Introducing buddhism prebish 2nd edition pdf

Buddhism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Buddhism ( /ˈbʊdɪzəm/ or /ˈbuːdɪzəm/)[1][2] is a religion[note 1][3] and dharma that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. Buddhism originated in Ancient India sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, from where it spread through much of Asia, whereafter it declined in India during the Middle Ages. Two major extant branches of Buddhism are generally recognized by scholars: Theravada (Pali: "The School of the Elders") and Mahayana (Sanskrit: "The Great Vehicle"). Buddhism is the world's fourth-largest religion, with over 520 million followers or over 7% of the global population, known as Buddhists.[web 1][4]

Buddhist schools vary on the exact nature of the path to liberation, the importance and canonicity of various teachings and scriptures, and especially their respective practices.[5][6] Practices of Buddhism include taking refuge in the Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha, study of scriptures, observance of moral precepts, renunciation of craving and attachment, the practice of meditation (including calm and insight), the cultivation of wisdom, loving-kindness and compassion, the Mahayana practice of bodhicitta and the Vajrayana practices of generation stage and completion stage.

In Theravada the ultimate goal is the cessation of the kleshas and the attainment of the sublime state of Nirvana, achieved by practicing the Noble Eightfold Path (also known as the Middle Way), thus escaping what is seen as a cycle of suffering and rebirth.[7] Theravada has a widespread following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.

Mahayana, which includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Shingon and Tiantai (Tendai), is found throughout East Asia. Rather than Nirvana, Mahayana instead aspires to Buddhahood via the bodhisattva path,[note 2] a state wherein one remains in the cycle of rebirth to help other beings reach awakening.

Vajrayana, a body of teachings attributed to Indian siddhas, may be viewed as a third branch or merely a part of Mahayana. Tibetan Buddhism, which preserves the Vajrayana teachings of eighth century India,[9] is practiced in regions surrounding the Himalayas, Mongolia[10] and Kalmykia.[11] Tibetan Buddhism aspires to Buddhahood or rainbow body.[12]

Contents

1 Life of the Buddha 2 The problem of life: endless rebirth

2.1 Four Noble Truths - dukkha and its ending 2.2 The cycle of rebirth 2.3 Liberation

3 The path to liberation: Bhavana (practice, cultivation) 3.1 Refuge in the Three Jewels 3.2 The Buddhist path 3.3 Śīla – Buddhist ethics

Standing Buddha statue at the Tokyo National Museum. One of the earliest known representations of the Buddha, 1st– 2nd century CE.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharma
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradition
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belief
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiritual_practice
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_Teachings_of_the_Buddha
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gautama_Buddha
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_India
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decline_of_Buddhism_in_India
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theravada
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_religious_groups#Largest_religions
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_texts
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refuge_(Buddhism)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gautama_Buddha
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharma#Buddhism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangha
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_texts
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_ethics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nekkhamma
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up%C4%81d%C4%81na
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_meditation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samatha
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vipassan%C4%81
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Buddhism)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mett%C4%81
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodhicitta
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation_stage
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Completion_stage
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kleshas_(Buddhism)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nirvana_(Buddhism)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Way
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra_(Buddhism)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dukkha
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebirth_(Buddhism)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sri_Lanka
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Southeast_Asia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zen
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shingon_Buddhism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiantai
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tendai
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asian_Buddhism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhahood
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodhisattva
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vajrayana
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahasiddha
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himalayas
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mongolia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalmykia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainbow_body
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_Buddha
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_National_Museum
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gautama_Buddha
3.4 Samadhi (dhyana) – meditation 3.5 Prajñā – insight 3.6 Devotion

4 Buddhist texts 4.1 Pāli Tipitaka 4.2 Theravada texts 4.3 Mahayana sutras 4.4 Tibetan texts: Śālistamba Sutra

5 History 5.1 Historical roots 5.2 Indian Buddhism 5.3 Spread of Buddhism

6 Schools and traditions 6.1 Timeline 6.2 Theravada school 6.3 Mahayana traditions

7 Buddhism today 7.1 Demographics

8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Sources

11.1 Printed sources 11.2 Online sources

12 External links

Life of the Buddha

Buddhism is an Indian religion[13] attributed to the teachings of the Buddha,[14][15] supposedly born Siddhārtha Gautama, and also known as the Tathagata ("thus-gone") and Sakyamuni ("sage of the Sakyas"). The details of Buddha's life are mentioned in many early Buddhist texts but are inconsistent, and his social background and life details are difficult to prove, the precise dates uncertain.[16][note 3]

The evidence of the early texts suggests that he was born as Siddhārtha Gautama in Lumbini and grew up in Kapilavasthu,[note 4] a town in the plains region of the modern Nepal-India border, and that he spent his life in what is now modern Bihar[note 5] and Uttar Pradesh.[24][16] Some hagiographic legends state that his father was a king named Suddhodana, his mother was queen Maya, and he was born in Lumbini

gardens.[25] However, scholars such as Richard Gombrich consider this a dubious claim because a combination of evidence suggests he was born in the Shakyas community – one that later gave him the title Shakyamuni, and the Shakya community was governed by a small oligarchy or republic-like council where there were no ranks but where seniority mattered instead.[26][note 6] Some of the stories about Buddha, his life, his teachings, and claims about the society he grew up in may have been invented and interpolated at a later time into the Buddhist texts.[29][30]

According to the Buddhist sutras, Gautama was moved by the innate suffering of humanity and its endless repetition due to rebirth. He set out on a quest to end this repeated suffering. Early Buddhist canonical texts and early biographies of Gautama state that Gautama first studied under Vedic teachers, namely Alara Kalama (Sanskrit: Arada Kalama) and Uddaka Ramaputta (Sanskrit: Udraka Ramaputra), learning meditation and ancient philosophies, particularly the concept of "nothingness, emptiness" from the former, and "what is neither seen nor unseen" from the latter.[31][32][note 7]

"The Great Departure", relic depicting Gautama leaving home, first or second century (Musée Guimet)

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Finding these teachings to be insufficient to attain his goal, he turned to the practice of asceticism. This too fell short of attaining his goal, and then he turned to the practice of dhyana, meditation, which he had already discovered in his youth. He famously sat in meditation under a Ficus religiosa tree now

called the Bodhi Tree in the town of Bodh Gaya in the Gangetic plains region of South Asia. He gained insight into the workings of karma and his former lives, and attained enlightenment, certainty about the Middle Way (Skt. madhyamā-pratipad)[35] as the right path of spiritual practice to end suffering (dukkha) from rebirths in Saṃsāra.[36] As a fully enlightened Buddha (Skt. samyaksaṃbuddha), he attracted followers and founded a Sangha (monastic order).[37] Now, as the Buddha, he spent the rest of his life teaching the Dharma he had discovered, and died at the age of 80 in Kushinagar, India.[38][19]

Buddha's teachings were propagated by his followers, which in the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE became over 18 Buddhist sub-schools of thought, each with its own basket of texts containing different interpretations and authentic teachings of the Buddha;[39][40][41] these over time evolved into many traditions of which the more well known and widespread in the modern era are Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism.[42][43][note 8]

The problem of life: endless rebirth

Four Noble Truths - dukkha and its ending

The Four Truths express the basic orientation of Buddhism: we crave and cling to impermanent states and things, which is dukkha,[46]

"incapable of satisfying"[web 2] and painful.[47][48] This keeps us caught in saṃsāra, the endless cycle of repeated rebirth, dukkha and dying again.[note 9] But there is a way to liberation from this endless cycle[54] to the state of nirvana, namely following the Noble Eightfold Path. [note 10]

The truth of dukkha is the basic insight that life in this "mundane world," with its clinging and craving to impermanent states and things"[47] is dukkha, and unsatisfactory.[49][61][web 3] Dukkha can be translated as "incapable of satisfying,"[web 2] "the unsatisfactory nature and the general insecurity of all conditioned phenomena"; or "painful."[47][48] Dukkha is most commonly translated as "suffering," which is an incorrect translation, since it refers not to literal suffering, but to the ultimately unsatisfactory nature of temporary states and things, including pleasant but temporary experiences.[66][note 11] We expect happiness from states and things which are impermanent, and therefore cannot attain real happiness.

In Buddhism, dukkha is one of the three marks of existence, along with impermanence and anattā (non- self).[68] Buddhism, like other major Indian religions, asserts that everything is impermanent (anicca), but, unlike them, also asserts that there is no permanent self or soul in living beings (anattā).[69][70][71] The ignorance or misperception (avijjā) that anything is permanent or that there is self in any being is considered a wrong understanding, and the primary source of clinging and dukkha.[72][73][74]

Dhamek Stupa in Sarnath, India, where the Buddha gave his first sermon. It was built by Ashoka.

Buddha statue depicting Parinirvana (Mahaparinirvana Temple, Kushinagar, Uttar Pradesh, India)

The Buddha teaching the Four Noble Truths. Sanskrit manuscript. Nalanda, Bihar, India.

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Dukkha arises when we crave (Pali: tanha) and cling to these changing phenomena. The clinging and craving produces karma, which ties us to samsara, the round of death and rebirth.[75][web 7][note 12] Craving includes kama-tanha, craving for sense-pleasures; bhava-tanha, craving to continue the cycle of life and death, including rebirth; and vibhava-tanha, craving to not experience the world and painful feelings.[75][76][77]

Dukkha ceases, or can be confined,[78] when craving and clinging cease or are confined. This also means that no more karma is being produced, and rebirth ends.[note 13] Cessation is nirvana, "blowing out," and peace of mind.[80][81][82]

By following the Buddhist path to moksha, liberation,[56] one starts to disengage from craving and clinging to impermanent states and things. The term "path" is usually taken to mean the Noble Eightfold Path, but other versions of "the path" can also be found in the Nikayas.[83] The Theravada tradition regards insight into the four truths as liberating in itself.[63]

The cycle of rebirth

Saṃsāra

Saṃsāra means "wandering" or "world", with the connotation of cyclic, circuitous change.[84][85] It refers to the theory of rebirth and "cyclicality of all life, matter, existence", a fundamental assumption of Buddhism, as with all major Indian religions.[85][86] Samsara in Buddhism is considered to be dukkha, unsatisfactory and painful,[87] perpetuated by desire and avidya (ignorance), and the resulting karma.[85][88][89]

The theory of rebirths, and realms in which these rebirths can occur, is extensively developed in Buddhism, in particular Tibetan Buddhism with its wheel of existence (Bhavacakra) doctrine.[87] Liberation from this cycle of existence, Nirvana, has been the foundation and the most important historical justification of Buddhism.[90][91]

The later Buddhist texts assert that rebirth can occur in six realms of existence, namely three good realms (heavenly, demi-god, human) and three evil realms (animal, hungry ghosts, hellish).[note 14] Samsara ends if a person attains nirvana, the "blowing out" of the desires and the gaining of true insight into impermanence and non-self

reality.[93][94][95]

Rebirth

Rebirth refers to a process whereby beings go through a succession of lifetimes as one of many possible forms of sentient life, each running from conception to death.[96] In Buddhist thought, this rebirth does not involve any soul, because of its doctrine of anattā (Sanskrit: anātman, no-self doctrine) which rejects the concepts of a permanent self or an unchanging, eternal soul, as it is called in Hinduism and Christianity.[97] According to Buddhism there ultimately is no such thing as a self in any being or any essence in any thing.[98]

The Buddhist traditions have traditionally disagreed on what it is in a person that is reborn, as well as how quickly the rebirth occurs after each death.[99][100] Some Buddhist traditions assert that "no self" doctrine means that there is no perduring self, but there is avacya (inexpressible) self which migrates from one life to another.[99] The majority of Buddhist traditions, in contrast,

Traditional Tibetan Buddhist Thangka depicting the Wheel of Life with its six realms

Gautama's cremation site, Ramabhar Stupa in Kushinagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

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(inexpressible) self which migrates from one life to another.[99] The majority of Buddhist traditions, in contrast, assert that vijñāna (a person's consciousness) though evolving, exists as a continuum and is the mechanistic basis of what undergoes rebirth, rebecoming and redeath.[49][99] The rebirth depends on the merit or demerit gained by one's karma, as well as that accrued on one's behalf by a family member.[note 15]

Each rebirth takes place within one of five realms according to Theravadins, or six according to other schools – heavenly, demi-gods, humans, animals, hungry ghosts and hellish.[102][103][note 16]

In East Asian and Tibetan Buddhism, rebirth is not instantaneous, and there is an intermediate state (Tibetan "bardo") between one life and the next.[113][114] The orthodox Theravada position rejects the wait, and asserts that rebirth of a being is immediate.[113] However there are passages in the Samyutta Nikaya of the Pali Canon that seem to lend support to the idea that the Buddha taught about an intermediate stage between one life and the next.[115][116]

Karma

In Buddhism, Karma (from Sanskrit: "action, work") drives saṃsāra—the endless cycle of suffering and rebirth for each being. Good, skilful deeds (Pali: "kusala") and bad, unskilful deeds (Pāli: "akusala") produce "seeds" in the unconscious receptacle (ālaya) that mature later either in this life or in a subsequent rebirth.[117][118] The existence of Karma is a core belief in Buddhism, as with all major Indian religions, it implies neither fatalism nor that everything that happens to a person is caused by Karma.[119][note 17]

A central aspect of Buddhist theory of karma is that intent (cetanā) matters and is essential to bring about a consequence or phala "fruit" or vipāka "result".[120][note 18] However, good or bad karma accumulates even if there is no physical action, and just having ill or good thoughts create karmic seeds; thus, actions of body, speech or mind all lead to karmic seeds.[119] In the Buddhist traditions, life aspects affected by the law of karma in past and current births of a being include the form of rebirth, realm of rebirth, social class, character and major circumstances of a lifetime.[119][124][125] It operates like the laws of physics, without external intervention, on every being in all six realms of existence including human beings and gods.[119][126]

A notable aspect of the karma theory in Buddhism is merit transfer.[127][128] A person accumulates merit not only through intentions and ethical living, but also is able to gain merit from others by exchanging goods and services, such as through dāna (charity to monks or nuns).[129] Further, a person can transfer one's own good karma to living family members and ancestors.[128][note 19]

Liberation

The cessation of the kleshas and the attainment of Nirvana (nibbāna), with which the cycle of rebirth ends, has been the primary and the soteriological goal of the Buddhist path for monastic life, since the time of the Buddha.[56][132][133] The term "path" is usually taken to mean the Noble Eightfold Path, but other versions of "the path" can also be found in the Nikayas.[note 20] In some passages in the Pali Canon, a distinction is being made between right knowledge or insight (sammā-ñāṇa), and right liberation or release (sammā-vimutti), as the means to attain cessation and liberation.[134][135]

Nirvana literally means "blowing out, quenching, becoming extinguished".[136][137] In early Buddhist texts, it is the state of restraint and self-control that leads to the "blowing out" and the ending of the cycles of sufferings associated with rebirths and redeaths.[138][139][140] Many later Buddhist texts describe nirvana as identical with Anatta with complete "Emptiness, Nothingness".[141][142][143][note 21] In some texts, the state is described with greater detail, such as passing through the gate of emptiness (sunyata) – realizing that there is no soul or self in any living being, then passing through the gate of signlessness (animitta) – realizing that nirvana cannot be perceived, and finally passing through the gate of wishlessness (apranihita) – realizing that nirvana is the state of not even wishing for nirvana.[132][145][note 22]

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The nirvana state has been described in Buddhist texts partly in a manner similar to other Indian religions, as the state of complete liberation, enlightenment, highest happiness, bliss, fearlessness, freedom, permanence, non-dependent origination, unfathomable, and indescribable.[147][148] It has also been described in part differently, as a state of spiritual release marked by "emptiness" and realization of non-Self.[149][150][151][note 23]

While Buddhism considers the liberation from Saṃsāra as the ultimate spiritual goal, in traditional practice, the primary focus of a vast majority of lay Buddhists has been to seek and accumulate merit through good deeds, donations to monks and various Buddhist rituals in order to gain better rebirths rather than nirvana.[154][108][note 24]

The path to liberation: Bhavana (practice, cultivation)

While the Noble Eightfold Path is best-known in the west, a wide variety of practices and stages have been used and described in the Buddhist traditions. Basic practices include sila (ethics), samadhi (meditation, dhyana) and prajna (wisdom), as described in the Noble Eightfold Path. An important additional practice is a kind and compassionate attitude toward every living being and the world. Devotion is also important in some Buddhist traditions, and in the Tibetan traditions visualizations of deities and mandalas are important. The value of textual study is regarded differently in the various Buddhist traditions. It is central to Theravada and highly important to Tibetan Buddhism, while the Zen tradition takes an ambiguous stance.

Refuge in the Three Jewels

Traditionally, the first step in most Buddhist schools requires taking Three Refuges, also called the Three Jewels (Sanskrit: triratna, Pali: tiratana) as the foundation of one's religious practice.[155] Pali texts employ the Brahmanical motif of the triple refuge, found in the Rigveda 9.97.47, Rigveda 6.46.9 and Chandogya Upanishad 2.22.3–4.[156] Tibetan Buddhism sometimes adds a fourth refuge, in the lama. The three refuges are believed by Buddhists to be protective and a form of reverence.[155]

The Three Jewels are:[157]

The Buddha, the Gotama, the Blessed One, the Awakened with true knowledge The Dharma, the precepts, the practice, the Four Truths, the Eightfold Path The Sangha, order of monks, the community of Buddha's disciples

Reciting the three refuges is considered in Buddhism not as a place to hide, rather a thought that purifies, uplifts and strengthens.[157]

The Buddhist path

Theravada - Noble Eightfold Path

Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya, India, where Gautama Buddha attained nirvana under the Bodhi Tree (left)

Relic depicting a footprint of the Buddha with Dharmachakra and triratna, 1st century CE, Gandhāra

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An important guiding principle of Buddhist practice is the Middle Way (madhyamapratipad). It was a part of Buddha's first sermon, where he presented the Noble Eightfold Path that was a 'middle way' between the extremes of asceticism and hedonistic sense pleasures.[158][159] In Buddhism, states Harvey, the doctrine of "dependent arising" (conditioned arising, pratītyasamutpāda) to explain rebirth is viewed as the 'middle way' between the doctrines that a being has a "permanent soul" involved in rebirth (eternalism) and "death is final and there is no rebirth" (annihilationism).[160][161]

In the Theravada canon, the Pali-suttas, various often irreconcilable sequences can be found. According to Carol Anderson, the Theravada canon lacks "an overriding and comprehensive structure of the path to nibbana."[162] Nevertheless, the Noble Eightfold Path, or "Eightfold Path of the Noble Ones", has become an imprortant description of the Buddhist path. It consists of a set of eight interconnected factors or conditions, that when developed together, lead to the cessation of dukkha.[163] These eight factors are: Right View (or Right Understanding), Right Intention (or Right Thought), Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration.

This Eightfold Path is the fourth of the Four Noble Truths, and asserts the path to the cessation of dukkha (suffering, pain, unsatisfactoriness).[164][165] The path teaches that the way of the enlightened ones stopped their craving, clinging and karmic accumulations, and thus ended their endless cycles of rebirth and suffering.[166][167][168]

The Noble Eightfold Path is grouped into three basic divisions, as follows:[169][170][171]

The Dharmachakra represents the Noble Eightfold Path.

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Division Eightfoldfactor Sanskrit, Pali Description

Wisdom (Sanskrit: prajñā, Pāli: paññā)

1. Right view

samyag dṛṣṭi, sammā ditthi

the belief that there is an afterlife and not everything ends with death, that Buddha taught and followed a successful path to nirvana;[169] according to Peter Harvey, the right view is held in Buddhism as a belief in the Buddhist principles of karma and rebirth, and the importance of the Four Noble Truths and the True Realities.[172]

2. Right intention

samyag saṃkalpa, sammā saṅkappa

giving up home and adopting the life of a religious mendicant in order to follow the path;[169] this concept, states Harvey, aims at peaceful renunciation, into an environment of non-sensuality, non-ill-will (to lovingkindness), away from cruelty (to compassion).[172]

Moral virtues[170] (Sanskrit: śīla, Pāli: sīla)

3. Right speech

samyag vāc, sammā vāca

no lying, no rude speech, no telling one person what another says about him, speaking that which leads to salvation;[169]

4. Right action

samyag karman, sammā kammanta

no killing or injuring, no taking what is not given; no sexual acts in monastic pursuit,[169] for lay Buddhists no sensual misconduct such as sexual involvement with someone married, or with an unmarried woman protected by her parents or relatives.[173][174][175]

5. Right livelihood

samyag ājīvana, sammā ājīva

For monks, beg to feed, only possessing what is essential to sustain life.[176] For lay Buddhists, the canonical texts state right livelihood as abstaining from wrong livelihood, explained as not becoming a source or means of suffering to sentient beings by cheating them, or harming or killing them in any way.[177][178]

Meditation[170] (Sanskrit and Pāli: samādhi)

6. Right effort

samyag vyāyāma, sammā vāyāma

guard against sensual thoughts; this concept, states Harvey, aims at preventing unwholesome states that disrupt meditation.[179]

7. Right mindfulness

samyag smṛti, sammā sati

never be absent minded, conscious of what one is doing; this, states Harvey, encourages mindfulness about impermanence of the body, feelings and mind, as well as to experience the five skandhas, the five hindrances, the four True Realities and seven factors of awakening.[179]

8. Right concentration

samyag samādhi, sammā samādhi

Correct meditation or concentration (dhyana), explained as the four jhānas.[169][180]

Mahayana - Bodhisattva-path and the six paramitas

Mahāyāna Buddhism is based principally upon the path of a Bodhisattva.[182] A Bodhisattva refers to one who is on the path to buddhahood.[183] The term Mahāyāna was originally a synonym for Bodhisattvayāna or "Bodhisattva Vehicle."[184][185][186]

In the earliest texts of Mahayana Buddhism, the path of a bodhisattva was to awaken the bodhicitta.[187] Between the 1st and 3rd century CE, this tradition introduced the Ten Bhumi doctrine, which means ten levels or stages of awakening.[187] This development was followed by the acceptance that it is impossible to achieve Buddhahood in one (current) lifetime, and the best goal is not nirvana for oneself, but Buddhahood after climbing through the ten levels during multiple rebirths.[188] Mahayana scholars then outlined an elaborate path, for monks and laypeople, and the path

Dāna or charitable giving to monks is a virtue in Buddhism, leading to merit accumulation and better rebirths.[181]

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includes the vow to help teach Buddhist knowledge to other beings, so as to help them cross samsara and liberate themselves, once one reaches the Buddhahood in a future rebirth.[182] One part of this path are the Pāramitā (perfections, to cross over), derived from the Jatakas tales of Buddha's numerous rebirths.[189][190]

The Mahayana texts are inconsistent in their discussion of the Paramitas, and some texts include lists of two, others four, six, ten and fifty-two.[191][192][193] The six paramitas have been most studied, and these are:[189][193][194]

1. Dāna pāramitā: perfection of giving; primarily to monks, nuns and the Buddhist monastic establishment dependent on the alms and gifts of the lay householders, in return for generating religious merit;[195] some texts recommend ritually transferring the merit so accumulated for better rebirth to someone else

2. Śīla pāramitā: perfection of morality; it outlines ethical behaviour for both the laity and the Mahayana monastic community; this list is similar to Śīla in the Eightfold Path (i.e. Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood)[196]

3. Kṣānti pāramitā: perfection of patience, willingness to endure hardship 4. Vīrya pāramitā: perfection of vigour; this is similar to Right Effort in the Eightfold Path[196] 5. Dhyāna pāramitā: perfection of meditation; this is similar to Right Concentration in the Eightfold Path 6. Prajñā pāramitā: perfection of insight (wisdom), awakening to the characteristics of existence such as

karma, rebirths, impermanence, no-self, dependent origination and emptiness;[193][197] this is complete acceptance of the Buddha teaching, then conviction, followed by ultimate realization that "dharmas are non-arising".[189]

In Mahayana Sutras that include ten Paramitas, the additional four perfections are "skillful means, vow, power and knowledge".[192] The most discussed Paramita and the highest rated perfection in Mahayana texts is the "Prajna-paramita", or the "perfection of insight".[192] This insight in the Mahayana tradition, states Shōhei Ichimura, has been the "insight of non-duality or the absence of reality in all things".[198][199]

Śīla – Buddhist ethics

Śīla (Sanskrit) or sīla (Pāli) is the concept of "moral virtues", that is the second group and an integral part of the Noble Eightfold Path.[172] It consists of right speech, right action and right livelihood.[172]

Śīla appear as ethical precepts for both lay and ordained Buddhist devotees. It includes the Five Precepts for laypeople, Eight or Ten Precepts for monastic life, as well as rules of Dhamma (Vinaya or Patimokkha) adopted by a monastery.[200][201]

Precepts

The five precepts (panca-sila) are moral behavioural and ritual guidelines for lay devotees in Buddhism, while those following a monastic life have rules of conduct (patimokkha).[202] The five precepts apply to both male and female devotees, and these are:[200][203]

1. Abstain from killing (Ahimsa); 2. Abstain from stealing; 3. Abstain from sensual (including sexual) misconduct; 4. Abstain from lying; 5. Abstain from intoxicants.

These precepts are not commandments and transgressions do not invite religious sanctions, but their power has been in the Buddhist belief in karmic consequences and their impact in afterlife during rebirth.[204] Killing in Buddhist belief leads to rebirth in the hellish realm, and for a

longer time in more severe conditions if the murder victim was a monk.[204] Adultery, similarly, invites a

Statue of Gautama Buddha, first century CE, Gandhara, present-day Pakistan (Guimet Museum)

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longer time in more severe conditions if the murder victim was a monk.[204] Adultery, similarly, invites a rebirth as prostitute or in hell, depending on whether the partner was unmarried or married.[204] Saving animals from slaughter for meat, is believed to be a way to acquire merit for better rebirth. These moral precepts have been voluntarily self-enforced in lay Buddhist culture through the associated belief in karma and rebirth.[205]

The monastic life in Buddhism has additional precepts as part of patimokkha, and unlike lay people, transgressions by monks do invite sanctions.[206] Full expulsion from sangha follows any instance of killing, engaging in sexual intercourse, theft or false claims about one's knowledge.[206] Temporary expulsion follows a lesser offence.[206] The sanctions vary by the monastic fraternity (nikaya).[207]

The precepts for monks in many Buddhist fraternities are eight (asta shila) or ten (das shila). Four of these are same as for the lay devotee: no killing, no stealing, no lying, and no intoxicants.[208] The other four precepts are:[209][208][note 25]

1. No sexual activity; 2. Abstain from eating at wrong time (e.g. only eat solid food before 12 noon); 3. Abstain from jewelry, perfume, adornment, entertainment; 4. Abstain from sleeping on high beds;[note 26]

Some sangha add two more precepts: abstain from dancing and singing, and abstain from accepting money. In addition to these precepts, Buddhist monasteries have hundreds of rules of dhamma conduct, which are a part of its patimokkha.[210][note 27]