruction Within Activities, 186

Learning Outcome Summaries 188

Suggested Activities 188

6 Designing and Implementing Instruction for Inclusive Classes 190 rachel e. Janney, anD Martha e. Snell The Pyramid of Support/Response-to-Intervention Logic 191

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Collaborative Teaming for Ongoing, Day-to-Day Planning and Delivery of Instruction 192

A Model for Making Individualized Adaptations 195 Criteria for Making Individualized Adaptations, 195 ● Types of Adaptations: Curricular, Instructional, and Alternative, 196 ● Curricular Adaptations: Individualize the Learning Goal, 197 ● Instructional Adaptations: Individualize the Methods and/or Materials, 199 ● Alternative Adaptations: Individualize the Goal, the Methods/ Materials, and the Activity, 201

Using the Model to Develop Individualized Adaptations 203 Step 1. Gather and Share Information About the Student(s) and the Classroom, 203 ● Information About the Classroom, 204 ● In-depth Information About Class Activities and Participation, 205 ● Step 2. Determine When Adaptations Are Needed, 207 ● Step 3. Plan and Implement Adaptations: First General, Then Specific 209 ● General Adaptations, 209 ● Specific Adaptations, 210 ● Individualized Adaptations and Support Plans 211 ● Step 4. Monitor and Evaluate, 216 ● Monitoring Student Performance, 216 ● Evaluating Student Progress, 219

Learning Outcome Summaries 221

Suggested Activities 222

7 Designing and Implementing Individualized Positive Behavior Support 223 robert e. o’neill, anD J. Matt JaMeSon Development of Positive Behavior Support (PBS) 225

Development of PBS in Schools: Multi-Tiered Systems of Support (MTSS) 226

Inclusion of Students With More Severe Disabilities in MTSS 227

Components of Individualized PBS 228 Three Phases of Implementation, 228 ● Person-Centered Planning, 229 ● Ecological Assessment, 230 ● Why Conduct an FBA?, 230 ● Outcomes of an FBA, 231 ● Who Should Be Involved?, 231

Overview of the FBA Process 231 Assessment, 231 ● Hypothesis Development, 232 ● Direct Observations and Analyses, 232 ● Development of Behavioral Intervention Plans (BIPs), 232 ● Specify Who Will Do What and When, 233 ● Ongoing Data Collection and Evaluation, 235

Indirect Data Collection 235 Archival Review, 235 ● Interviews, 235 ● Checklists, 239

Direct Observations 239 Validation of Summary Statements, 241

Functional Analysis 241 Procedures, 241

Behavior Intervention Plan Development 242 Important Characteristics of BIPs, 242 ● Bridging the Gap from FBA to BIP: The Competing Behavior Model 243 ● Formats for Behavior Intervention Plans, 246

Potential Intervention Plan Components 246 Lifestyle Changes, 246 ● Classroom Modifications, 246 ● Setting Events/Motivating Operations, 247 ● Antecedent Strategies, 248 ● Teaching and Prompting Alternative/Replacement Behaviors, 249 ● Consequence Strategies for Appropriate and Challenging Behavior, 249 ● Crisis/Emergency Intervention Strategies, 250 ● Intervention Plan Evaluation and Monitoring, 252 ● Example Behavior Intervention Plan for Micah, 253

General Issues Regarding Ethical and Professional Behavior 253

Technology Supports for FBA 254 Direct Observation Tools, 255

Technology Tools to Support Intervention Strategies 257 Setting Events, 257 ● Antecedent Interventions, 258 ● Behavioral Teaching Applications, 258 ● Consequence Interventions, 259 ● Communication, 259

Learning Outcome Summaries 261

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8 Understanding and Meeting the Health Care Needs of Students with Severe Disabilities 264 Donna lehr, anD nancy harayaMa Introduction 265

Students with Special Health Care Needs Defined 265

General Knowledge of Health Care Procedures 267 Hygienic Practices in Schools, 267

Understanding Specialized Health Care Procedures 275 Knowledge and Training Levels, 275 ● Responsible Personnel, 276 ● Specialized Health Care Procedures, 276

Care Coordination Through Communication 281 Individualized Health Care Plans, 282 ● Record Keeping, 283

Inclusion in the General Education Setting 285 Acceptance by Peers, 285 ● Specialized Education Content, 286 ● Maximizing Educational Opportunities, 287

Other Considerations Related to the Education of Students With Special Health Care Needs 287

Medical Discrimination, 287 ● Do Not Resuscitate, 289

Learning Outcome Summaries 290

9 Key Concepts in Understanding Motor Disabilities 292 Mary Jane raPPort, aMy barr, anD Maria JoneS Impact on Education and Participation 294

International Classification on Function (ICF), 295 ● Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS), 297 ● Quality of Movement, 298

Team Support for Students 302 Team Collaboration and Communication, 302 ● Service Delivery by the Team, 304

Meeting Students’ Needs 306 Daily Routines, 307 ● Lifting, Transferring, Moving, 310 ● Positioning, 311 ● Learning, 313 ● Ecological Inventory, 314 ● Playground and Recreation, 315 ● Transition to Employment or Other Postsecondary Settings, 316 ● Use of Equipment to Enhance Participation, 317 ● Use of Other Technologies and Equipment in the Classroom, 323 ● Transportation 324

Learning Outcome Summaries 326

Suggested Activities 326

10 Teaching Self-Care Skills 327 Martha e. Snell, Monica e. Delano, anD VirGinia l. walKer General Teaching Considerations 329

Identifying What to Teach, 329

Special Considerations for Toileting 336 Identify What to Teach, 337 ● Identify Teaching Strategies, 342

Special Considerations for Eating and Mealtimes 349 Identify What to Teach, 350 ● Identify Teaching Strategies for Eating and Mealtimes, 351 ● Addressing Problem Behaviors During Mealtime, 353

Special Considerations for Dressing and Grooming 358 Identify What to Teach, 359 ● Identify Teaching Strategies for Dressing and Grooming Skills, 362

Learning Outcome Summaries 368

Suggested Activities 370

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11 Promoting Social Competence and Peer Relationships 371 eriK w. carter, anD Matthew e. brocK Introduction 372

Contributions of Peer Relationships in the Lives of all Children 373 Friendships Are Important in the Lives of All Students, 373 ● For Children and Youth with Severe Disabilities, 374 ● For Peers Without Disabilities, 374

The Diversity of Peer Relationships 374 Defining Relationships, 375 ● The Variety of Interactions and Relationships, 375 ● The Role of Context and Relationships, 378

The Importance of Intentional Efforts to Foster Relationships 379 Relationships with Peers Who Do Not Have Disabilities, 379

Promoting Peer Interaction and Social Relationships 380 Assessment to Identify Needs and Opportunities, 381

Strategies for Addressing Social Needs and Maximizing Relationship Opportunities 385

Shared Space, 385 ● Shared Activities, 385 ● Shared Interests, 386 ● Student-Focused Instruction, 386 ● Peer-Focused Instruction, 387 ● Promoting Valued Roles, 387 ● Providing Appropriate Support, 387

Evidence-Based Strategies for Supporting Relationships 388 Inclusive General Education Classrooms, 388 ● Peer Support Strategies, 388 ● Informal School Contexts, 394 ● Extracurricular and Other School-Sponsored Activities, 396 ● After School, on Weekends, and During the Summer, 398

Monitoring Progress and Refining Efforts 399 Monitoring Interactions with Peers in Class, 399 ● Monitoring Participation in Extracurricular Activities, 400 ● Monitoring Student and Family Satisfaction 400

Learning Outcome Summaries 401

Suggested Activities 403

Practical Guides and Resources 403

12 Teaching Communication Skills 404 SuSan S. JohnSton The Importance of Communication 404

Features of Communication 406 Preintentional or Intentional Communication, 406 ● Presymbolic or Symbolic Communication, 407 ● Modes of Communication, 407 ● Communicative Functions, 410 ● Conversational Functions, 410 ● More Complex Communication, 411 ● Comprehension, 412

Identifying and Assessing Communication Skills and Abilities—Deciding What to Teach 412

Formal and Informal Assessment Procedures, 413 ● Indirect and Direct Observation Assessment Strategies, 413 Linking Assessment to Intervention, 416

Developing an Instructional Plan—Deciding How to Teach 417 Identify Opportunities for Instruction, 417 ● Prompting the Communicative Behavior, 420 ● Prompt Fading 423 ● Consequences, 423 ● Response Efficiency, 424 ● Monitoring Progress, 425

Learning Outcome Summaries 435

Suggested Activities 436

Additional Resources 436

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13 Teaching Academic Skills 438 John McDonnell, anD SuSan r. coPelanD Selecting Academic Skills for Instruction 440

General Guidelines, 440 ● Strategies for Developing Academic IEP Goals and Objectives, 441

Determining the Instructional Approach 443 Teaching Within Typical Instructional Routines and Activities, 443 ● Teaching Academics in Parallel Instructional Activities, 444 ● Teaching Academics in Community-Based Activities, 444

Literacy Instruction 445 Definition of Literacy, 445 ● Comprehensive Literacy Instruction, 445 ● Teaching Conventional Early Reading and Writing, 447 ● Word Recognition, 448

Math Instruction 462 Numeracy and Computation, 462

Science Instruction 470

Learning Outcome Summaries 471

Suggested Activities 472

14 Building Skills for Home and Community 474 linDa M. baMbara, Freya KoGer, raquel burnS, anD Dolly SinGley Guidelines for Planning Instruction to Enhance Skills for the Home and Community 476

Guideline One: Use Person-Centered Planning Strategies to Create a Vision, 477 ● Guideline Two: Coordinate Instruction with Families, 478 ● Guideline Three: Encourage Self-Determination Through Choice-Making, Self- Cuing, and Self-Management Skills, 478 ● Guideline Four: Select Appropriate Instructional Settings, 484 ● Guideline Five: Incorporate General Case Instruction, 487 ● Guideline Six: Coordinate Instruction with Transition Planning, 488

Strategies for Teaching Home and Community Skills 491 Skills for the Home, 491 ● Skills for the Community, 500

Learning Outcome Summaries 507

15 Transitioning from School to Employment 508 Valerie l. Mazzotti, anD DaViD w. teSt Introduction 511

Definition of Transition 511

Transition Planning 514 Indicator 13 Requirements, 514 ● Age-Appropriate Transition Assessment, 516 ● Person-Centered Planning, 519 ● Self-Determination and Student Involvement in the IEP 520

Teaching Employment Skills 523 Where to Provide Instruction, 523 ● Where to Provide Instruction: School-Based Instruction (SBI) Options, 524 ● Where to Provide Instruction: Community-Based Instruction (CBI) Options, 529 ● How to Provide Instruction, 535 ● How to Collect Instructional Data, 538 ● Using Assistive Technology, 539 ● Meeting Medical and Health Needs, 541

Adult Outcomes and Meaningful Employment Outcomes 542 Supported Employment, 542 ● Natural Supports, 543 ● Customized Employment, 544

Family Roles in Transition 544

Interagency Collaboration 546 Vocation Rehabilitation Services, 546 ● Developmental Disabilities Services, 547 ● Social Security Administration, 548 ● One-Stop Career Centers, 550

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xviiContents

Learning Outcome Summaries 550

Suggested Activities 553

16 The Promise of Adulthood 554 Dianne l. FerGuSon, anD PhiliP M. FerGuSon Exploring the Promise of Adulthood 556

Understanding Adulthood 557 The Changing Status of Adulthood, 557 ● The Dimensions of Adulthood, 559

Denying Adulthood 566 Unending Childhood, 567 ● Unfinished Transitions, 568 ● Unhelpful Services, 570 ● The Dilemma of Adulthood 572

Achieving Adulthood 573 The Concept of Support, 574 ● What Is Different About Supported Adulthood?, 575 ● Components of Supported Adulthood, 575

Living the Promise 579 Multidimensional Adulthood, 584 ● A Cautionary Conclusion About Unkept Promises, 584

Learning Outcome Summaries 585

Suggested Activities 587

References 588 Name Index 623 Subject Index 630

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1 Educating Students with Severe Disabilities

Foundational Concepts and Practices

Michael F. Giangreco University of Vermont

Stacy K. Dymond University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Karrie A. Shogren University of Kansas

“Learn from yesterday, live for today, hope for tomorrow. The important thing is not to stop questioning.” —Albert einstein

1.01 Who are students with severe disabilities? Learning Outcome Identify definitions of severe disabilities, the role of the supports model in understanding students with severe disabilities, and the influence of societal perceptions and social interactions.

1.02 Reasons for optimism and concern Learning Outcome Identify areas where progress has been made in providing individualized supports for people with severe disabilities in inclusive communities, and areas where work is still needed.

1.03 Access to quality education Learning Outcome Discuss the foundational principles of providing supports to students with severe disabilities that promote access to (a) inclusive environments, (b) individualized curriculum, (c) purposeful instruc- tion, and (d) necessary supports.

Providing relevant education for students with severe disabilities requires that we learn from our past practices, both the mistakes and the successes, by drawing on the historical bank of foundational con-cepts and practices available to us. Our contemporary challenge is to apply what we have learned within today’s context and to do so with a sense of urgency, because as we ponder, debate, and research the merits of our practices, the children who enter our schools are quickly growing up—they and their families do not have the luxury of waiting. Providing individuals with severe disabilities quality education requires that we adopt conceptually sound, evidence-based practices in our schools and confront assumptions about ability that continually threaten current and future opportunities.

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2 Chapter 1

People identified as having severe disabilities are the epitome of why Einstein’s chal- lenge “not to stop questioning” is so important. Only 40 years ago, students with severe disabilities had no legal right to attend public schools and many did not—expectations for their educational progress were minimal. Today because of people with disabilities, their family members, and professionals who never stopped questioning, people with severe disabilities are doing things that many would have thought to be unimaginable just a few short decades ago: They are (a) attending general education classes with their peers who do not have disabilities, (b) learning general education curricular content, (c) participating in general education co-curricular activities, (d) engaging in supported employment, (e) transitioning to community-based supported living options, and (f) accessing inclusive post–high school educational opportunities—but, only some.

Who are StudentS With Severe diSabilitieS?

definitions

Although the term severe disabilities is used extensively in the professional literature, no single authoritative definition exists. The amendments to the Individuals with Disabilities

Education Act (IDEA) (2004), a common source of special education terminology, do not define severe disabilities. IDEA and its corre- sponding Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) (2006) do define 13 distinct disability classifications (34 CFR 300.8), several of which rea- sonably include students considered to have severe disabilities (e.g., autism, deaf-blindness, intellectual disability, multiple disabilities,

traumatic brain injury), although not all students within these categories have severe dis- abilities. Sometimes people with severe disabilities are described as having low-incidence disabilities. Within the school context, the Code of Federal Regulations (2003) allows for up to 1% of the total student population, those with most severe cognitive disabilities, to be assessed based on alternate performance standards (34 CFR 200.13).

Historically, and all too often contemporarily, attempts to describe or define the characteristics of students with severe disabilities have focused primarily on identify- ing deficits in domains that influence human functioning, including intellectual, aca- demic, orthopedic, sensory, behavioral, and social. Unfortunately, such definitions tell us very little about people with severe disabilities (McDonnell, Hardman, & McDonnell, 2003) and may, in fact, contribute to the failures to question the capabilities of people with disabilities that have occurred throughout history and led to limited educational opportunities (Schalock et al., 2007).

Newer conceptualizations of disability are emerging, however, that shift the focus from simply identifying deficits in functioning and instead to emphasizing the reciprocal inter- action between the personal capacities of people with severe disabilities, such as differ- ences in intellectual, academic, orthopedic, sensory, behavioral, and social functioning, and environmental demands, such as the need to participate and learn in inclusive schools, communities, and classrooms (Schalock et al., 2010; World Health Organization, 2001; 2007). By identifying discrepancies between a person’s current level of functioning and environmental demands, supports needed for participation and learning in those environments can be identified; this is know as the supports model (Schalock et al., 2012; Thompson et al., 2009). Supports for participation might include assistive technologies for students as well as environmental changes like the adoption of a co-teaching model or the implementation of a peer support program. Supports for learning might include indi- vidualized curricular adaptations as well as the adoption of universal design for learning in the classroom. The supports model shifts the focus from identifying deficits within a person to understanding needed supports and building systems of supports that facilitate success in inclusive environments.

The supports model prompts professionals to never stop questioning the capabili- ties of individuals with severe disabilities, particularly when needed supports are pro- vided for participation and learning in inclusive environments. It also recognizes that

Watch the video “Classification and Intellectual Disability” at www .youtube.com/watch?v=80rc4ZAtQ0I.

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3Educating Students with Severe Disabilities

students with severe disabilities are a widely heterogeneous group in terms of their disability characteristics, capabilities, and educational needs as well as in their charac- teristics not related to disability (e.g., interests, preferences, personalities, socioeco- nomic levels, cultural heritage). By focusing on individualized supports identified through a systematic analysis of discrepancies between personal capacities and envi- ronmental demands, this collective diversity and need for individualized, lifelong sup- ports can be addressed in inclusive contexts.

A foundational assumption of the supports model is that people with severe disa- bilities share a fundamental human trait with all other people—the capacity to learn, and that appropriate supports for learning will allow individuals with severe disabili- ties to demonstrate their capabilities. Although this may seem too obvious to men- tion, as recently as the early 1980s, there were heated debates in the professional literature about whether individuals with the most severe disabilities were capable of learning and how such judgments affected their right to be educated. The words of Baer (1981) remain relevant today:

To the extent that we sometimes finally succeed in teaching a child whom we have con- sistently failed to teach in many previous efforts, we may learn something about teach- ing technique . . . Too often, in my opinion, we teach children who are not only capable of teaching themselves, but eager to do so; in their wisdom, they cheat us of learning completely how the trick is done because they do some of it for us and do it privately. It is when they cannot do much if any of it for us that we get to find out how to do all of it ourselves, as teachers. (p. 94)

Approaching all students as capable of learning provides us with the opportunity to never stop questioning our own understanding of teaching and learning. The notion of all students as capable of learning and entitled to appropriate education is consistent with the federal zero-reject principle embedded in IDEA since its passage in 1975. The zero-reject principle established that all school-aged children, regardless of the severity of their disability, are entitled to a free, appropriate public education (Turnbull, Stowe, & Huerta, 2007). This principle was tested in the case of Timothy W. v. Rochester School District (1989) when a student with severe, multiple disabilities was denied admission to his local public school because school officials deemed him unable to benefit from education due to the severity of his disability. Although the trial court sided with Rochester School District, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the First Circuit overturned this ruling, and strongly reaffirmed the zero-reject principle as a core component of IDEA, stating that

. . . educational methodologies in these areas are not static, but are constantly evolving and improving. It is the school district’s responsibility to avail itself of these new approaches in providing an educational program geared toward each child’s individ- ual needs. The only question for the school district to determine, in conjunction with the child’s parents, is what constitutes an appropriate individualized education program (IEP). (p. 973)

This decision, and all subsequent reauthorizations of IDEA, have emphasized that all students are entitled to a free, appropriate public education. Schools must continu- ously question their assumptions about supports for learning and participation, and ensure that teachers have access to state-of-the-art practices for meeting all students’ individualized needs.

Societal Perceptions and expectations

TASH (n.d.), an international advocacy and professional organization focused on pro- moting the full inclusion and participation of people with severe disabilities, states that people with severe disabilities are

. . . most at risk for being excluded from society; perceived by traditional services sys- tems as most challenging; most likely to have their rights abridged; most likely to be at

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4 Chapter 1

risk for living, working, playing, and learning in segregated environments; [and] least likely to have the tools necessary to advocate on their behalf.

Because people with severe disabilities require ongoing supports to mitigate the risks described above, the ways in which they are perceived and subsequently treated by others can have a major impact on the quality of their lives. When coupled with the historical emphasis on deficits in functioning experienced by people with disabili- ties, social perceptions and expectations have tended to be low. This can lead to dis- ability spread, defined as the tendency to make broad inferences, assumptions, and generalizations about a person on the basis of disability stereotypes within the society (Dembo, Leviton, & Wright, 1975; Liesener & Mills, 1999). Some common stereotypes portray persons with disabilities as sick, subhuman, a menace, an object of pity, an object of charity, or a holy innocent (Smith & Wehmeyer, 2012; Wolfensberger, 1975).

opportunities for interaction and reciprocal benefit

As noted by TASH, stereotypes and disability spread have a significant, negative impact on the quality of life of people with severe disabilities. However, it is not just people with severe disabilities that are negatively impacted. If you accept the notion that personal relationships are among a small set of the most defining characteristics that influence the quality of a person’s life, then disability spread is a problematic issue for those with and without disabilities alike as it limits relationships between people with and without disabilities (Bogdan & Taylor, 1989).

As you continue to read this chapter and the rest of this book about people who have the label of severe disabilities, you are encouraged to think about how these individuals are like all other people, like some other people, and uniquely like no other people. Keep in mind that first and foremost we all are human beings—someone’s child, someone’s sibling, someone’s classmate, someone’s neighbor, or someone’s friend. It is true that some people are born with or acquire disability characteristics that require lifelong systems of supports. Remember, though, that we all need sup- ports, we just differ in the level of those support needs. Our collective attitudes and responses to differences in support needs can influence how much of a barrier those support needs are (or are not) to living a full, engaged, and self-determined life.

reaSonS for oPtimiSm and ConCern

From an historical perspective, our current times are among the best for individuals with severe disabilities, at least thus far. We write this with the full recognition that our current best is relative and is quite a long way from good for far too many people labeled as having severe disabilities. This section highlights a set of key reasons for optimism about the education of students with disabilities followed by a set of con- tinuing concerns.

reasons for optimism

Table 1–1 lists five areas for optimism about our present and future. Such optimism about our collective potential to make a positive difference in the lives of students with and without disabilities is an essential ingredient of the creative problem solving necessary to

tackle these important challenges. First, nowhere is progress more evident or reason for optimism

more warranted than with regard to inclusive educational opportu- nities (see Table 1–2 for key elements of inclusive education). Across the country, students with severe disabilities are increas- ingly accessing general education classrooms and other inclusive settings with their same-age peers without disabilities (Downing,

Karrie Shogren discusses self- determination at www.youtube.com /watch?v=ZdArcPCH8FQ&src_vid =SOdHpLvpVH4&feature=iv&annotat ion_id=annotation_2241971059

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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZdArcPCH8FQ&src_vid=SOdHpLvpVH4&feature=iv&annotation_id=annotation_2241971059
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZdArcPCH8FQ&src_vid=SOdHpLvpVH4&feature=iv&annotation_id=annotation_2241971059
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5Educating Students with Severe Disabilities

2008); such options were rare or non-existent just two or three decades ago. Inclusive schools promote equity, opportunity, and social justice for all their students ( Jorgensen, McSheehan, & Sonnenmeier, 2009; Sapon-Shevin, 2011; Theoharis, 2009). These out- comes are relevant for any student across a range of diverse characteristics (e.g., race, culture, primary language, socioeconomic level), as well as any student who simply is having difficulty becoming part of a classroom’s learning community. The tenets of inclusive schooling are increasingly being linked with broader school reform and restruc- turing efforts designed to improve educational opportunities for all students. The Schoolwide Applications Model (SAM) (Sailor, 2002; Sailor & Roger, 2005), Whole Schooling (Peterson, 2004; (Peterson & Hittie, 2010), Schools of Promise (Causton- Theoharis, Theoharis, Bull, Cosier, & Dempf-Aldrich, 2011), and Schoolwide Integrated Framework for Transformation (SWIFT, www.swiftschools.org/) offer examples of suc- cessful efforts to bridge general and special education, and transform schools into inclu- sive communities that meet the needs of the diverse array of students in our schools.

Second, curricular options for students with severe disabilities have extended beyond functional life skills to include greater alignment and access to the general education cur- riculum. Promising approaches have emerged that demonstrate positive learning out- comes for students with severe disabilities in literacy, math, and science (Hudson, Browder, & Wood, 2013; Riggs, Collins, Kleinert, & Knight, 2013; Spooner, Knight, Browder, & Smith, 2012). In inclusive settings, the principle of universal design for learn- ing (i.e., designing the curriculum with the needs of all learners in mind right from the start) has enabled teachers to create learning environments that accommodate the range of learners in their classrooms (Coyne, Pisha, Dalton, Zeph, & Smith, 2012; Dymond

TAbLe 1–1 Areas for Optimism

1. Inclusive education and schoolwide reform 2. Access to the general education curriculum 3. Positive behavior interventions and supports 4. Peer supports 5. Self-determination and transition to adult life

TAbLe 1–2 Elements of Inclusive Education

Inclusive education exists when each of the following six characteristics occurs on an ongoing, daily basis.

1. All students are welcomed in general education. The first placement options considered are the general education classes in the school that the students would attend if they did not have a disability.

2. Disability is recognized as a form of human diversity. Hence, students with disabilities are accepted as individuals and are not denied access because of their disabilities.

3. Appropriate supports are available, regardless of disability label or the level and/or type of supports needed. Given their portability, supports are provided in typical environments instead of sending students to specialized settings to receive supports.

4. The composition of the classrooms in which students are educated reflects the naturally occurring proportion of students with and without disabilities or other identified needs (referred to as natural proportions). Therefore, the percentage of students without disabilities in each class is substantially higher than the percentage of students with disabilities or other special needs.

5. Students, irrespective of their performance levels and/or support needs, are educated with peers in the same age groupings available to those without disability labels instead of with younger students. Students with disabilities need not function at or near the same academic level as their classmates (although some do) to benefit from a chronologically age-appropriate, inclusive placement.

6. Students with and without disabilities participate in shared educational experiences while pursuing individually appropriate learning outcomes with the necessary supports. Educational experiences are designed to enhance valued life outcomes that seek an individualized balance between both the academic-functional and the social-personal aspects of schooling.

(From Choosing Outcomes and Accommodations for Children (COACH): A Guide to Educational Planning for Students with Disabilities, Third Edition (2011) by M.F. Giangreco, C.J. Cloninger, & V.S. Iverson. (Baltimore, Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co, Inc.). Adapted with permission.)

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6 Chapter 1

et al., 2006). Furthermore, students with severe disabilities are now included in statewide accountability systems through alternate assessments that are aligned with state aca- demic standards (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, IDEA, 2004; No Child Left Behind Act, NCLB, 2001). This increased emphasis on academic instruction has pre- sented new opportunities for students with severe disabilities to access challenging cur- riculum and for school personnel to be held accountable for their learning.

Third, the rapidly developing technology of positive behavior interventions and sup- ports (PBIS) has resulted in effective, non-aversive interventions for students with severe disabilities who exhibit problem behavior (Brown & Michaels, 2006; Dunlap et al., 2010; Freeman et al., 2006; Goh & Bambara, 2012; Sailor, Dunlap, Sugai, & Horner, 2008) (see Chapter 7). PBIS is based on the premise that all behavior serves a function (or purpose) and interventions must be designed to teach alternative behaviors that serve the same functions. Since the reauthorization of IDEA in 1997, schools have been required to con- sider the use of PBIS for students with problem behavior. Schools are increasingly imple- menting PBIS strategies schoolwide, which has resulted in the creation of more positive learning environments for all students, including students with severe disabilities.

Fourth, drawing upon peers to lend support to students with severe disabilities has emerged as a prominent area of research because it is central to social and academic classroom success (Carter, Cushing, & Kennedy, 2009; Janney & Snell, 2006). Peers without disabilities can effectively provide an array of supports to their classmates with disabilities in ways that enhance educational experiences. Increasingly, school personnel are recognizing the benefits of peer supports instead of the common response of relying too heavily or unnecessarily on extra adult supports (e.g., one-to- one teacher assistants) (Giangreco, Doyle & Suter, 2012) (see Chapter 11).

Finally, the focus on family involvement has expanded to include student involve- ment and self-determination. Self-determined young people have skills and attitudes that allow them to act as causal agents, to make things happen in their own lives. Self-determination emerges as students learn the skills needed to make choices and decisions about their own lives, have opportunities to make decisions, and then have those decisions honored (Wehmeyer, 2005). As succinctly summarized in self- advocacy circles, “Nothing about me without me!” Self-determination is critically important as it pertains to transition to adult life (Shogren, 2013; Thoma, Bartho- lomew, & Scott, 2009). Self-determination skills facilitate successful transitions into supported employment (Wehman, Inge, Revell, & Brooke, 2007), supported commu- nity living ( Jameson & McDonnell, 2010; Taylor, 2006), and postsecondary education (Feldman, Fialka, & Rossen, 2006; Grigal & Hart, 2009).

reasons for Concern

Although the five areas for optimism presented in the previous section are encourag- ing trends, the field of special education is not at a stage of development where the curricular, instructional, and support needs of students with severe disabilities are con- sistently and sufficiently addressed. Table 1–3 lists six continuing areas of concern.

First, inclusive educational opportunities have remained relatively static, and inconsistent access to inclusive classrooms continues to plague public school systems, especially for students with severe disabilities. Primary placement in general education

TAbLe 1–3 Areas for Continuing Concern

1. Inconsistent access to inclusive classrooms 2. Questionable quality of curriculum and instruction 3. Too many families are frustrated by the lack of professional responsiveness 4. Continued use of aversive procedures 5. Challenging working conditions for special educators 6. Limited postschool options

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7Educating Students with Severe Disabilities

means that a student with a disability receives 80% or more of his or her instruction in a general education classroom with appropriate supports. The U.S. Department of Education (2012b) indicates that for all students with disabilities (ages 6–21) in U.S. states, including the Bureau of Indian Education (BIE) and outlying areas, 61% have their primary placement in general education classrooms. A closer look at categories most likely to include students with severe disabilities (e.g., autism, deaf-blindness, intellectual disability, multiple disabilities, and traumatic brain injury) depicts a more stark reality. For example, only 17% of students with intellectual disability nationally are included in general education classrooms for 80% or more of their school day. Currently, 15 states (i.e., AZ, CA, HI, IL, ME, MN, MO, NV, NJ, NY, SC, TX, UT, WA, WY) include less than 10% of their students with intellectual disability for 80% or more of the school day. In contrast, only five states (i.e., AL, CT, IA, KY, VT) along with two American Territories (i.e., Puerto Rico, Northern Mariana Islands) include over 35% of their students with intellectual disability in general education classes for 80% or more of their school day (U.S. Department of Education, 2012a). Unfortu- nately, placement in general education classrooms depends, in large part, on where a student lives and what disability category has been assigned to him or her. Although placement does not equal inclusion, it is a telling indicator of access to general educa- tion environments and a first step toward inclusive opportunities.

Second, even in situations where access to inclusive environments is better, the questionable quality of the curriculum and instruction for students with severe disa- bilities in general education classrooms continues to be a serious and ongoing issue (Halle & Dymond, 2008/2009; Hunt, McDonnell, & Crockett, 2012). Being physically present in settings with same-age peers who do not have disabilities is necessary, but not sufficient, to be included. Too many students with severe disabilities who are placed in general education classes are subjected to undesirable conditions, such as being (a) separated within the classroom (e.g., taught primarily by a paraprofessional apart from classmates), (b) taken through the motions of a lesson or activity without having appropriately targeted learning outcomes (i.e., not learning much of value or importance to them), or (c) presented with lesson content that is inconsistent with their abilities or learning and communication characteristics. The very concept of inclusive education has become distorted because fragmented, partial, or low-quality implementation efforts have been mislabeled as “inclusive” (Davern et al., 1997). While public debates continue to be waged regarding the least restrictive environ- ment provision of the IDEA and the curriculum focus for students with severe disabil- ities, years pass and the lives of real children and their families are adversely affected.

Third, too many families are frustrated by the lack of professional responsiveness to their children’s educational needs ( Jegatheesan, 2009; Soodak & Erwin, 2000). While some educators interact with parents and students as consumers and embrace them as partners in the educational process, others still resist, preferring to retain the role of professional as expert (Turnbull, Turnbull, Erwin, Soodak, & Shogren, 2010). Families from culturally diverse backgrounds experience further frustration when school per- sonnel fail to understand or respect the values inherent in their culture ( Jegatheesan, 2009; Shogren, 2013). Family members, friends, and persons with disabilities them- selves also have expertise and knowledge concerning issues such as an individual’s likes and dislikes, understanding of behavioral challenges, rest/sleep patterns, idio- syncratic communication, personal history, and other important information that may contribute to educational and support planning. It is when the respective expertise of professionals and families are combined that teams have the opportunity to experi- ence the synergy that comes from true collaboration (Harry, 2008) (see Chapter 2).

Fourth, concern exists about the continued use of aversive procedures to manage problem behaviors (Brown & Traniello, 2010; Westling, Trader, Smith, & Marshall, 2010). Sadly and unnecessarily, some students with severe disabilities continue to be subjected to an arsenal of aversive procedures and punishments (e.g., contingent elec- tric shock, restraints, seclusion, noxious smells, white noise, physical assaults) in the

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8 Chapter 1

name of “treatment,” resulting in lost learning opportunities, degradation, psychologi- cal trauma, physical injury, and, in a small number of cases, even death (Gonnerman, 2007; National Disability Rights Network, 2009; U.S. Government Accountability Office, 2009). This problem persists despite the availability of effective, positive alternatives (Goh & Bambara, 2012; Sailor, Dunlap, Sugai, & Horner, 2008) and a national cam- paign to end the use of restraint and seclusion (www.stophurtingkids.com).

Fifth, challenging working conditions for special educators contribute to the con- cerns about the education of students with severe disabilities. Of particular alarm is the national shortage of qualified special educators, as well as the need to train and retain more of them (Boe & Cook, 2006; McLeskey, Tyler, & Flippin, 2004). Boe, Cook, and Sunderland (2008) report that annual turnover in special education has increased to one in four teachers in recent years. Some of the key factors contributing to special educators leaving the field include excessive paperwork, large caseloads, and lack of administrative support (Kozleski, Mainzer, & Deshler, 2000). Teacher shortages and high turnover rates interfere with students receiving an appropriate, high quality education. This is particularly true for students with severe disabilities, who constitute a small proportion of the overall population of students with disabili- ties and require teachers with specialized expertise and skills.

Finally, limited postschool options adversely affect young adults with severe disabil- ities. While some students with severe disabilities are accessing meaningful post- school opportunities, many are not (Certo, Luecking, Murphy, Brown, Courey, & Belanger, 2008). All too often youth with severe disabilities exit school unemployed, without basic skills, lonely, and unnecessarily isolated. At a time when the lives of their same-age peers are growing more interesting with expanding opportunities, the lives of young adults with severe disabilities is becoming smaller and more restricted.

If you are interested in improving the lives of people with severe disabilities through education, there is plenty to motivate you to act, regardless of whether you see this point in time as the glass half full or half empty. For those of you motivated by positive news, there is a continually growing set of examples and body of literature document- ing steady progress to encourage your continuing contributions to these efforts. Regard- less of what “fuels your fire”—the slow pace of progress or ongoing injustices facing people with severe disabilities—there is plenty of motivation to act and work to do!

aCCeSS to Quality eduCation

The remainder of this chapter offers foundational information and ideas about access to quality education for students with severe disabilities in four main areas including

access to (a) inclusive environments, (b) individualized curricu- lum, (c) purposeful instruction, and (d) necessary supports. All of these components of quality education and others are given in depth attention in the subsequent chapters and embedded throughout the book.

access to inclusive environments

Since its passage in 1975, IDEA has mandated that students with disabilities be edu- cated in the least restrictive environment (LRE) (Rebhorn & Smith, 2008; Turnbull et al., 2007). The LRE provisions state that “to the maximum extent appropriate, chil- dren with disabilities . . . are educated with children who are non-disabled. . . . special classes, separate schooling, or other removal of children with disabilities from the regular educational environment occurs only if the nature or severity of the disa- bility is such that education in regular classes with the use of supplemental aids and services cannot be achieved satisfactorily” (34 CFR 300.114).

Ironically, it has been this second part of the LRE mandate that, at times, has been used to justify the continued segregation of students with the most severe disabilities.

Watch “IDEA and Special Education Best Practices” at www.youtube.com /watch?v=lQE4zEGXOGE.

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9Educating Students with Severe Disabilities

Across the country, far too many students who have severe disabilities are automati- cally placed in self-contained special education classes or schools, and thus are denied opportunities to build relationships with their peers without disabilities as well as access to general education classrooms and curricula.

The federal government, however, expresses a strong preference for placement in general education classes for students with disabilities, including those with severe disabilities (Rebhorn & Smith, 2008). As the U.S. Department of Education wrote in the regulation’s “Analysis of Comments and Changes,” the IDEA

. . . presumes that the first placement option considered for each child with a disability is the regular classroom in the school that the child would attend if not disabled, with appro- priate supplementary aids and services to facilitate such placement. Thus, before a child with a disability can be placed outside of the regular educational environment, the full range of supplementary aids and services that could be provided to facilitate the child’s placement in the regular classroom setting must be considered. (CFR, 2006, p. 46588)

The IDEA goes on to state

In all cases, placement decisions must be individually determined on the basis of each child’s abilities and needs and each child’s IEP, and not solely on factors such as cate- gory of disability, severity of disability, availability of special education and related services, configuration of the service delivery system, availability of space, or adminis- trative convenience. (CFR, 2006, p. 46588)

Further evidence of federal support for educating students with severe disabilities in the LRE is found in a jointly submitted amicus curiae (friend of the court) brief that the U.S. Department of Justice (Office of Civil Rights) and the U.S. Department of Education wrote in support of a student with severe disabilities (named Spike who attended Valley Grove School District) to be educated in the general education class- room with supplemental supports and aids.

. . . The IDEA does not require that Spike be able to perform at or near the grade level of non-disabled students before placement in the regular class can be considered the LRE for him. Congress expressed a strong preference in favor of educating children with dis- abilities in an inclusive manner and an integrated environment and requires States accepting IDEA funds to educate children with disabilities in the least restrictive envi- ronment (i.e., with their non-disabled peers in the regular classroom) to the maximum extent appropriate. States and school districts are not asked to determine whether LRE is an appropriate policy but rather to determine how a child can be educated in the LRE. Thus, school districts must determine how a child can be educated in the regular class with the use of supplementary aids and services. Valley Grove did not even attempt to make the necessary determination of how Spike could be educated in the LRE. Indeed, Valley Grove argues instead that, directly contrary to IDEA regulations, Spike must be removed from his age-appropriate regular classroom solely because his educational level is below that of the class. (U.S. Department of Justice, 2002, pp. 13–14)

IDEA is clear that the default placement—in other words, the starting point—for all students with disabilities is the general education classroom with appropriate sup- ports. IDEA does not say that students with disabilities should be denied access to general education classes

• if they have a particular label (e.g., autism, intellectual disability, multiple disabilities) • if they require supports or accommodations (even if potentially extensive) • if they function at a substantially different level than their classmates • if they are pursuing different learning outcomes than their classmates • just because it hasn’t been done that way before in the school • if it is administratively inconvenient or if needed services are not currently in place • if the adults in the school are unaccustomed to the characteristics presented by the

students and/or their support needs

M01_SNEL7163_08_SE_C01.indd 9 26/03/15 4:43 PM

10 Chapter 1

Despite trends toward greater access to general education classrooms, students with severe disabilities remain most at risk for segregated placements. Yet, for every student with a severe disability who remains educationally segregated there are other students with similar attributes, abilities, and needs who are successfully included and learning relevant skills. This suggests that whether a student with a severe disa- bility is meaningfully included may have less to do with his or her characteristics and more to do with the attitudes, skills, structure, and practices of the adults responsible for providing education (Giangreco, Carter, Doyle, & Suter, 2010). Placement teams must ask themselves the question, “How can we change our practices so that more students with disabilities can be successfully included and educated?”

access to individualized Curriculum

IDEA provides a potent framework to enhance the lives of students with disabilities through special education and the development of an individualized education pro- gram (IEP). Special education is defined as “specially designed instruction, at no cost to parents, to meet the unique needs of a child with a disability” (20 U.S.C. § 1400 (2004); IDEA, sec. 602(29)). Specially designed instruction means, “adapting . . . content, methodology, or delivery of instruction to meet the unique needs of the child that result from the child’s disability; and to ensure access of the child to the general education curriculum” (34 CFR 300.39 [3]).

As described in the IDEA, special education is a service, not a place (Taylor, 1988). At its heart, special education refers to the individualized ways in which we provide instruction to students in an effort to respond to their unique learning characteristics resulting from their disability. Sometimes individualization means (a) changes in curric- ulum to account for a student’s present level of performance or support needs, (b) adaptations to the delivery of instruction (e.g., sensory, physical, behavioral, environ- mental) that allow a student to have access to learning opportunities, or (c) use of differ- ent instructional methods applied to the general education curriculum or to individually determined learning outcomes that extend beyond the general education curriculum.

individualized Participation options Within General education The participation of students with severe disabilities within general education classes and activities can be broadly characterized along two dimensions: (a) their educa- tional program content (i.e., individualized curriculum, IEP annual goals with corre- sponding benchmarks or short-term objectives, and designated learning outcomes from the general education curriculum) and (b) their supports, namely, what is pro- vided to assist the student in accessing and pursuing achievement of his or her educa- tional goals (e.g., assistive technology, materials, adaptations, learning strategies, related services). As shown in Figure 1–1, this can be conceptualized as four basic options for including students with severe disabilities (or any student for that matter) within typical class activities; each is described in the sections that follow. During the course of a school day, even sometimes within a single activity, an individual student will move among these different options, depending on the nature of the activity and his or her individual needs. This approach requires deliberate collaboration among teachers, special educators, and related services providers (see Chapter 6).

option a: no accommodations required Option A exists when a student is participating in the same activity with students with- out disabilities in the same way, and is pursuing the same content at the same level of difficulty. However, supports (e.g., teacher, classmates, classroom equipment) that are typically available can and do vary widely from class to class or school to school.

The participation of students with severe disabilities may be characterized as Option A during certain parts of the day. If Option A existed all of the time, the student would not be in need of special education nor would he or she be characterized as having severe disabilities. For example, in a primary classroom, when the teacher is reading a

M01_SNEL7163_08_SE_C01.indd 10 14/04/15 2:51 PM

11Educating Students with Severe Disabilities

story to the class, the student with severe disabilities may not require specialized instruction or specialized supports. The teacher may position the child close by so that the teacher can show each page and respond if the student’s attention wanders, or the teacher may have a peer sit nearby in case the student starts to lose his or her balance while seated on the floor with the rest of the class. However, these types of simple supports are not so specialized that they are considered “special education.”

It is important to recognize times when a student with a severe disability can partici- pate within Option A because (a) it provides opportunities for the teacher to interact with a student who has disabilities in typical (non-specialized) ways, (b) it allows class- mates to see that the student doesn’t always need extraordinary help, and (c) it allows the student to avoid unnecessary supports that may inadvertently interfere with peer interaction or teacher engagement. Many students with severe disabilities have one-to- one paraprofessional support while they are in general education class activities (Suter & Giangreco, 2009). There can be a tendency to provide such support, even at times when it is not needed. Using the previous example, having the student with a severe disability sit beside or on the lap of the paraprofessional not only may be unnecessary, but also may have unintended negative consequences such as stigmatization, unneces- sary dependency, interference with peer interactions, and interference with teacher engagement (Giangreco, 2010). Therefore, teams should continually look for Option A opportunities by considering how naturally available supports can be utilized (Carter, Cushing, & Kennedy, 2009; Downing, 2010; Giangreco, Broer, & Suter, 2011).

option b: Support accommodations required Option B exists when a student with a disability requires extended, modified, or otherwise individualized supports while pursuing substantively the same general edu- cation program. For example, in order for a student with deafness or blindness to access

FiguRe 1–1 Inclusion Options Within General Education Environments and Activities

Supports: Materials, Teaching Strategies, and Personnel

Supports that are similar to those available in general education

Supports that are extended, modified,

or individualized

Support accommodations

needed

No accommodations

needed

Educational program content accommodations

needed

Educational program content

and support accommodations

needed

The content of

instruction is similar to general education

E d

u ca

ti o

n al

P ro

g ra

m C

o n

te n

t

A B

C DThe content of

instruction is extended, modified, or

individualized

(From Giangreco, M.F., & Putnam, J. [1991]. Supporting the education of students with severe disabilities in regular education environments. In L.H. Meyer, C. Peck, & L. Brown [Eds.], Critical issues in the lives of people with severe disabilities [p. 247]. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.; adapted by permission. As it appears in Choosing Outcomes and Accommodations for Children (COACH): A Guide to Educational Planning for Students with Disabilities, Third Edition (2011) by M.F. Giangreco, C.J. Cloninger, & V.S. Iverson.)

M01_SNEL7163_08_SE_C01.indd 11 16/04/15 10:00 AM

12 Chapter 1

the general education program, he or she may require signing from an interpreter or the use of tactile materials as necessary supports. Similarly, a student with severe orthopedic or multiple disabilities might require a digital recorder and adapted switch to “take notes” during a high school class.

option C: educational Program Content accommodations required Option C exists when a student requires extension, modification, or individualization of the content of the general education program but does not require specialized sup- ports. For example, the teacher might adjust the content with regards to (a) the amount (e.g., 4 new vocabulary words instead of 10), (b) the level (e.g., posing less complex questions), or (c) the type of content (e.g., 1:1 correspondence instead of fractions). Across each of these possibilities, once the content adjustment is made, the student does not require other specialized supports—although, like Option A, natural supports might be provided.

option d: educational Program Content and Support accommodations required Option D exists at times when a student needs extension, modification, or individuali- zation of both the general education curriculum content and specialized supports to participate. In addition to adjusting the content of the curriculum with regards to the amount, level, and/or type, individualized supports are provided to assist the student with learning and participation. Some examples of individualized supports that a stu- dent with severe disabilities might receive include a visual picture schedule that iden- tifies the steps for completing an activity, individualized prompting from a peer or adult, or an adapted keyboard for use with the computer. These supports allow stu- dents to actively engage in educational activities by removing barriers that interfere with learning.

Within both options C and D, teams may employ the principle of partial participa- tion (Baumgart et al., 1982; Ferguson & Baumgart, 1991). This principle is based on the premise that students with severe disabilities “can acquire many skills that will allow them to function, at least in part, in a wide variety of least restrictive school and nonschool environments and activities” (Baumgart et al., 1982, p. 19). For example, a student with severe disabilities might have a job in the school library that involves taking returned books from the book drop and placing them on a cart. A peer may then assist the student with severe disabilities to find the correct shelf and position for the book. In this manner, the student performs some, but not all, of the skills that are typically performed by students at school who serve as library assistants.

Partial participation is designed to foster socially valued roles for people with dis- abilities that have a positive influence on their image and personal competencies. Rather than excluding students from activities because they may never be able to per- form independently or in the same way as most students, partial participation focuses on engaging students to the maximum extent possible. Consider Kendra, a middle school student with multiple disabilities who has extensive support needs related to oral–motor skills (e.g., chewing, swallowing).

Many foods that Kendra is supported to eat fall out of her mouth. When in the bustling cafeteria, she seems particularly distracted. Her parents identified eating in busy envi- ronments as a priority because the family often eats in busy restaurants.

School personnel, however, were concerned that eating in the cafeteria was socially problematic for Kendra and would detract from how she was perceived by others. So she has been eating lunch in a private area while working on goals to improve her eating and drinking skills with a paraprofessional. Unfortunately, this practice, while intended to be respectful of her, took an all-or-nothing approach. A subgroup of Kendra’s educa- tional team, including her mother, special education teacher, and occupational thera- pist, came up with a plan designed to respect her dignity while also providing her with access to the cafeteria with classmates.

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